Geography

Located in eastern Asia, on the western side of the Pacific Ocean, China has a land area of
about 9.6 million km and is the third largest country in the world, surpassed only by the Russian
Federation and Canada. China’s population numbered 1,393.6 million in 2018.

From north to south, the territory of China reaches from the center of the Heilong River north
of the town of Mohe to the Zengmu Reef at the southernmost tip of the Nansha Islands, a distance
of 5 500 km. From east to west, it extends from the confluence of the Heilong and Wusuli Rivers to
the Pamir Mountains, a distance of 5,200 km. China has land borders totaling 22,800 km and has
borders with the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea to the east; Mongolia to the north; the
Russian Federation to the north-east; Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the north-west;
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan to the west and south-west; and Myanmar,
the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Vietnam to the south.

China’s topography was determined by the emergence, over the past several million years,
of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, the country’s most important geological event. The terrain gradually
descends from west to east in a series of “steps”. As a result of the collision of the Indian and
Eurasian Plates, the young Qinghai–Tibet Plateau rose continuously to become the highest region,
averaging more than 4,000 m in elevation and often referred to as “the roof of the world”.

The second step includes the gently sloping Inner Mongolia Plateau, the Loess Plateau, the
Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, the Tarim Basin, the Junggar Basin and the Sichuan Basin, which have
an average elevation of between 1,000 m and 2,000 m. The third step, dropping to 500-1,000 m in
elevation, begins at the Greater Hinggan, Taihang, Wushan and Xuefeng mountain ranges and
extends eastwards to the Pacific coast. Here, from north to south, are the Northeast Plain, the
North China Plain and the Middle–Lower Yangtze Plain. The areas of mountains, hills and plateaus
accounts for 65% of the total land area of China.

China has over 1,500 rivers, the most important being the Yangtze, which, at 6,300 km in
length, is the longest river in China and the third longest river in the world, surpassed only by the
Nile (6,670 km) and the Amazon (6,400 km). In its upper reaches, the Yangtze is channeled
through steep, forested gorges and in its middle and lower reaches flows through important
agricultural regions that have a warm and humid climate and plentiful rainfall. The other major
rivers are the Yellow, Heilong, Pearl, Liaohe, Haihe and Huaihe.
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 China’s many rivers can be categorized as exterior and interior systems. The catchment
area for the exterior rivers that empty into the various seas accounts for 64% of the country’s total
land area. The Yangtze, Yellow, Heilong, Pearl, Liaohe, Haihe and Huaihe rivers flow eastwards
and discharge into the Pacific Ocean. Other rivers flow into neighboring countries. The catchment
area of the interior rivers that flow into inland lakes or disappear into deserts or salt marshes
makes up about 36% of China’s total land area.

China’s territory includes numerous lakes, both freshwater and saline, most of which are
found on the Middle–Lower Yangtze Plain and on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Freshwater lakes
mostly lie on the Middle–Lower Yangtze Plain whereas the saltwater lakes tend to be found on the
Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.
Cultivated land, forests, grasslands, deserts and tidelands are distributed widely across China.
Cultivated land is mainly located in eastern China, grasslands are mainly located in the north and
west, and forests mainly in the remote north-eastern and south-western areas.

Currently, 130.04 million hectares of land are under cultivation, mainly on the Northeast
Plain, the North China Plain, the Middle–Lower Yangtze Plain, the Pearl River Delta and the
Sichuan Basin. The fertile black soil of the Northeast Plain, the largest plain in China with an area
of more than 350,000 km2, is used for the cultivation of wheat, corn, sorghum, soybeans, flax and
sugar beet. The deep, brown topsoil of the North China Plain is planted with wheat, corn, millet and
cotton. The Middle–Lower Yangtze Plain’s flat terrain and many lakes and rivers make it
particularly suitable for rice cultivation and for rearing freshwater fish. This area also produces
large quantities of tea and silkworms.

Forests cover 158.94 million hectares. The Greater Hinggan, Lesser Hinggan and Changbai
mountain ranges in the north-east are China’s largest natural forest areas. Grasslands cover an
area of 400 million hectares. Furthermore, China is rich in mineral resources and these include
energy related minerals, including petroleum, natural gas, coal and uranium; metallic minerals,
including antimony, iron, manganese, molybdenum, copper, bauxite, tin, mercury, lead and zinc;
and non-metallic minerals, including rare earth elements, graphite, phosphorus, Sulphur and
sylvite. The reserves of the major mineral resources, such as coal, iron, copper, bauxite, antimony,
molybdenum, manganese, tin, lead, zinc and mercury are among the largest in the world. The
national reserves of rare earth elements far exceed the combined total for the rest of the world.
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 History
The history of China is generally presented according to the dynasty to which the period’s
ancient rulers belonged. From its inauguration in c. 2070 BC to the abdication of its last emperor in
1912, China was ruled by a series of 13 successive dynasties.

A. Xia Dynasty (2070 - 1600 BC)

The Xia dynasty was the first Chinese dynasty. It was founded by the legendary Yu the
Great (c. 2123-2025 BC), known for developing a flood control technique that stopped the Great
Flood that ravaged farmer’s crops for generations.

There is a severe lack of documented evidence about this dynasty and therefore very little is
known about the Xia period. Most scholars believe that stories about it were spoken, rather than
written. It is not until the Zhou Dynasty, 554 years later, that we see written recordings of this first
Chinese dynasty. For this reason, some scholars believe it to be mythical or quasi-legendary.

B. Shang Dynasty (1600 - 1050 BC)

The Shang dynasty is the earliest recorded Chinese dynasty supported by archaeological
evidence. 31 kings ruled much of the area along the Yellow River.

Under the Shang dynasty, there were advances in math, astronomy, art and military
technology. They used a highly developed calendar system and an early form of modern Chinese
language.

C. Zhou Dynasty (1046 - 256 BC)

The Zhou dynasty was the longest dynasty in the history of China, ruling the region for
almost 8 centuries. Under the Zhou’s, culture flourished and civilization spread. Writing was
codified, coinage was developed and chopsticks came into use.

Chinese philosophy blossomed with the birth of the philosophical schools of Confucianism,
Taoism and Mohism. The dynasty saw some of the greatest Chinese philosophers and poets: Lao-
Tzu, Tao Chien, Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti, and the military strategist Sun-Tzu.

The Zhou’s also developed the Mandate of Heaven – a concept that was used to justify the
rule of kings, who had been blessed by the Gods. The dynasty ended with the Warring States
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period (476–221 BC), in which various city-states battled each other, establishing themselves as
independent feudal entities. They were finally consolidated by Qin Shi Huangdi, a brutal ruler who
became the first emperor of a unified China.

D. Qin Dynasty (221 - 206 BC)

The Qin dynasty marked the beginning of the Chinese Empire. During Qin Shi Huangdi’s
reign, China was greatly expanded to cover the Ye lands of Hunan and Guangdong.

Although short-lived, the period saw ambitious public works projects including the unification
of state walls into a single Great Wall. It saw the development of a standardized form of currency, a
uniform system of writing and a legal code.

The Qin emperor was remembered for his ruthless megalomania and suppression of speech
– in 213 BC he ordered the burning of hundreds of thousands of books and the live burial of 460
Confucian scholars.

He was also responsible for building a city-sized mausoleum for himself, guarded by the life-
sized Terracotta Army of more than 8,000 life-sized soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150
cavalry horses.

E. Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 AD)

The Han dynasty was known as a golden age in Chinese history, with a prolonged period of
stability and prosperity. A central imperial civil service was established to create a strong and
organized government.

China’s territory was extended to most of the China proper. The Silk Road was opened up to
connect to the west, bringing in trade, foreign cultures and the introduction of Buddhism.

Under the Han dynasty, Confucianism, poetry and literature flowered. Paper and porcelain
were invented. China’s earliest written record on medicine, the Yellow Emperor’s Canon of
Medicine, was codified.

The name ‘Han’ was taken as the name of the Chinese people. Today, the Han Chinese
make up the dominant ethnic group in China and the largest in the world.
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 F. Six Dynasties Period
Three Kingdoms (220-265), Jin Dynasty (265-420), Period of the Northern and Southern
Dynasties (386-589).

Six Dynasties is the collective term for the six successive Han ruled dynasties during this
turbulent period. All had their capitals at Jianye, present day Nanjing.

The Three Kingdoms period has been romanticized repeatedly in Chinese culture – most
notably in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

G. Sui Dynasty (581- 618)

The Sui dynasty, although brief, saw great changes in Chinese history. Its capital was held
at Daxing, present day Xi’an.

Confucianism disintegrated as the dominant religion, making way for Taoism and Buddhism.
Literature flourished – it is thought that the legend of Hua Mulan was composed during this time.

Under Emperor Wen and his son, Yang, the army was enlarged to the largest in the world at
the time. Coinage was standardized across the realm, the Great Wall was expanded and the
Grand Canal was completed.

H. Tang Dynasty (618-906)

The Tang dynasty was regarded as the pinnacle of Chinese civilization and is frequently
referred to as the Golden Age of Ancient China. One of the most notable Chinese rulers was
Taizong, the country's second emperor.

One of the most tranquil and affluent eras in Chinese history occurred at this time. China
had overtaken the rest of the world as the biggest and most populous nation by the time Emperor
Xuanzong (712–756) came into power.

Significant developments occurred in the fields of technology, science, culture, art, and
literature, particularly poetry. The Tang dynasty produced some of the most exquisite sculpture and
silverwork in all of China.
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 Empress Wu Zetian (624–705), the only female monarch in Chinese history, also ruled
during this era. Wu became one of the most powerful - and well-liked - emperors in Chinese history
by setting up a secret police force and spies all around the nation.

I. Five Dynasties Period, Ten Kingdoms (907- 960)

The 50 years between the fall of the Tang dynasty and establishment of the Song dynasty
were dominated by internal strife and chaos.

In North China, 5 would be dynasties followed one another in succession. During the same
period, 10 regimes dominated separate regions of South China.

Despite the political turmoil, some key developments took place during this time. The
printing of books – which had begun in the Tang dynasty – became popular.

J. Song Dynasty (960 - 1279)

The Song dynasty saw the reunification of China under the Emperor Taizu. Major inventions
included gunpowder, printing, paper money and the compass.

Plagued with political factions, the Song court eventually fell to the challenge of the Mongol
invasion and was replaced by the Yuan dynasty.

K. Yuan Dynasty (1279 - 1368)

The Yuan dynasty was established by the Mongols and ruled by Kublai Khan (1260-1279),
grandson of Genghis Khan. Khan was the first non-Chinese ruler to take over the entire country.

Yuan China was considered the most important part of the vast Mongol Empire, which
stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Korean peninsula.

Khan created the new capital city of Xanadu (or Shangdu in Inner Mongolia). The main
center of the Mongol Empire was later moved to Daidu, present day Beijing.

The Mongols’ reign in China came to an end after a series of famines, plagues, floods and
peasant uprisings.
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 L. Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644)
The Ming dynasty saw a huge growth in China’s population and general economic
prosperity. However, the Ming emperors were dogged with the same problems of previous regimes
and collapsed with the invasion of the Manchus.

During the dynasty, the Great Wall of China was completed. It also saw the construction of
the Forbidden City, the imperial residence in Beijing. The period is also known for its blue-and-
white Ming porcelains.

M. Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912)

The Qing dynasty was the last imperial dynasty in China, succeeded by the Republic of
China in 1912. The Qing were made up of ethnic Manchus from the northern Chinese region of
Manchuria.

The Qing dynasty was the 5th largest empire in world history. However, by the early 20th
century its rulers were weakened by rural unrest, aggressive foreign powers and military
weakness.

During the 1800s, Qing China faced attacks from Britain, France, Russia, Germany and
Japan. The Opium Wars (1839-42 and 1856-60) ended with Hong Kong ceding to Britain and the
humiliating defeat of the Chinese army.
On 12 February 1912, 6 year old Puyi – the last emperor of China – abdicated. It brought an end to
the thousand-year imperial rule of China and marked the beginning of republic and socialist rule.

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 Economy
China was not one of the top eight countries in the world forty years ago, following a
protracted period of economic stagnation. China is on track to surpass the United States as the
largest economy within a few decades, if not sooner, thanks to a spectacular social and economic
upheaval that started in the late 1970s. By some standards, it has already achieved this. We are
currently residing in what many refer to as "The Chinese Century."

The world's second-largest economy is that of China, after only that of the United States.
China has seen three decades of phenomenal growth, but it is now entering a phase of slower
growth as a natural byproduct of its transformation from a developing economy to a more
advanced, developed one. China's annual GDP growth throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and early
2000s frequently topped 10%. throughout 2019, that growth was predicted to be 6.3%, but given
the effects of the US-China trade war, it is likely to be closer to 6%.

The International Monetary Fund predicts China's growth rate to be 6.3% in 2019 and 2020
and 6% in 2021, putting it ahead of most major economies and on track to overtake the US as the
world's largest economy. The Chinese economy, primarily manufacturing, services, and agriculture,
employs the majority of the population and contributes the most to GDP. Since 1978, market-based
reforms led to a 48-fold growth rate, from USD 168.367 billion in 1981 to USD 11.01 trillion in 2015.
The Chinese Government has been responsible for planning and managing the national economy
since 1949.

China is a significant global economy player and a crucial market for investors in overseas
companies. Emerging markets, particularly China, are becoming significant contributors to global
economic growth. China, the largest of these emerging markets, offers attractive long-term
opportunities, making it a crucial part of a diversified portfolio.

China's socialist market economy, characterized by a dominant state-owned enterprise

sector alongside market capitalism and private ownership, has been fueled by Deng Xiaoping's
economic reforms since 1978. Private businesses now produce over half of China's GDP, exports,
and create most new jobs.

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 China is the world's largest manufacturing economy, exporter of goods, fastest-growing
consumer market, and second-largest importer of goods. It is the largest consumer of numerous
commodities and accounts for half of global metal consumption. China is the largest trading nation
and plays a prominent role in international trade. As of 2020, China received $163 billion in foreign
direct investment, and in 2019, it had the second largest outward foreign direct investment. As of
2022, China was second in the world in total billionaires and millionaires with 3.5 million. According
to the 2019 Global Wealth Report by Credit Suisse Group, China surpassed the US in the wealth of
the top ten percent of the world's population. China has the world's largest foreign-exchange
reserves worth $3.1 trillion, which can rise to nearly $4 trillion if foreign assets of state-owned
commercial banks are included.

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 Government

Xi Jinping is the most powerful figure in the Chinese political system. He is the president of
China, but his real influence comes from his position as the general secretary of Chinese
Communist Party. The Chinese Communist Party(CCP) is a political party of China. Since the
establishment of the people’s Republic of China in 1949, the CCP has been sole control of that
country’s government. With more than 85 million members, the CCP is one of the largest political
party in the world. It fully dominates all branches of China’s political system. The CCP’s structure is
as follows. Once every five years or so, a National Party Congress of some 2,000 delegates (the
number varies) meets in plenary session to elect a Central Committee of about 200 full members,
which in turn meets at least once annually. The Central Committee elects a Political Bureau
(Politburo) of about 20–25 full members; that body is the ruling leadership of the CCP. The Political
Bureau’s Standing Committee of about six to nine of its most-authoritative members is the highest
echelon of leadership in the CCP and in the country as a whole. In practice, power flows from the
top down in the CCP.

The CCP’s Secretariat is responsible for the day-to-day administrative affairs of the CCP.
The general secretary of the Secretariat is formally the highest-ranking official of the party. The
CCP has a commission for detecting and punishing abuses of office by party members, and it also
has a commission by which it retains control over China’s armed forces. The CCP has basic-level
party organizations in cities, towns, villages, neighborhoods, major workplaces, schools, and so on.

In the Chinese system, the Communist Party is the power center that controls every
government department, military force, court and parliamentary meeting. The party rules over a
pyramid structure, with Xi Jinping at the top and over 4 million grassroots branches at the bottom.

The seven most powerful politicians in China are Xi Jinping, Wang Huning, Li Keqjang, Zhao
Leji, Han Zheng, Li Zhanshu, and Wang Yang. They sit on the Communist Party's Politburo
Standing Committee. That means they make up the inner circle of the Politburo (a Soviet-style
name short for Political Bureau). Their decisions affect every facet of life in China. The wider
Politburo consists of 25 members, including the seven on the standing committee. Many of them
are close to Xi Jinping and his allies. Some hold other high roles in the government, party or
military. The National People’s Congress, is the congress with about 3,000 delegates (not all of
them are Communist Party members), is supposed to be the top governing body of the Chinese
government. Its main job is to write laws and supervise the government. But in reality the congress
is dominated by the Communist Party. The State Council, headed by Li Keqjang, enacts policy and
10
presides over all government departments. It’s roughly equivalent to the cabinet in the US
government system, and officially sits under the congress. In theory, the military reports to the
congress through the Central Military Commission. But in practice, the Communist Party chief
heads this commission. That means the party has direct leadership of the two million-strong
People’s Liberation Army. China says it is a country ruled by law. In some areas, such as
commercial law, judgments are increasingly seen as fair and independent. But in general, 'rule by
law' is really the 'rule of the party'. The Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission, headed by a
Politburo member, oversees the judiciary and prosecutors

Challenges and Controversies

China faces various challenges, including environmental pollution, economic inequality,
human rights concerns, and geopolitical tensions with neighboring countries. The Chinese
government's policies, especially concerning human rights, freedom of expression, and political
dissent, have been a topic of international debate and controversy.

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 Culture
Chinese culture is one of the world's oldest and most complex cultures, with a rich history
that spans thousands of years. It encompasses a vast array of traditions, customs, art forms,
literature, philosophy, and social practices. Here's an overview of some key aspects of Chinese
culture:

1. Language and Writings

Chinese languages, also called Sinitic languages, Chinese Han, principal language group of
eastern Asia, belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese exists in a number of
varieties that are popularly called dialects but that are usually classified as separate languages by
scholars. More people speak a variety of Chinese as a native language than any other language in
the world, and Modern Standard Chinese is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
The spoken varieties of Chinese are mutually unintelligible to their respective speakers. They differ
from each other to about the same extent as the modern Romance languages. Most of the
differences among them occur in pronunciation and vocabulary; there are few grammatical
differences. These languages include Mandarin in the northern, central, and western parts of
China; Wu; Northern and Southern Min; Gan (Kan); Hakka (Kejia); and Xiang; and Cantonese
(Yue) in the southeastern part of the country.

All the Chinese languages share a common literary language (wenyan), written in
characters and based on a common body of literature. This literary language has no single
standard of pronunciation; a speaker of a language reads texts according to the rules of
pronunciation of his own language. Before 1917 the wenyan was used for almost all writing; since
that date it has become increasingly acceptable to write in the vernacular style (baihua) instead,
and the old literary language is dying out in the daily life of modern China. (Its use continues in
certain literary and scholarly circles.)

In the early 1900s a program for the unification of the national language, which is based on
Mandarin, was launched; this resulted in Modern Standard Chinese. In 1956 a new system of
Romanization called Pinyin, based on the pronunciation of the characters in the Beijing dialect, was
adopted as an educational instrument to help in the spread of the modern standard language.
Modified in 1958, the system was formally prescribed (1979) for use in all diplomatic documents
and foreign-language publications in English-speaking countries. Some scholars divide the history
of the Chinese languages into Proto-Sinitic (Proto-Chinese; until 500 BC), Archaic (Old) Chinese

12
(8th to 3rd century BC), Ancient (Middle) Chinese (through AD 907), and Modern Chinese (from c.
the 10th century to modern times). The Proto-Sinitic period is the period of the most ancient
inscriptions and poetry; most loanwords in Chinese were borrowed after that period. The works of
Confucius and Mencius mark the beginning of the Archaic Chinese period. Modern knowledge of
the sounds of Chinese during the Ancient Chinese period is derived from a pronouncing dictionary
of the language of the Ancient period published in AD 601 by the scholar Lu Fayan and also from
the works of the scholar-official Sima Guang, published in the 11th century. The sound system of
Chinese is marked by its use of tones to indicate differences of meaning between words or
syllables that are otherwise identical in sound (i.e., have the same consonants and vowels).
Modern Standard Chinese has four tones, while the more archaic Cantonese language uses at
least six tones, as did Ancient Chinese. Chinese words often have only one syllable, although
modern Chinese makes greater use of compounds than did the earlier language. In Chinese
compound words, few prefixes or infixes occur, but there are a great number of suffixes. Few
words end in a consonant, except in such archaic dialects as Cantonese. A Chinese word is
invariable in form (i.e., it has no inflectional markers or markers to indicate parts of speech) and,
within the range allowed by its intrinsic meaning, can serve as any part of speech. Because there is
no word inflection in the language, there is a fixed word order. Person and number are expressed
in the pronoun rather than in the verb. Chinese has no definite article (i.e., no word meaning ‘the’),
although the word meaning ‘one’ and the demonstrative adjective are sometimes used as articles
in the language today. Adjectives, which are probably of verbal origin, are not inflected for degree
of comparison and may be used as adverbs without any change of form.

Linguistic Characteristics
All modern Sinitic languages—i.e., the “Chinese dialects”—share a number of important
typological features. They have a maximum syllabic structure of the type consonant–semivowel–
vowel–semivowel–consonant. Some languages lack one set of semivowels, and, in some,
germination (doubling) or clustering of vowels occurs. The languages also employ a system of
tones (pitch and contour), with or without concomitant glottal features, and occasionally stress. For
the most part, tones are lexical (i.e., they distinguish otherwise similar words); in some languages
tones also carry grammatical meaning. Notional grammatical units (i.e., affixes) may be smaller
than syllables, but usually the meaningful units consist of one or more syllables. Words can consist
of one syllable, of two or more syllables each carrying an element of meaning, or of two or more
syllables that individually carry no meaning. For example, Modern Standard Chinese tian ‘sky,
heaven, day’ is a one-syllable word; ritou ‘sun’ is composed of ri ‘sun, day,’ a word element that
13
cannot occur alone as a word, and the noun suffix tou; and hudie ‘butterfly’ consists of two
syllables, each having no meaning in itself (this is a rare type of word formation). The Southern
languages have more monosyllabic words and word elements than the Northern ones.

Chinese languages, also called Sinitic languages, Chinese Han, principal language group of
eastern Asia, belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese exists in a number of
varieties that are popularly called dialects but that are usually classified as separate languages by
scholars. More people speak a variety of Chinese as a native language than any other language in
the world, and Modern Standard Chinese is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
The spoken varieties of Chinese are mutually unintelligible to their respective speakers. They differ
from each other to about the same extent as the modern Romance languages. Most of the
differences among them occur in pronunciation and vocabulary; there are few grammatical
differences. These languages include Mandarin in the northern, central, and western parts of
China; Wu; Northern and Southern Min; Gan (Kan); Hakka (Kejia); and Xiang; and Cantonese
(Yue) in the southeastern part of the country.
The Sinitic languages distinguish nouns and verbs with some overlapping, as do Sino-
Tibetan languages in general. There are noun suffixes that form different kinds of nouns (concrete
nouns, diminutives, abstract nouns, and so on), particles placed after nouns indicating relationships
in time and space, and verb particles for modes and aspects. Adjectives act as one of several
kinds of verbs. Verbs can occur in a series (concatenation) with irreversible order (e.g., the verbs
‘take’ and ‘come’ placed next to one another denote the concept ‘bring’). Nouns are collective in
nature, and only classifiers can be counted and referred to singly. Specific particles are used to
indicate the relationship of nominal (e.g., nouns and noun phrases) to verbs, such as transitive
verb–object, agent–passive verb; in some of the languages this system forms a sentence
construction called ergative, in which all nominal are marked for their function and the verb stays
unchanged. Final sentence particles convey a variety of meanings (defining either the whole
sentence or the predicate) that indicate ‘question, command, surprise, or new situation.’ The
general word order of subject–verb–object and complement and modifier–modified is the same in
all the languages, but the use of the proposed particles and verbs in a series varies considerably.
Grammatical elements of equal or closely related values in various languages are very often not
related in sounds.

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 The Sinitic languages fall into a Northern and a Southern group. The Northern languages
(Mandarin dialects) are more similar to each other than are the Southern (Wu, Xiang, Gan, Hakka,
Yue, Min).

Modern Standard Chinese (Mandarin)

The pronunciation of Modern Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect, which is of
the Northern, or Mandarin, type. It employs about 1,300 different syllables. There are 22 initial
consonants, including stops (made with momentary, complete closure in the vocal tract), affricates
(beginning as stops but ending with incomplete closure), aspirated consonants, nasals, fricatives,
liquid sounds (l, r), and a glottal stop. The medial semivowels are y (i), ɥ (ü), and w (u). In final
position, the following occur: nasal consonants, ṛ (retroflex r), the semivowels y and w, and the
combinations ŋr (nasalization plus r) and wr (rounding plus r). There are nine vowel sounds,
including three varieties of i (retroflex, apical, and palatal). Several vowels combine into clusters.

There are four tones: (1) high level, (2) high rising crescendo, (3) low falling diminuendo with
glottal friction (with an extra rise from low to high when final), and (4) falling diminuendo.
Unstressed syllables have a neutral tone, which depends on its surroundings for pitch. Tones in
sequences of syllables that belong together lexically and syntactically (“sandhi groups”) may
undergo changes known as tonal sandhi, the most important of which causes a third tone before
another third tone to be pronounced as a second tone. The tones influence some vowels (notably e
and o), which are pronounced more open in third and fourth tones than in first and second tones.

A surprisingly low number of the possible combinations of all the consonantal, vocalic, and
tonal sounds are utilized. The vowels i and ü and the semivowels y and ɥ never occur after velar
sounds (e.g., k) and occur only after the palatalized affricate and sibilant sounds (e.g., tś), which in
turn occur with no other vowels and semivowels.

Many alternative interpretations of the distinctive sounds of Chinese have been proposed;
the interaction of consonants, vowels, semivowels, and tones sets Modern Standard Chinese apart
from many other Sinitic languages and dialects and gives it a unique character among the major
languages of the world. The two most widely used transcription systems (romanizations) are
Wade-Giles (first propounded by Sir Thomas Francis Wade in 1859 and later modified by Herbert
A. Giles) and the official Chinese transcription system today, known as the pinyin zimu (“phonetic
spelling”) or simply Pinyin (adopted in 1958). For a comparison of these romanization equivalents.
15
In Wade-Giles, aspiration is marked by ’ (p’, t’, and so on). The semivowels are y, yü, and w in
initial position; i, ü, and u in medial; and i and u (but o after a) in final position. Final retroflex r is
written rh. The tones are indicated by raised figures after the syllables (1, 2, 3, 4).

The Pinyin system indicates unaspirated stops and affricates by means of traditionally
voiced consonants (e.g., b, d) and aspirated consonants by voiceless sounds (e.g., p, t). The
semivowels are y, yu, and w initially; i, ü, and u medially; and i and u (o after a) finally. Final
retroflex r is written r. The tones are indicated by accent markers, 1 = ¯, 2 = ´, 3 = ˇ, 4 = ˋ (e.g., mā,
má, mǎ, mà = Wade-Giles ma1, ma2, ma3, ma4).Pinyin is used in the following discussion of
Modern Standard Chinese grammar.

The most common suffixes that indicate nouns are -zi (as in fangzi ‘house’), and -tou (as in
mutou ‘wood’). A set of postposed noun particles express space and time relationships (-li ‘inside,’
-hou ‘after’). An example of a verbal affix is -jian in kanjian ‘see’ and tingjian ‘hear.’ Important verb
particles are -le (completed action), -guo (past action), and -zhe (action in progress). The
directional verbal particles -lai ‘toward speaker’ and -qu ‘away from speaker’ and some verbal
suffixes can be combined with the potential particles de ‘can’ and bu ‘cannot’—e.g., nachulai ‘take
out,’ nabuchulai ‘cannot take out’; tingjian ‘hear,’ ting de jian ‘can hear.’ The particle de indicates
subordination and also gives nominal value to forms for other parts of speech (e.g., wo ‘I,’ wode
‘mine,’ wo de shu ‘my book,’ lai ‘to come,’ lai de ren ‘a person who comes’). The most important
sentence particle is le, indicating ‘new situation’ (e.g., xiayu le ‘now it is raining,’ bulai le ‘now there
is no longer any chance that he will be coming’). Ge is the most common noun classifier (i ‘one,’
yige ren ‘one person’); others are suo (yisuofangzi ‘one house’) and ben (liang ben shu ‘two
books’).

Adjectives can be defined as qualitative verbs (hao ‘to be good’) or stative verbs (bing ‘to be
sick’). There are equational sentences with the word order subject–predicate—e.g., wo shi Beijing
ren ‘I am a Beijing-person (i.e., a native of Beijing)’—and narrative sentences with the word order
subject (or topic)–verb–object (or complement)—e.g., wo chifan ‘I eat rice,’ wo zhuzai Beijing ‘I live
in Beijing.’ The preposed object takes the particle ba (wo da ta ‘I beat him,’ wo ba ta dale yidun ‘I
gave him a beating’), and the agent of a passive construction takes bei (wo bei ta dale yidun ‘I was
given a beating by him’).

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Standard Cantonese
The most important representative of the Yue languages is Standard Cantonese of Canton,
Hong Kong, and Macau. It has fewer initial consonants than Modern Standard Chinese (p, t, ts, k
and the corresponding aspirated sounds ph, th, tsh, kh; m, n, ŋ; f, s, h; l, y), only one medial
semivowel (w), more vowels than Modern Standard Chinese, six final consonants (p, t, k, m, n, ŋ),
and two final semivowels (y and w). The nasals m and ŋ occur as syllables without a vowel.

There are three tones (high, mid, low) in syllables ending in -p, -t, and -k; six tones occur in
other types of syllables (mid level, low level, high falling, low falling, high rising, low rising). Two
tones are used to modify the meaning of words (high level °, and low-to-high rising *), as in yin°
“tobacco” from yin “smoke,” and nöy* “daughter” from nöy “woman.” Some special grammatical
words also have the tone °. There is no neutral tone and little tonal sandhi (modification).

There are more than 2,200 different syllables in Standard Cantonese, or almost twice as
many as in Modern Standard Chinese. The word classes are the same as in Modern Standard
Chinese. The grammatical words, although phonetically unrelated, generally have the same
semantic value (e.g., the subordinating and nominalizing particle kɛ, Modern Standard Chinese de;
mo ‘not,’ Modern Standard Chinese bu; the verbal particle for ‘completed action’ and the sentence
particle for ‘new situation,’ both le in Modern Standard Chinese, are Standard Cantonese tsɔ and
lɔ, respectively). A classifier preceding a noun in subject position (before the verb) functions as a
definite article (e.g., tseksün ‘the boat’).

Min Languages
The most important Min language is Amoy (Xiamen) from the Southern branch of Min. The
initial consonants are the same as in Standard Cantonese with the addition of two voiced stops (b
and d) and one voiced affricate (dz), developed from original nasals. There are two semivowels (y,
w), six vowels and several vowel clusters, plus the syllabic nasal sounds m and ŋ functioning as
vowels, the same finals as in Standard Cantonese, and, in addition, a glottal stop (ʔ) and a
meaning-bearing feature of nasalization, as well as a combination of the last two features. There
are two tones in syllables ending in a stop, five in other syllables. Tonal sandhi operates in many
combinations.

17
 Fuzhou is the most important language of the Northern branch of Min. The very extensive
sandhi affects not only tones but also consonants and vowels, so that the phonetic manifestation of
a syllable depends entirely on interaction with the surroundings. There are three initial labial
sounds (p, ph, m), five dental sounds (t, th, s, l, n), three palatal sounds (tś, tśh, ń), and five velars
(k, kh, h, ʔ, and ŋ). Syllables can end in -k, -ŋ, ʔ (glottal stop), a semivowel, or a vowel. The tones
fall into two classes: a comparatively high class comprising high, mid, high falling, and high rising
(only in sandhi forms) and a rather low one, comprising low rising and low rising-falling (circumflex).
Certain vowels and diphthongs occur only with the high class, others occur only with the low class,
and the vowel a occurs with both classes. Sandhi rules can cause tone to change from low class to
high class, in which case the vowel also changes.

Other Sinitic Languages or Dialects:

A. Hakka
Of the different Hakka dialects, Hakka of Meizhou (formerly Meixian) in Guangdong is best
known. It has the same initial consonants, final consonants, and syllabic nasals as Standard
Cantonese; the vowels are similar to those of Modern Standard Chinese. Medial and final
semivowels are y and w. There are two tones in syllables with final stops, four in the other syllabic
types.

B. Suzhou
Suzhou vernacular is usually quoted as representative of the Wu languages. It is rich in
initial consonants, with a contrast of voiced and voiceless stops as well as palatalized and no
palatalized dental affricates, making 26 consonants in all. (Palatalized sounds are formed from no
palatal sounds by simultaneous movement of the tongue toward the hard palate. Dental affricates
are sounds produced with the tongue tip at first touching the teeth and then drawing slightly away
to allow air to pass through, producing a hissing sound.) Medial semivowels are as in Modern
Standard Chinese. In addition, there are also 10 vowels and 4 syllabic consonants (l, m, n, ŋ); -n
and -ŋ occur in final position, as do the glottal stop and nasalization.

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C. Shanghai Dialect
The Shanghai dialect belongs to Wu. The use of only two tones or registers (high and low) is
prevalent; these are related in an automatic way to the initial consonant type (voiceless and
voiced).

D. Xiang Languages
The Xiang languages, spoken only in Hunan, are divided into New Xiang, which is under
heavy influence from Mandarin and includes the language of the capital Changsha, and Old Xiang,
more similar to the Wu languages, as spoken for instance in Shuangfeng. Old Xiang has 28 initial
consonants, the highest number for any major Sinitic language, and 11 vowels, plus the syllabic
consonants m and n. It also uses five tones, final -n and -ŋ, and nasalization, but no final stops.

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 2. Philosophy and Religion
Chinese culture is profoundly influenced by a rich tapestry of philosophy and religion.
Confucianism, founded by the sage Confucius, has long been a cornerstone of Chinese thought. It
emphasizes the importance of ethics, morality, and social harmony. Confucius believed in the
cultivation of virtues like filial piety, righteousness, and propriety. These values have had a
profound influence on Chinese society, shaping ethical values, governance, and interpersonal
relationships.

Daoism, rooted in the teachings of Laozi, centers on the concept of the Dao, or the way of
nature. It advocates for a life lived in harmony with the natural order, stressing simplicity and
spontaneity. Daoist philosophy encourages individuals to embrace the natural flow of life, often
depicted in Daoist artwork through images of mountains, streams, and bamboo groves.

In contrast, Legalism, with its strict laws and emphasis on centralized authority, provides an
intriguing counterpoint to the more ethically inclined philosophies. Legalism asserts that strict laws
and harsh punishments are necessary to maintain social order and control human behavior. It has
historically found favor with authoritarian rulers, as it emphasizes strong centralized authority.

These philosophical traditions profoundly influenced the development of Chinese society,

shaping ethical values, governance, and interpersonal relationships.

Turning to religion, Buddhism’s arrival from India brought with it a significant presence in
China, with various sects and schools of thought. Buddhism’s impact on art, culture, and spirituality
has been immense. Its tenets, including the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, offered a
path to enlightenment and inner peace. Buddhist monasteries and stupas have dotted the Chinese
landscape for centuries, serving as centers of learning and meditation.

Alongside Buddhism, Taoism, a native Chinese folk religion, endures as a deeply spiritual
belief system. It emphasizes a connection with the natural world, emphasizing harmony with the
Dao, which represents the fundamental principle that is the source of everything.

Traditional Chinese folk religion, steeped in the worship of ancestors and a diverse
pantheon of deities, has been an integral part of China’s spiritual heritage for generations. It’s a
complex web of beliefs, rituals, and practices that vary from region to region.
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 More recently, Christianity and Islam have also found followers in the country. Christianity
was introduced to China by missionaries in the 16th century and has experienced growth in recent
decades, with both official and unofficial churches. Islam, brought to China by Arab traders and
travelers, has a significant presence among the Hui and Uighur ethnic groups, with mosques
dotting China’s landscape.

EXAMPLES
Philosophy:
A. Confucianism
- Founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE), it emphasizes moral values, respect for
authority, and social harmony. For example, the concept of "Ren" ( 仁 ) represents
benevolence and kindness, and "Li" (礼) signifies proper conduct and rituals.
- Example: Confucian principles underpin the Chinese education system, focusing on discipline,
respect for teachers, and the importance of moral education.

B. Daoism
- Rooted in the teachings of Laozi, it centers on the Dao (Tao), the way of nature. Daoism
encourages living in harmony with the natural order and simplicity.
- Example: The concept of "Wu Wei" ( 无为) in Daoism advocates effortless action and
non-interference, often reflected in Chinese art and philosophy.

C. Legalism
- Legalism, associated with philosophers like Han Feizi, stresses strict laws and centralized
authority to maintain social order.
- Example: Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, employed Legalist principles, enforcing
uniform laws and a standardized writing system.

Religion:
A. Buddhism

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 - Buddhism, originating in India, has a significant presence in China. It teaches the Four Noble
Truths and the Eightfold Path as a means to attain enlightenment.
- Example: The Mogao Caves in Dunhuang are famous for their Buddhist art and scriptures,
reflecting the profound influence of Buddhism on Chinese culture.

B. Taoism (Daoism)
- A Chinese folk religion, Taoism emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao (Tao), the
fundamental principle of the universe.
- Example: The "Yin and Yang" symbol represents the balance and interdependence of
opposites, a core Taoist concept.

C. Traditional Chinese Folk Religion

- Traditional Chinese religion involves ancestor worship and belief in a pantheon of deities,
spirits, and mythical figures.
- Example: The "Kitchen God" is an important deity who oversees a family's household and
reports on their behavior to the Jade Emperor.

D. Christianity and Islam

- Both Christianity and Islam have a presence in China, with growing numbers of followers in the
country.
- Example: The Wangfujing Church in Beijing and the Great Mosque of Xi'an are prominent
religious sites for Christians and Muslims, respectively.

3. Arts and Craft

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 The artistic traditions of China are as diverse as they are ancient, reflecting a deep
connection between culture, philosophy, and aesthetics.

Chinese calligraphy, celebrated for its graceful brushwork and intricate characters, stands
as a revered art form. It is a unique combination of linguistic expression and artistic skill. The
beauty of calligraphy lies not only in the characters themselves but also in the energy and emotion
conveyed by the brush strokes. Calligraphy is more than just writing; it’s an art of self-expression
and contemplation.

Chinese painting, known for its depictions of the natural world and landscapes, carries
profound philosophical and spiritual influences. The traditional themes of Chinese painting often
seek to capture the harmony and beauty of the universe. Mountains, rivers, bamboo groves, and
plum blossoms are common motifs, each carrying its own symbolic meaning.

Chinese ceramics, particularly porcelain, have earned global acclaim for their exquisite
designs and craftsmanship. These delicate and intricate pieces have served both utilitarian and
artistic purposes, reflecting the Chinese commitment to blending functionality with aesthetics. The
blue-and-white porcelain of the Ming and Qing dynasties, with its intricate patterns and designs,
remains highly sought after by collectors and connoisseurs.

The tradition of silk production is another hallmark of Chinese craftsmanship. Silk, known as
the “fabric of dreams,” has been woven into the very fabric of Chinese culture for thousands of
years. The process of producing silk involves intricate techniques, from raising silkworms to
weaving the fabric. The result is luxurious textiles admired worldwide for their softness and sheen.

These artistic expressions often mirror the philosophical and religious themes of China,
creating a visual tapestry that weaves together culture, history, and the arts. Calligraphy and
painting often incorporate Confucian, Daoist, or Buddhist themes, making them not just aesthetic
creations but also profound expressions of thought and spirituality.

EXAMPLES:

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A. Chinese Calligraphy: Chinese calligraphy is a highly regarded art form. It involves writing
Chinese characters with a brush and ink, creating elegant and expressive characters.
Different styles of calligraphy, such as regular script, cursive script, and seal script, offer
unique artistic expressions.
B. Chinese Painting: Traditional Chinese painting often features depictions of the natural
world, landscapes, and scenes from daily life. The use of brush and ink allows artists to
convey depth, harmony, and emotion in their works. Notable styles include Gongbi
(meticulous) and Xieyi (freehand) painting.
C. Chinese Ceramics: Chinese ceramics are celebrated worldwide for their craftsmanship and
beauty. Porcelain, in particular, is famous for its delicate and intricate designs. Examples
include blue-and-white porcelain from the Ming and Qing dynasties and colorful
enamelware.
D. Chinese Silk: Silk production has been a hallmark of Chinese craftsmanship for thousands
of years. Chinese silk is known for its softness and sheen. It’s used to create textiles,
clothing, and intricate embroidery, such as the famous Suzhou embroidery.
E. Cloisonné: Cloisonné is an enamelwork technique where intricate designs are created by
using wires to separate different colors of enamel. This craft is commonly seen in the
creation of decorative vases, bowls, and jewelry.
F. Chinese Knotting: Chinese knotting is a traditional decorative handicraft that involves
intricate, symmetrical patterns created by tying cords in specific ways. These knots are often
used as decorative symbols of luck, happiness, and longevity.
G. Chinese Paper Cutting: Chinese paper cutting is the art of cutting intricate designs out of
paper. It’s a traditional folk art that can be seen in various forms, from window decorations to
intricate artwork.
H. Chinese Jade Carving: Jade has been highly valued in Chinese culture for millennia.
Chinese artisans carve jade into intricate sculptures, jewelry, and decorative items. The
symbolism of jade and the craftsmanship involved make this art form significant.
I. Chinese Pottery: Traditional Chinese pottery, such as the Yixing teapots, reflects a long
history of crafting functional and artistic pieces. Yixing teapots, in particular, are known for
enhancing the flavor of tea due to the porous nature of the c

4. Performing Arts
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 Performing arts took on elements of different tribes to create harmonious performances. The
performing arts in China have constantly grown, developed and changed while keeping elements
of the original art. Current performing arts like singing, acting and the traditional Chinese Opera
retain many elements that are found in folk songs and dances with a modern twist that incorporates
newer instruments and techniques. The performing arts are one of China's various forms of art.
The performing arts have a long history in China, just like the visual arts like paintings, sculptures,
carvings, and other physical arts. The performing arts include everything from martial arts like Kung
Fu to regionally and locally specific folk songs and dances. The tribes who lived in the area long
before the culture established are known to have practiced performing arts. As the nation started to
unite and change, the performing arts incorporated aspects from several tribes to produce mellow
performances. While preserving some of the ancient art, China's performing arts have evolved,
changed, and progressed continuously.

Chinese art has a unique aspect that sets it apart from other cultures. With the long history
of harmonizing old techniques and themes with newer styles, the country has transformed art. The
art from China often has a central theme of nature, harmony and balance that makes it an excellent
example of the values that are held within the country. With a history that dates back over 10,000
years, it is no surprise that Chinese art has a developed and unique design that is an important
part of the country's history.

Direct action is the foundation of performance art. Performance art is sometimes referred to
as xingweiyishu, or behavior art, in China. Action art (xingdongyishu), body art (shentiyishu), and
live art (xianchangyishu) are other synonyms. Each phrase refers to a body-related activity, yet it
can also refer to the use of the body in painting, installation art, or even video art. Performance art
has been associated with artists' out-in-the-public actions during the 1980s, which culminated in
the 1989 China Avant/Garde show in Beijing, most famously by artist Xiao Lu discharging a gun at
her installation during the opening. The 1990s saw the emergence of performance art as artists all
over China began to participate in actions that put the body in close proximity to the physical world.

The Beijing East Village's Cang Xin, Duan Yingmei, Ma Liuming, Zhang Binbin, Zhang
Huan, and Zhu Ming are just a few of the artists who fall under this category. Performance art in
China also gains popularity in the 1990s because to performers who put their bodies to the test,
such He Yunchang and Li Binyuan. or by Li Xinmo, a female artist. The growth of performance art
festivals in China also occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
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 Discussions of performance and performance art can also be connected to dance,
experimental theater, and new media, as shown in the works of Lu Yang and Chen Tianzhuo, for
example. Discussions of performance art also touch on live art, documentation, performativity, and
the relationship between public and private activity, with certain performances in China having
been subject to censorship. With early performance artists like Kwok Mang Ho (Frog King) in Hong
Kong and Teching Hsieh in Taiwan, who would later establish himself as a foundational
performance artist in New York during the late 1970s and 1980s, this special issue also aims to
elaborate papers tracing the development of performance art outside of Mainland China. Or, Wu
Mali who, from the 1980s onwards, has been creating participatory works and socially engaged art
in Taiwan, another important figure in the field of performance art, broadly conceived alongside
other performance artists active across Greater China, from the 1980s and 1990s until now. Here
are some of the Chinese Performing Arts.

A. Chinese Kung Fu
Chinese Kung Fu (Martial Arts or as popularly referred to as Gongfu or Wushu) is a series of
fighting styles which has developed over a long historical period in China. Although being fighting
styles, Kung Fu advocates virtue and peace, not aggression or violence. This has been the
common value upheld by martial artists from generation to generation. With a number of movement
sets, boxing styles, weapon skills and some fighting stunts, Kung Fu keeps its original function of
self-defense. Now its value in body-building and fitness is also highly appreciated.

B. Chinese Acrobatics
Chinese acrobats focus especially on developing strength in waist and lengs. Strong
abdominal muscles are the key to all precisely controlled movement involving the torso. Strong
legs are essential for maintaining perfect balance while standing on a tightrope or other objects or
on other acrobats. Chinese acrobats emphasize controlled strength and harmonious coordination
with other acrobats to achieve fluid and agile movement that exudes power under control. They
may achieve this through practicing martial arts exercises such as tai chi or kung fu where there is
graceful movement.

C. Beijing Opera

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 Beijing Opera or Peking opera is a performance art incorporating singing, reciting, acting,
martial arts. Although widely practiced throughout China, its performance centreson Beijing, Tianjin
and Shanghai. Peking opera is sung and recited using primarily Beijing dialect, and its librettos are
composed according to a strict set of rules that prize form and rhyme. They tell stories of history,
politics, society and daily life and aspire to inform as they entertain.

5. Cuisine

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 Food is an important part of daily life for Chinese people. Chinese not only enjoy eating but
believe eating good food can bring harmony and closeness to the family and relationships. Chinese
people in general are not as concerned about nutrition as Western culture. They are more
concerned with the food’s texture, flavor, color, and aroma. These are the crucial points for good
Chinese cooking. Chinese daily meals consist of four food groups: grains, vegetables, fruit, and
meat. Because of lactose intolerance, Chinese do not consume large amounts of dairy products.
Instead, Chinese substitute these with soymilk and tofu, which also contain large amounts of
protein and calcium. Vegetables, fruits, and meats are usually fresh. Some exceptions include
preserved vegetables such as snow cabbage or mustard greens, preserved eggs, aka “thousand
year old eggs” or salted and dried fish. Other exceptions include snack items such as beef jerky,
cuttlefish jerky, sweet and sour preserved plums, or dehydrated mango slices. Canned or frozen
foods are seldom eaten. Western desserts such as cookies, cakes, pies, and ice cream are eaten
only on special occasions such as birthdays and weddings. After dinner, families usually eat
seasonal fruit as dessert. Chinese desserts such as red bean soup, sweet white lotus’s seed soup,
or steam papaya soup are served every so often as a special treat on a hot summer’s night. Ethnic
Chinese cooking does not involve a lot of deep fried cooking.

The reason most of the Chinese restaurants in America have deep-fried dishes such as
sweet and sour pork, almond fried Chicken, and deep-fried shrimp is to promote business and to
please western tastes. This clearly reflects why there are more overweight and high blood pressure
concerns in Western culture than there are in Chinese culture. Chinese hardly waste any section of
the animal and have found ways to cook nearly every part. Chinese culture believes that
“yixingbuxing,” which means by using any shape or part of the animal the same part of the human
body can be replenished and strengthened. For example, shark fin soup and bird nest soup (bird’s
saliva) is served to replenish strength and increase appetite, crocodile meat strengthens the
bronchia, dehydrated tiger testicle increases stamina for men, while monkey brains add wisdom.
These foods are considered to be delicacies and tonics. Shark fin soup or bird nest soup is often
served at special occasions such as at a Chinese banquet dinner. Other items are rarely prepared.
Here are some of Chinese Cuisines.

A. Peking Roasted Duck

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 Famous dish from Beijing. As "the first dish to taste in China", Beijing Roast Duck used to be
a royal dish in medieval China. It has been a "national dish of diplomacy" since the 1970s, when it
was first used for the reception of foreign guests by Premier Zhou Enlai (the first Premier of the
People's Republic of China). It is highly praised by heads of state, government officials, and
domestic and foreign tourists.

B. Hot Pot
This is one of the most popular dishes in China, especially in Sichuan Province or
Chongqing. People cook in and eat from a simmering pot of soup stock (broth) on a gas/induction
hob in the middle of the dining table with foodstuffs and condiments around the pot. Chinese
people are very fond of hot pot. In the past hot pot used to be favored only in winter, but nowadays
hot pot has been appearing on tables all year round. It is a great way to socialize with friends and
relatives. People gather around the pot to eat while chatting, eating, drinking, and having fun.

C. Dim Sum
This is one of the most popular Cantonese cuisine dishes. It contains a large range of small
dishes, including dumplings, rolls, cakes, and meat, seafood, dessert, and vegetable preparations.
Dim sum originated in Guangzhou city. People of Guangdong are fond of drinking tea in the
morning or lunch. So, they often eat dim sum during their tea parties for breakfast and lunch. It is a
popular way to get together with friends and relatives or have social gatherings.

6. Festivals

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 Festivals play a pivotal role in Chinese culture, marking significant occasions with elaborate
rituals and vibrant celebrations. The Spring Festival, also known as Chinese New Year, is the most
prominent of these festivals.

EXAMPLES:
A. Chinese New Year (Spring Festival): The most important and widely celebrated festival in
China, Chinese New Year marks the beginning of the lunar new year. It involves traditions
like family reunions, fireworks, red envelopes (hongbao), dragon and lion dances, and
special holiday foods.
B. Mid-Autumn Festival: Also known as the Moon Festival, this event celebrates the full moon
and is a time for family gatherings. Mooncakes, a special pastry filled with various
ingredients, are a hallmark of this festival.
C. Dragon Boat Festival (Duanwu Festival): This festival is held on the 5th day of the 5th
month of the lunar calendar. It commemorates the ancient poet Qu Yuan and features
dragon boat races, the consumption of zongzi (sticky rice dumplings), and the hanging of
pouches filled with medicinal herbs.
D. Lantern Festival: Occurring on the 15th day of the first lunar month, the Lantern Festival
marks the end of the Chinese New Year celebrations. People display colorful lanterns, enjoy
lantern riddles, and eat sweet rice balls (tangyuan).
E. Qingming Festival (Tomb-Sweeping Day): Qingming Festival is a time for Chinese
families to visit the graves of their ancestors to pay respects and clean the tombstones. It
typically falls in early April.
F. Double Ninth Festival (Chongyang Festival): Celebrated on the 9th day of the 9th month
in the lunar calendar, this festival is also known as the Senior Citizens’ Festival. It involves
activities such as climbing mountains and drinking chrysanthemum tea.
G. Winter Solstice (Dongzhi Festival): This festival, typically observed on December 21st or
22nd, is a time for family reunions and eating tangyuan (sweet rice balls) to symbolize unity
and togetherness.
H. Ghost Festival (Zhongyuan Festival): The Ghost Festival, typically in August, is a time to
honor deceased ancestors. People make offerings to wandering spirits to ensure their well-
being in the afterlife.
I. Yuanxiao Festival (Lantern Festival): This is a smaller version of the Lantern Festival,
held on the 15th day of the first lunar month. People enjoy sweet glutinous rice balls called
yuanxiao.
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 J. Yulanpen Festival: A Buddhist festival during which people make offerings to wandering
souls. It is observed in Buddhist communities in China.

7. Traditional Medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine is thousands of years old and has changed little over the
centuries. Its basic concept is that a vital force of life, called Qi, surges through the body. Any

31
imbalance to Qi can cause disease and illness. This imbalance is most commonly thought to be
caused by an alteration in the opposite and complementary forces that make up the Qi. These are
called yin and yang. Ancient Chinese believed that humans are microcosms of the larger
surrounding universe, and are interconnected with nature and subject to its forces. Balance
between health and disease is a key concept. TCM treatment seeks to restore this balance through
treatment specific to the individual. It is believed that to regain balance, you must achieve the
balance between the internal body organs and the external elements of earth, fire, water, wood,
and metal.Treatment to regain balance may involve: Acupuncture, Moxibustion (the burning of
herbal leaves on or near the body), Cupping (the use of warmed glass jars to create suction on
certain points of the body), Massage, Herbal remedies, Movement and concentration exercises
(such as tai chi).

Acupuncture is a component of TCM commonly found in Western medicine and has

received the most study of all the alternative therapies. Some herbal treatments used in TCM can
act as medicines and be very effective but may also have serious side effects. In 2004, for
example, the FDA banned the sale of dietary supplements containing ephedra and plants
containing ephedra group alkaloids due to complications, such as heart attack and stroke. Ephedra
is a Chinese herb used in dietary supplements for weight loss and performance enhancement.
However, the ban does not apply to certain herbal products prepared under TCM guidelines
intended only for short-term use rather than long-term dosing. It also does not apply to OTC and
prescription drugs or to herbal teas. Here are some examples of Chinese Traditional Medicine.

A. Cupping
Cupping therapy is an ancient healing method that may ease back pain, neck pain,
headaches and other issues. It uses suction to pull on your skin and increase blood flow to the
affected area. Cupping causes bruising and can lead to skin infection.

B. Herbal Remedy
Chinese herbal medicine is part of a larger healing system called Traditional Chinese
Medicine. Herbs are prescribed to restore energy balance to the opposing forces of energy - Yin
and Yang - that run through invisible channels in the body.

C. Moxibustion

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 This is a form of therapy that entails the burning of mugwort leaves. This is a small, spongy
herb that is believed to enhance healing with acupuncture. As such, the leaves are burnt close to
the skin’s surface using a stick to apply heat.‌ The practice is derived from Chinese medicine. Its
purpose is to strengthen the blood, stimulate the flow of Qi or energy, and maintain good health.

8. Invention and Innovation

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 From the first century before Christ to the 15th century, China held the top spot in the world
for the study of nature in several domains, with the four greatest inventions having the largest
worldwide impact.The four great technologies of ancient China—papermaking, printing,
gunpowder, and the compass—were important contributions to global culture.

Four Great Inventions of Ancient China - Paper:

China was the first nation to invent paper, after ancient peoples used various natural
materials for writing. They first made a paper called "bo" out of silk, but production was expensive
due to scarcity. In the 2nd century, court official Cai Lun produced a cheaper, light, thin, and
durable paper from bark, rags, and wheat stalks. The paper making process spread to Korea,
Japan, the Arab world, Europe, and America in the 3rd century. Before paper, Qin Shihuang, the
first emperor in Chinese history, had to carry over 120 kilos of official documents written on
bamboo or wooden strips. A paper map in the Western Han Dynasty was discovered in 1986.

Four Great Inventions of Ancient China - Printing:

The invention of printing revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge, allowing for the
creation of verifiable dates of books. The Western Han Dynasty introduced stone-tablet rubbing for
spreading Confucian classics, leading to the practice of block printing in the Sui Dynasty. The first
book with a verifiable date of printing appeared in China in 868, nearly 600 years before Europe.
This technology was introduced to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines during the Tang
Dynasty. However, block printing had drawbacks, as the boards became useless after printing. In
the Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng carved individual characters on clay, hardened by baking, resulting in
movable type. This technology spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Europe.

Four Great Inventions of Ancient China - Gunpowder:

Ancient China is credited with the invention of gunpowder, which was discovered through
alchemy by ancient necromancers. They discovered that an explosion could be induced by mixing
ores and fuel in the right proportions and heating. Three formulas for gunpowder were recorded in
Zeng Gongliang's collection of military techniques. The method was introduced to the Arab world in
the 12th century and Europe in the 14th century. Gunpowder was initially used for fireworks but
revolutionized warfare worldwide.

Four Great Inventions of Ancient China - The Compass:

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 The compass, an essential navigational tool, was discovered in ancient China during the
Warring States Period. It was developed through the use of magnetite, which attracted iron and
pointed north. The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern
Song Dynasty (960-1127). Prior to its invention, navigators relied on the sun, moon, and polestar
for bearings. The spread of the compass opened the oceans and led to the discovery of the New
World. Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, argued that the invention of printing, gunpowder,
and the compass reshaped the world, impacting all humanity.

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 9. Family Social Structure

Chinese culture places a profound emphasis on family values. The Chinese family unit is
considered the bedrock of society, with filial piety being a fundamental virtue. This reverence for
family is deeply ingrained in the fabric of Chinese society and involves not only respect for one’s
elders but also a strong sense of family honor.

Multi-generational households remain common, preserving the traditional extended family

structure. In these households, grandparents, parents, and children often live under the same roof.
This arrangement promotes family unity and shared responsibilities.

Chinese social structure has historically been hierarchical, with distinct roles and
responsibilities for individuals at various stages of life. The concept of Confucian ethics, including
the Five Relationships, outlines the proper conduct of individuals in society, emphasizing the roles
of ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, elder and younger sibling, and friend and
friend.

This hierarchical structure extends beyond the family into broader social dynamics,
influencing how individuals interact with one another. Titles and honorifics, such as addressing
others by their formal titles, show respect and deference. Even in the modern context, these
cultural norms remain significant, and understanding them is essential for navigating Chinese
social interactions.

Modernization and urbanization have brought changes to these traditional structures. As

China has developed and urbanized, the nuclear family has become more prevalent. Younger
generations increasingly seek independence, and many move away from their hometowns for
education and work, breaking the historical pattern of multi-generational households. The pursuit of
careers, education, and individual ambitions has led to a redefinition of family roles and
responsibilities.

However, despite these changes, the fundamental respect and commitment to family values
persist as a central aspect of Chinese culture. The emphasis on family remains strong, and special
occasions and festivals continue to bring families together to celebrate their shared heritage.

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EXAMPLES:
A. Filial Piety: Filial piety, or “Xiao” (孝) in Chinese, is a fundamental virtue. It emphasizes the
respect, obedience, and care that children owe to their parents and elders. This concept
influences family dynamics, with children traditionally expected to provide support and care
for their parents in their old age.
B. Multi-Generational Households: Historically, multi-generational households have been
common in China. Grandparents, parents, and children often live together under one roof.
This arrangement promotes family unity and shared responsibilities, with multiple
generations contributing to the well-being of the family.
C. Hierarchical Social Structure: Chinese society traditionally follows a hierarchical structure.
Confucian ethics, including the Five Relationships, outline proper conduct in society. This
includes the relationships between ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife,
elder and younger sibling, and friend and friend. Each relationship comes with its own set of
responsibilities and expectations.
D. Use of Titles and Honorifics: In social interactions, it is common to address others using
formal titles and honorifics as a sign of respect and deference. This practice extends beyond
the family and is an essential aspect of Chinese etiquette.
E. Arranged Marriages: Historically, arranged marriages were common in China. Marriages
were often arranged by parents or matchmakers based on factors such as social status,
family reputation, and compatibility. While arranged marriages are less common today,
parental involvement in matchmaking can still occur.
F. Modern Changes: In contemporary China, rapid urbanization and modernization have led
to changes in family and social structures. Nuclear families, consisting of parents and their
children, have become more common as younger generations seek independence and
move away from their hometowns for education and work. This trend has resulted in a
redefinition of family roles and responsibilities.
G. One-Child Policy Impact: The one-child policy, which was in effect from 1979 to 2015,
significantly impacted family structures. Many families had only one child, leading to unique
challenges in terms of familial support and the care of elderly parents.
H. Elderly Care: With an aging population, there is a growing focus on elderly care in China.
Traditional values of filial piety remain strong, but modern families are increasingly facing
the challenges of caring for aging parents while managing their own careers and families.
10. Modern Influence

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 China's modern influence on the world is multifaceted, reaching various sectors globally.
Here are some key areas where China has had a significant impact:

A. Economic Influence:
China, the world's second-largest economy, significantly influences global trade and
investment. Its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) aims to improve trade connectivity between
Asia, Europe, and Africa. China has become a global economic superpower, investing in
overseas infrastructure and development. A recent Pew Research Center survey indicates
that publics, particularly in emerging markets, generally view China's growing economy
positively, viewing it as a positive influence on their country's economic affairs. This growth
has led to China's rise as the world's second-largest exporter and the largest exporter by
value.

B. Trade and Manufacturing:

China, often referred to as the "world's factory," is a manufacturing powerhouse with
vast manufacturing capabilities. Many multinational corporations manufacture their products
in China, influencing global supply chains and consumer markets. The ubiquity of Chinese
products is not solely due to cheap Chinese labor, but also to its strong business
ecosystem, lack of regulatory compliance, low taxes and duties, and competitive currency
practices.

China's business ecosystem, consisting of networked suppliers, component

manufacturers, and distributors, has evolved to make it a more efficient and cost-effective
place to manufacture products. Chinese manufacturers operate under a more permissive
regulatory environment than Western manufacturers, which generally comply with various
health, safety, employment, and environmental regulations.
However, China has been accused of artificially depressing its currency value to keep
the price of its goods lower than those produced by U.S. competitors. Overall, China's
manufacturing power and competitive currency practices contribute to its global presence in
the marketplace.

C. Cybersecurity and Surveillance:

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 China's advancements in surveillance technologies, such as facial recognition and
internet censorship, have sparked international scrutiny. Some countries are adopting
Chinese surveillance technologies, impacting global conversations about privacy and
security.
Many tech firms, now among the world's largest, offer surveillance products designed
for domestic use but exported globally. This has led to questions about China's behavior,
potential consequences for domestic and international politics, and its promotion of invasive
surveillance practices abroad. The growing scrutiny is centered on the collaboration
between Beijing government and private Chinese actors in the sale of surveillance tools.
China and its large firms are also seeking to change global norms and standards for digital
surveillance technologies.

11. Ethnic Diversity

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 China is a comprising 56 state-recognized nationalities officially termed “ethnic minorities.”
These ethnic minority groups do not necessarily self-identify as such, and are not equally
represented in China. The largest ethnic group is the Han (91.6), and the largest non-Han minority
groups are Tibetans, Mongols, and Uyghurs. These territories (Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang)
are resource-rich and these ethnic groups often dispute the autonomous regions. Numerous
human rights violations and independence movements have caused major instability in these
regions and international criticism of the Chinese Communist Party’s ethnic minority policies. There
are ethnic groups that are still seeking official recognition by the state.

With a population of 1159.4 million, the Han Chinese can be found in almost every part of
China. However, they mainly live in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, Yangtze
River and the Pearl River, and also in the Northeast Plain Region (Songliao Plain). They form the
largest ethnic group within China and also the largest in the world. Mandarin is the primary
language of the Han people, and hence the official language of China, and with such a vast
majority of the population identifying themselves as Han, you can find their influence at nearly
every corner of China. The written history of the Han people dates back to 1,000 B.C., which is one
of the longest unbroken written histories in the world aside from Jewish people. The ancestral
homelands of the Han, where they live in the highest concentration, are along the middle and lower
parts of the Yellow River Basin, the Yangtze River basin, and the Pearl River. With an agricultural
and urban culture, it is not until recent years that you would find the Han people in mountainous or
desert regions. Despite being such a large group, the Han people still share a common culture of
celebrating traditional cuisine, clothing, and customs, which have been passed down from its
ancient history

The Mongols, an ethnic minority group with a population of 6 million in China, and 4 million
in Mongolia and Russia, have a history closely tied to the Han's, with many Mongols today speak
Mandarin in addition to their own dialect. However, they are most famously known for establishing
one of the largest empires in world history. Before the birth of Genghis Khan, the Mongols were a
nomadic and tribal people that often faced conflict among one another. Through his conquests,
Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and embarked on larger and larger invasions, ultimately
ruling over a third of Asia by the time of his death in 1227.

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 Women archers competing in Mongolia’s Naadam games. The Mongols still uphold the
traditions of their ancestors during that time, who lived in huts in the extensive grasslands of
northern China and excelled in horseback riding and combat. To preserve these traditions,
Mongolia hosts an annual festival and sporting event called Naadam, which focuses on the three
traditional "manly" sports of Mongolia: horse racing, wrestling, and archery. Since the 1950’s,
women have been able to compete in archery competitions during Naadam as well, which is as
equally attended as the men's sports. The Mongol’s diet, both within and outside of China, has
roots in their nomadic heritage and thus primarily consists of meat and dairy products. Today, rice,
noodles, and bread dishes have also been incorporated, but meat and dairy remain prevalent, as
well as the traditional Mongolian hot pot. Being situated along the Silk Road allowed silk to be a
common material used in Mongolian traditional clothing, and a silk cloth called a Hada is often
presented as a welcoming gift to guests.

The Manchu, which make up about 4.2 million people in China today, serve as a cautionary
tale for ethnic minorities in China on preserving their culture and language, as only around 50
people today still speak the native language of the Manchu. Despite this, Manchu’s boast a very
proud history, having defeated the Ming dynasty in the 17th century, establishing the Qing dynasty
which became the most powerful and richest empire in Asia. Due to their widespread influence, the
original language and culture of the Manchu people was lost, and by the time the final emperor of
the Qing dynasty was in power, he could not even read or write the Manchu language. Today, a
majority of Manchu people live in the cold northeastern part of China, and their diet reflects this
lifestyle. Similar to the diet of Koreans, the Manchu’s cuisine consists of a lot of pickled vegetables
and hot pot. One big difference, however, is Machu's preference for wheat over rice. As recently as
the last century, Manch men were known for wearing very distinct hairstyles, with their hair tied
back into a ponytail and the front part of their head shaved, as pictured below. During this time
period, women often wore headgear that created a fan shape that was often decorated with flowers
and tassels.

Although they make up only a small proportion of the overall Chinese population, the 55
ethnic groups are distributed extensively throughout different regions of China. The regions where
they are most concentrated are Southwest China, Northwest China and Northeast China. No
matter whether it is Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Ningxia, Guangxi, Tibet, Yunnan, Guizhou, Qinghai or
Sichuan, Gansu, Hubei, Hunan or another province, one can find Chinese ethnic groups. From the
areas listed above, the greatest number of groups can be found in Yunnan Province (25 ethnic
groups). Zhuang has the largest population (more than 16 million) of ethnic groups. In order to
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ensure that the 56 Chinese ethnic groups live together in harmony, the Chinese government
introduced a series of policies including ones to secure the equality and unity of ethnic groups, give
regional autonomy to ethnic groups and promote respect for the faith and customs of ethnic
groups. Among these the policy of regional autonomy for ethnic groups is the most fundamental.
Under this policy, five autonomous regions; Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Guangxi, Ningxia and Tibet,
as well as numerous autonomous prefectures, counties, nationality townships and towns have
been set up. With guidance from the Chinese government, the ethnic groups in areas that have
been given regional autonomy are entitled to deal with their own affairs. Together with the Han
people, the Chinese ethnic groups are making great efforts to build a prosperous China.

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 12. Literature

Chinese Literature is among the most imaginative and interesting in the world. The precision
of the language results in perfectly realized images whether in poetry or prose and, as with all great
literature, the themes are timeless. The Chinese valued literature highly and even had a god of
literature named Wen Chang, also known as Wendi, Wen Ti. The earliest written works in China
are ghost stories and myths. Ebrey writes how early Han literature is "rich in references to spirits,
portents, myths, the strange and powerful, the death-defying and the dazzling (71)". The Chinese
were especially concerned with ghosts because the appearance of someone who had died meant
that the living had somehow failed them, usually by improper honor in burial, and the dead would
haunt the living until the wrong was righted. If the dead could not find their family, they would find
anyone nearby.

Origin
The oldest specimens of Chinese writing extant are inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells
dating back to the last three centuries of the Shang dynasty (18th–12th centuries BCE) and
recording divinations performed at the royal capital. These inscriptions, like those engraved on
ceremonial bronze vessels toward the end of the Shang period, are usually brief and factual and
cannot be considered literature. Nonetheless, they are significant in that their sizable vocabulary
(about 3,400 characters, of which nearly 2,000 have been reliably deciphered) has proved to be
the direct ancestor of the modern Chinese script. Moreover, the syntactical structure of the
language bears a striking resemblance to later usages. From the frequent occurrences in the bone
inscriptions of such characters as “dance” and “music,” “drum” and “chimes” (of stone), “words” and
“southern” (airs), it can safely be inferred that, by the Shang dynasty, songs were sung to the
accompaniment of dance and music, but these songs are now lost.

Myths
Early Chinese literature does not present, as the literatures of certain other world cultures
do, great epics embodying mythological lore. What information exists is sketchy and fragmentary
and provides no clear evidence that an organic mythology ever existed; if it did, all traces have
been lost. Attempts by scholars, Eastern and Western alike, to reconstruct the mythology of
antiquity have consequently not advanced beyond probable theses. Shang dynasty material is
limited. Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) sources are more plentiful, but even these must at times
be supplemented by writings of the Han period (206 BCE–220 CE), which, however, must be read
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with great caution. This is the case because Han scholars reworked the ancient texts to such an
extent that no one is quite sure, aside from evident forgeries, how much was deliberately
reinterpreted and how much was changed in good faith in an attempt to clarify ambiguities or
reconcile contradictions. The early state of Chinese mythology was also molded by the religious
situation that prevailed in China at least since the Zhou conquest (c. 11th century BCE), when
religious observance connected with the cult of the dominant deities was proclaimed a royal
prerogative. Because of his temporal position, the king alone was considered qualified to offer
sacrifice and to pray to these deities. Shangdi (“Supreme Ruler”), for example, one of the prime
dispensers of change and fate, was inaccessible to persons of lower rank. The princes, the
aristocracy, and the commoners were thus compelled, in descending order, to worship lesser gods
and ancestors. Though this situation was greatly modified about the time of Confucius in the early
part of the 5th century BCE, institutional inertia and a trend toward rationalism precluded the revival
of a mythological world. Confucius prayed to Heaven (Tian) and was concerned about the great
sacrifices, but he and his school had little use for genuine myths.

Poem
The first anthology of Chinese poetry, known as the Shijing (“Classic of Poetry”) and
consisting of temple, court, and folk songs, was given definitive form somewhere around the time
of Confucius (551–479 BCE). But its 305 songs are believed to range in date from the beginning of
the Zhou dynasty to the time of their compiling. The Shijing is generally accounted the third of the
Five Classics (Wujing) of Confucian literature. The other four are: the Yijing (“Classic of Changes”),
a book of divination and cosmology; the Shujing (“Classic of History”), a collection of official
documents; the Liji (“Record of Rites”), a book of rituals with accompanying anecdotes; and the
Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn [Annals]”), a chronological history of the feudal state of Lu, where
Confucius was born, consisting of topical entries of major events from 722 to 481 BCE. The Five
Classics have been held in high esteem by Chinese scholars since the 2nd century BCE. (For a
discussion of the Yijing and Shujing, see below Prose.)

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 13. Fashion and Clothing

Chinese clothing is as both gracefully as it stands for tradition and shows living power.
Chinese fashion and clothing represent a dynamic tapestry that weaves together thousands of
years of tradition with the innovations of the modern world. This research explores the multifaceted
world of Chinese fashion, from its deep-rooted traditional clothing, such as Hanfu, to the
emergence of contemporary Chinese designers on the global stage. It delves into the cultural
significance of clothing, the influence of Chinese street fashion, the sustainability movement, and
the impact of e-commerce. The journey through Chinese fashion is a journey through time, culture,
and creativity. A wide scale of remarkable styles for teens and young women’s sexy wear is
created in today’s China, which involves cats, gods and masks of Chinese opera. Fashionable
shapes are applying motives and colors from the old Asian outfit. Images, textiles, ornaments, and
motifs from old traditions are combined with modern materials and designs to create today’s
fashionable outfits and Oriental fashion. Traditional clothes from China originate from customary
motives and rites. In modern Chinese clothing ancient motifs as dragon, phoenix and flower
embellishments, which have been used on garments of emperors, are returning. These symbols
and styles on the one hand are beautiful and on the other hand stand for ancient tradition. There
was a nine dragon and five cloud symbols which should bring luck to the person, and this symbol
today also gets the same importance for this kind of wear.

Traditional Chinese Clothing: Hanfu

One of the cornerstones of Chinese fashion is traditional clothing, with Hanfu at its heart.
Hanfu has a history dating back thousands of years and encompasses a wide range of styles,
fabrics, and accessories. The attire carries rich cultural and symbolic meaning, with various
garments signifying social status, occasions, and rites. Hanfu represents a connection to China’s
historical roots and has experienced a resurgence in popularity, illustrating the enduring
significance of tradition in contemporary Chinese fashion.

Chinese Ethnic Minority Clothing

China’s vast cultural diversity is also reflected in its clothing traditions. The country is home
to 56 ethnic groups, each with its unique clothing styles. For instance, the Tibetan people are
known for their intricate, colorful garments, while the Uighurs have their distinctive embroidered
dresses. Exploring these diverse clothing traditions not only showcases China’s multicultural fabric
but also deepens our understanding of the nation’s identity.
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The Modern Chinese Fashion Scene
In recent years, China has become a focal point for modern fashion trends. Chinese
designers and brands have gained international recognition. Labels like Guo Pei, whose designs
graced the Met Gala, and sportswear brand Li-Ning have captured global attention. Chinese
fashion is no longer confined to national borders; it is now a significant player on the world stage.

Cultural Significance of Chinese Clothing

Clothing in China has always been more than just fabric. Colors, patterns, and embroidery
carry profound cultural meanings. Red symbolizes good fortune and joy, while dragons often
feature in imperial clothing. Understanding the symbolism behind Chinese clothing deepens our
appreciation of its cultural significance.

Chinese Street Fashion and Online Influence

In bustling cities like Shanghai and Beijing, Chinese street fashion reflects the fusion of
tradition and modernity. Young fashion enthusiasts blend global trends with traditional elements,
creating a unique and vibrant street style. Social media and internet culture have played a pivotal
role in shaping and promoting these trends, catapulting Chinese street fashion to international
recognition.

Sustainability in Chinese Fashion

Sustainability has become a global concern, and the Chinese fashion industry is no
exception. Traditional textiles and techniques are being revisited to create eco-friendly fashion.
From clothing made from bamboo to the resurgence of silk production, sustainability is becoming a
central focus of the industry.

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E-commerce and Fashion Retail
China’s e-commerce giants, such as Alibaba and JD.com, have revolutionized the fashion
retail landscape. The rapid growth of online shopping has redefined consumer habits, making
China a leader in e-commerce fashion innovation. It has also significantly impacted the global
fashion industry as Chinese consumers exert their influence on trends worldwide.

The world of Chinese fashion and clothing is a living testament to the enduring importance
of tradition and the power of innovation. From the rich tapestry of Hanfu to the global prominence
of Chinese designers and the sustainability movement, Chinese fashion is a dynamic and ever-
evolving force. It weaves together the threads of history, culture, and modernity, creating a
narrative that resonates far beyond China’s borders, influencing the global fashion landscape.

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 14. Martial Arts
Descriptions of Chinese martial arts can be traced to the Xia Dynasty ( 夏 朝 ) which existed
more than 4000 years ago. Their origin is attributed to self-defense needs, hunting activities and
military training in ancient China. Hand-to-hand combat and weapons practice were important
components in the training of Chinese soldiers. From this beginning, Chinese martial arts
proceeded to incorporate different philosophies and ideas into its practice—expanding its purpose
from self-defense to health maintenance and finally as method of self-cultivation. Conversely, the
influence of martial arts ideals in civilian society can be found in poetry, fiction, and eventually film.
Chinese martial arts are now an integral element of Chinese culture.

According to tradition, the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi, traditional date of ascension to the
throne 2698 BCE) introduced the earliest forms of martial arts to China. The Yellow Emperor is
described as a famous general who, before becoming China’s leader, wrote lengthy treatises on
medicine, astrology and the martial arts. He allegedly developed the practice of jiao di or horn-
butting and utilized it in war.

Shǒubó (手搏) kung fu, practiced during the Shang dynasty (1766–1066 BCE), and Xiang Bo
(similar to Sanda) from the 600s BCE, are just two examples of ancient Chinese kung fu. In 509
BCE, Confucius suggested to Duke Ding of Lu that people practice the literary arts as well as the
martial arts; thus, kung fu began to be practiced by ordinary citizens external to the military and
religious sects (pre-dating Shaolin by over 1,000 years). A combat wrestling system called juélì or
jiǎolì ( 角 力 ) is mentioned in the Classic of Rites (1st c. BCE). This combat system included
techniques such as strikes, throws, joint manipulation, and pressure point attacks. Jiao Di became
a sport during the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE). The Han History Bibliographies record that, by the
Former Han (206 BCE – 8 CE), there was a distinction between no-holds-barred weaponless
fighting, which it calls shǒubó ( 手 搏 ), for which "how-to" manuals had already been written, and
sportive wrestling, then known as juélì or jiǎolì ( 角 力 ). Wrestling is also documented in the Shǐ Jì,
Records of the Grand Historian, written by Sima Qian (ca. 100 BCE).

A hand to hand combat theory, including the integration of notions of "hard" and "soft"
techniques, is expounded in the story of the Maiden of Yue in the Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu
and Yue (5th c. BCE).

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 Typically referred to by the blanket term “Kung Fu” in the west, Chinese martial arts come in
many forms. Kung Fu is a compound of the words gong, meaning work, and fu, meaning merit.
Thus, Fung Fu is any skill that is acquired through learning and practice. Its styles are many and its
history, storied. From the aunties in the park to the Shaolin monks, everyone is, in fact, Kung Fu
fighting.

Tai Chi
Taiji Quan, or Tai Chi as it is more commonly known, is perhaps more associated with
peaceful old ladies in the park than with powerful martial arts, but Tai Chi is practiced for both its
health benefits and as defense training. Typified by its slow movements, the art form is said to date
back to the 12th century Taoist monk Zhang Sanfeng, although such claims remain
unsubstantiated. Its philosophy, however, is certain. Meeting brute force with brute force is sure to
leave both sides injured. Meeting brute force with softness, on the other hand, allows the incoming
force to exhaust itself so it can more easily be redirected.

Wing Chun
Like Tai Chi, Wing Chun is based on a philosophy of counter-attacking. It involves close-
range striking and grappling and is often practiced on a wooden dummy. Relaxation and calmness
are central to Wing Chun’s fighting style, as it is believed that one who excels in fighting is never
aroused in anger. Wing Chun’s two most famous practitioners are the master-teacher Ip Man and
his famed pupil, Bruce Lee.

Baji Quan “Eight Extreme Fists”

Baji Quan, meaning eight extreme fists, is much more forceful in style than Tai Chi or Wing
Chun. It features explosive, short-range motions. Its tactics involve opening the opponent’s arms to
mount leveled attacks, focusing on elbow, knee, shoulder, and hip strikes. The first record of the
martial art dates it to the early 1700s, in China’s north-central Hebei province.

Sanda
Sanda, also known as Sanshou or Chinese kickboxing, was originally developed by the
Chinese military as a mixture of traditional Kung Fu and modern combat practices. The sport

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variation is similar to Muay Thai, but with many more grappling techniques. The term has come to
represent a number of curricula under the umbrella of Mixed Martial Arts.

Bagua Zhang
Taking its name from the trigrams of Taoist philosophy, Bagua Zhang is focused on the
practice of “circle walking,” which involves walking around the edge of a circle in low stances,
facing the center and periodically changing direction. An “internal” fighting style like Tai Chi, Bagua
Zhang may also incorporate one of several weapons, such as a crescent-shaped knife or
broadsword.

Chow Gar “Southern Praying Mantis”

Another aggressive style is Chow Gar, from the Southern Praying Mantis school of martial
arts, associated with the Hakka people. The style draws on 36 basic movements, many of which
are focused on the hands. According to legend, the founder of Chow Gar was inspired by a praying
mantis fighting off a blackbird by using quick, sudden movements.

15. Architecture
Walled compounds, raised pavilions, wooden columns and panelling, yellow glazed roof
tiles, landscaped gardens, and a careful application of town planning and use of space are all

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notable features of the architecture of ancient China, with many of them still playing an important
part in modern architecture across East Asia. Architects were influenced by ideas from India and
the Buddhism which originated there, but the buildings of ancient China remained remarkably
constant in fundamental appearance over the centuries, inspiring much of the architecture of other
neighboring East Asian states, especially in ancient Japan and Korea. Unfortunately, few ancient
Chinese buildings survive today, but reconstructions can be made based on clay models,
descriptions in contemporary texts, and depictions in art such as wall paintings and engraved
bronze vessels.

Chinese architecture remained remarkably constant throughout the history of the country.
Beginning in the Yellow earth region, the same types of materials and structure were employed for
centuries. Wood was always preferred rather than stone, and the roof material of choice was
glazed ceramic tiles. The most typical building, at least for larger structures for the elite or public
use such as temples, halls, and gate towers, was built on a raised platform made of compacted
earth and faced with brick or stone. The earliest examples date to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 -
1046 BCE) and as time goes on they become larger with more levels added to create an
impressive stepped terrace. Examples of earth foundations at Erlitou sites, which date to between
c. 1900 and c. 1550 BCE, range in size from 300 square meters to 9,600 square meters and often
include underground ceramic sewage pipes.

Chinese architecture was, in the main, then, remarkably constant. One of the few
developments was to simplify the roof beams to make the structure lighter and to increase the
height of the supporting pillars to give a more elegant proportion of height against width. Roofs also
became much more curved at the corners. Another change was the eventual addition of decorative
tiles and figures such as dragons to the ends and ridges of roofs. The extra weight of these roof
additions was carried by better design in roof brackets and clustering four on one column,
employing more cantilevered beams and using wider column capitals. The radical standardization
of Chinese architecture was best expressed in its system of measurement, which by the Song
dynasty had developed eight different grades of measure, depending upon the status of the
buildings and of individual buildings within a given compound. The unit of measure (a given inch)
was larger for a more important building; the buildings flanking and facing it would use a slightly
smaller unit, and so forth. By that measure, as a building expanded in status and scale, each part
of it expanded accordingly; the structure of a larger building was better supportive of the weight it
had to carry, while visually and aesthetically, consistent proportions were maintained from one
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building to the next. Modular in the extreme, buildings were designed to persist through the
repeated replacement of parts, so that any given building has not only an original construction date
but may belong to many different periods in between. Here are some examples of Chinese
Architecture.

A. Imperial Palaces
These were originally built to serve the extravagant lifestyles of the emperors, as well as to
provide a centralized location for demonstrating imperial political control. The imperial palaces
were built on a grand scale, sparing no expense to display the majesty and dignity of the imperial
power of the time. Each successive emperor contributed grandeur to the structures, and today,
these palaces stand for all to enjoy. Each imperial palace is a testament to the history and glory of
Chinese culture.

B. The Great Wall

This is the world's longest ancient architectural structure. It has a winding path over rugged
mountains around Beijing and the Mongol border, from a beach in East China to a West China
desert corridor between tall mountain ranges. The original Great Wall had a basic compacted earth
and wood construction. However, by the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) the characteristic stonework
crenellations and various watchtowers were fully developed.

C. Altars and Temples

Temples are important components of Chinese culture. They provided ceremonial sites for
offering prayers and sacrifices to heaven. Sacrifices were also offered to the moon, the sun, the
earth, the mountains, scholars, and ancestors.

16. Leisure
Chinese culture is known for its many popular pastimes and games. Mahjong is the most
widely played game. For similar games like Shanghai Solitaire, the same pieces are utilized. Other
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bone domino games include pai gow, pai gow poker, and others. Additionally popular are weiqi and
xiangqi. It is also a part of the culture to play ethnic games like Chinese yo-yo at social gatherings.

The use of spiritual, physical, and therapeutic approaches is known as qigong. Although it is
frequently practiced by the elderly, anyone of any age can use it as a kind of exercise when they
have free time.

Custom and Tradition

China is a vast and diverse country with a long history, and its customs and traditions vary
widely across different regions and ethnic groups. Here are some of the most notable customs and
traditions in Chinese culture:

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 1. Greetings and Politeness

Greeting Etiquette
People show hospitality and courtesy when meeting others. There are various rules when
meeting with people of different identities. For example, people often make the fist-and palm salute
in daily greetings as it was the most common etiquette used when meeting people. (The gesture of
the fist-and-palm salute is: first standing and then cupping one hand in the other before the chest,
showing politeness). If people pay a visit to others, the host and guest should ask one another to
be seated first by bowing with hands clasped, hands rising high and lowering repeatedly, at the
same time, lowering the head and leaning the body forward slightly. Other than these occasions,
bowing with a hand folded in front is seen when people make an appreciation, congratulate,
apologize or ask for assistance. It is also done when people in a higher class return a gesture to
the people in the lower class. There is etiquette for the most revered person in the society, which is
done by kneeling down with hands and head touching the floor. Today, however, this is only found
when people visit the remote countryside around New Year’s. People are accustomed to shaking
hands, which is a kind of etiquette introduced from western countries used to introduce oneself.

Walking Etiquette
Walking etiquette is required as knowledge for people when they’re walking. There is an
etiquette since ancient times where people in a lower class stoop when passing by people in the
upper class to show their respect. Walking etiquette follows the principle that people should not
walk in the middle of the road along the two sides of the road and should not stand in the middle of
the door. This not only indicates reverence, but allows others to pass.
Seating Etiquette
The seating etiquette is organized, which varies among people of different classes. People
in the highest class are placed in the most honorable seats, while those in the lowest class sit
further away. There are rules according to what class a person is placed in that determines where
they sit. It would disappoint the host if you were to sit in the wrong seat and would be considered
impolite. If you aren’t sure where to sit you should ask the host. For indoor seats, those facing the
east are honorable, while seats facing the west are not. Seniors are often seated in the southward
seats, known as north seats, while the younger generation is placed in northward seats, known as
south seats. During a meal it is important that the body is close to the table. In contrast, when you

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stop eating you must move away from the table. The people around the table should immediately
stand up to give regards to the respected people at the table.

Dining Etiquette
Dining etiquette plays an important role in Chinese society. In the Qing Dynasty, it was a
custom for people to entertain guests with a hearty meal, leaving courteous behavior to the
descendants when dining and drinking together. People will host a dinner on the arrival of a guest
to welcome them and have a farewell dinner when the guest leaves. Alcohol is necessary in
welcoming and sending off guests in Chinese culture. An old saying goes, “no alcohol, no
protocol.” Etiquette also exists when toasting at a banquet. For example, the guest should not drink
until the host proposes a toast and advises them to drink, which is known to many in the saying
such as, “drinking with others, never drink first.” If the guest wants to give appreciation to the host
for his hospitality, he or she can toast the host. During a meal, it is also a symbol of politeness for
the guest to wait to eat until the host does. This is known by the saying, “dining with others, never
to taste first.” There are a series of dining rules including, “not sighing at the table, not to be full
with a shared meal, not to use your hands during a meal,” and “never throw bones to the dog,”
among others. The guest and host should respect each other to create a harmonious dining
atmosphere.

Etiquette in Celebrations and Condolences

Since ancient times China has been considered as a society of human relationship, where
people take care of each other and many ceremonials and rules have been developed. Celebration
etiquette, particularly during festivals and celebrations are important. When people worship or
express their gratitude, they should not only be respectful, reciting congratulations while bending,
but also offer a congratulatory gift.

People will undergo various periods of life including, birth, adult, wedding, birthday-
celebration and death, etc. throughout history people in China have a set way of behaving at
different events in life.

In a feast celebrating the first month of a newborn baby, the relatives and friends go to
congratulate and bring nutritious food and clothes or shoes to the baby. While the baby is growing
up, there is a coming-of-age ceremony; the “capping and hairpin ceremony” in ancient China refers
to the male being given a capping ceremony and a new name at 20. This ceremony indicated they
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were qualified to marry and face society. Simultaneously, the female is given a hair-pinning
ceremony at 15 symbolizing the age of marriage.

The modern coming-of-age ceremony is held at 18, the schools will conduct collective adult
oath-taking ceremony, emphasizing adult consciousness. Society attaches importance to the
wedding as it is a great event in one’s life. In the wedding there are 6 procedures that are called,
“the six rituals of the Duke Zhou.” First, the bridegroom makes a proposal with betrothal gifts,
followed by the second, inquiring the girl’s name, the third, divining auspice, the fourth, sending
nuptial gifts to the bride’s family, the fifth, asking the bride to decide the wedding date and finally go
to the bride’s home to escort the bride to the wedding. In the Song Dynasty, the six rituals were
simplified to three which are the first, fourth and last steps. The most significant part of the wedding
is when the bridegroom goes to the bride’s home and escort her to the wedding ceremony, where
she’ll pay ceremony to Heaven and Earth, and also to their parents. Then, at the bridal’s chamber
at the end of ceremony they’ll continue the ceremony of toiling up a strand of hair cut from both of
bride and bridegroom and drinking “cross-cupped wine.” On the wedding day, as the relatives and
friends come to congratulate the newlyweds, the host will hold a large dinner.

The birthday ceremony (for an elderly person) is held after they turn 40. On that day people
will have a birthday celebration, relatives and friends will come to congratulate them with gifts. The
last ceremony in one’s life is their funeral which is a ceremony everyone will have. Chinese people
put emphasis on death so the etiquette is important during the funeral. It is deemed auspicious
when people die of natural causes, where people come with elegiac couplet, large elegiac scroll
and cash gifts, showing their condolence and sadness. The dead are placed in the coffin and
buried within three to five days. The etiquette in celebrations and funerals symbolize the spirit of
mutual support as well as the unification of the society.

The spirit of etiquette is to love people and the principle is to be modest and respect others.
Only when individuals keep a low profile and treat others with humility and respect, can people be
respected by others. If people with higher class lower themselves to associate with those in the
lower class, society will be more harmonious. There is a common saying that, “to be good, to be
modest.” Respecting others is not indicative of being courteous or paying a formal salute, but
respecting one another. Otherwise, the etiquette is superficial and not consistent with the standard
of decorum. The etiquette, customs of respectfulness and modesty, and the etiquette principle of
good moral character are advocated in modern society.
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Traditional Etiquette: The Most Characteristic of Chinese Culture; The Fist-and-Palm Salute
The fist-and-palm salute, also called “zuoyi” in Chinese, is not only a symbol of appreciation
and reverence, but also a type of greeting in China.

Beginning in the Western Dynasty (11th century - 771BC) as a greeting and association, the
fist-and-palm salute has been active for over three thousand years of history. Ancient people in
China paid salute to one another as a routine etiquette and presentation of modesty. Chinese
people show respect for others through keeping their distance, rather than physical intimacy like
westerners. This kind of distance is not only a display of elegance, but also in line with modern
hygiene. Many experts that study this ritual believe that the fist-and-palm salute is a greeting that
can best symbolize the spirit of China.

If you are a foreigner, you will feel the passion from this greeting and may return this to
someone else as a sign of respect.

Chinese Traditional Etiquette: The Principle of Serving Tea

One important Chinese custom is to serve tea to guests. Qi Shi Zhu, the emperor of the
Southern Dynasties, and Lu Na, etc., advocated the substitution of tea for wine. In the Tang
Dynasty, Tang Zhenliang created the “ten virtuous of tea,” claiming the tea can not only keep fit,
but also “express one’s regard to others,” “sublime one’s personality” and “cultivate one’s
conducts.” In the Tang and Song Dynasties, many scholars were fond of drinking tea and
described tea in their pieces.

The basic principle of serving tea is to present the guest with a cup of hot tea as soon as they step
into the house. You are also supposed to ask the guest’s preference before the tea is served. As
the old proverb goes, “wine should be served full while tea half.” People should pay attention not to
fill the cup with eight points as advised. The temperature of the tea is generally mild to prevent
scalding. The tea has a homogeneous color and matches with the tea tray, while the person carries
it the tea tray with the left hand holding the bottom while the right hand holds the edge.
2. Family Values
While China has increasingly adopted Western influences, the traditional family structure is
still highly valued and holds a prominent position in Chinese culture. Both traditional and modern

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Chinese families have similar values and morals, and these have been a part of daily life for many
centuries.

Gender Roles
Traditional Chinese family values clearly distinguish different roles and rights for men and
women. While these are rapidly changing, the original values are still evident on some levels.

Role of Men
In the traditional Chinese family, the man is responsible for maintaining, providing for, and
protecting his family. He is also given all the decision-making power when it comes to his wife and
other family members. He is responsible for supporting his children's education until they are
married. In modern families, the family members consult elders about important decisions, but the
father no longer has the final say with regard to his adult children's lives.

Role of Women
Women have traditionally served in a subordinate position within Chinese culture.
Traditional Chinese mothers usually stayed in the home to take care of the children, the home, and
the rest of the family. However, the role that women play within society is ever expanding.
According to the 2020 United Nations Development Programmer’s Human Development Report,
69 percent of women participated in the labor force in China. Due to increased opportunities,
women are seeking careers in addition to their traditional child-rearing role. However, there is a
gender wage gap in China, and fewer females than males in higher paying, higher power positions.

Patrilineal Descent
Traditional Chinese families honor the patrilineal descent system. This means that a child's
lineage is calculated from his father only. In this type of system, men are the only ones who can
inherit family membership and family land or other inheritance.

Importance of Family
That statement 'family is life' holds true in Chinese culture. Family is very important. So
important, in fact, that the family is the base of Chinese culture. Several Confucian thoughts are
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based on family. For example, three of the five important relationships are parent and child,
husband and wife, and elder and younger siblings. There are specific responsibilities and duties
delineated to parents, children, and grandparents in China's 1981 marriage law. However, this law
has been updated over the years to reflect societal changes, such as legalizing interracial
marriage. As such, the role that family is playing in Chinese culture is an evolving one, with some
young adults breaking off from traditions and starting their own.

3. Dining Etiquette

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 Chinese dining etiquette places great importance on customs, such as the use of
chopsticks, communal-style dining, and showing respect for elders. Proper table manners are
crucial in Chinese culture.
A. Seating Arrangements: The seating arrangement is often organized hierarchically. The
guest of honor or the eldest family member is typically seated first, facing the door or the
most attractive view.
B. Chopsticks: When using chopsticks, don’t point them at others, stick them vertically into
your food, or pass food directly from one pair of chopsticks to another – this is associated
with funeral rituals.
C. Ordering and Serving: The host or most senior person at the table usually orders for
everyone. Dishes are often shared, and it’s polite to serve others before serving yourself.
D. Toasting: Toasts are common in Chinese dining. Raise your glass lower than or at the
same level as the person proposing the toast, and it’s customary to clink your glass below
the other person’s glass if they are older or of higher status.
E. Slurping and Burping: In some regions, slurping your noodles is a sign of enjoying the
meal. However, burping is considered impolite.
F. Finishing Your Plate: It’s seen as a compliment to the chef if you finish all the food on your
plate. However, leaving a little food is a sign that you are full and satisfied.
G. Complimenting the Food: It’s customary to compliment the food and thank the host for the
meal.
H. Offering and Receiving: When offering food to others, use the serving chopsticks or a
spoon to put it on their plate. When receiving food, a simple “thank you” or a nod is
sufficient.
I. Tipping: In China, tipping is not a common practice, and it may even be refused. However,
in some high-end or Westernized restaurants, a small tip might be accepted.
J. Taking Care of Elders: Serving and attending to elders first, especially parents and
grandparents, is a sign of respect and filial piety.

4. Wedding Customs
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 One of China’s Culture is the wedding custom. For them following this customs will give the
newlyweds the prosperous and happy life. Chinese Wedding Customs is a systemization of
apparently pre-existing elements of traditional Chinese wedding ceremony that is generally
credited to scholars of the Warring States period, 402-221 B.C. Three venerable texts, The Book of
Rites, The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial, and the Baihu Tong outline the Three Covenants and
the Six Rites, that were considered necessary elements of a marriage. However, the full ritual was
so complicated that even within the span of the Warring States period, the etiquette underwent
changes and simplification. Chinese wedding traditions come with a disclaimer. There are over 55
ethnicity groups living in China. All have very distinct wedding traditions. A wedding is different in
each of these ethnic groups. Nonetheless, there are a few basic wedding customs that cut across
these groups.

Despite civilization, weddings traditions are still observed in China. The Chinese traditions
are to esteemed highly in their community. This group of people is famous for observing and
keeping to their culture than other tribes. 10 million couples get married across the world each
year. There is a good number of Chinese who are not shy to showcase their wedding traditions.
What remained constant were the chief objectives: joining and enhancing the two families and
ensuring succession with numerous descendants. Reverence to parents and ancestors, omens to
encourage fertility and wealth, financial and social obligations contracted by both families at the
betrothal, extensive gift giving etiquette, and the bride’s incorporation into her husband’s family are
recurring elements.

Lively and full of color, Chinese weddings tend to be lavish affairs that are as much about
the happy couple as they are about their respective families. A celebration marked by rituals and
customs, these weddings feature symbolic aspects that focus on blessings of prosperity,
abundance, and happiness for the couple from both family and friends. So if you or your spouse-to-
be has Chinese heritage, it can be helpful to learn of these traditions to see if you want to
incorporate them into your own nuptials. Here are the examples of Chinese Wedding Custom or
Traditions.

1. Yuelao – The god of matchmaking

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 In China, they have a matchmaking god Yuelao. Yuelaois in charge of people’s marriage.
He unites two people by tying a red string around their ankles of the future husband and wife. In
the ancient days, most young men and women would go to Yuelao temple to pray for a perfect
match. It is still done today in these modern times.

2. Double Happiness Symbol

Pronounced shuāngxǐ, the double happiness symbol is one of the most recognizable icons
incorporated in Chinese weddings. "The Double Happiness character is very aptly named—it's
made of two connected copies of the character xi, which means 'happiness.' Hence, Double
Happiness! The Double Happiness symbol is very prominent at Chinese weddings and you'll see it
on every kind of decoration possible, from wall hangings to cake toppers," explains Valente. The
double happiness symbol may also be incorporated into many stationery elements—from the
wedding invitations to the red envelopes seen on the wedding day.

3. Choosing the Wedding Date

The date of the wedding ceremony isn’t chosen by chance. “Many couples consult with a
fortune teller, Chinese monk, or Feng Shui master to choose an auspicious date to bring success
to their marriage,” shares Froelich. The couple’s Chinese zodiac sign and birthday details (the
bride’s birthday is preferred to the groom’s) will also play a big role in choosing a date that is the
perfect fit.

5. Superstitions

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 Every culture has its own unique superstitions and China is no different. Superstitions is one
of the Cultures that Chinese people have, they follow and belief this as it brings them luck and
good life. When it comes to traditions and superstitions, Chinese culture has some of the most
interesting and unique unspoken rules that are still followed today. While many revolve around luck
and fortune, a fair bit concerns paying respects and homage to your elders and those that have
passed on as well. The mythical nation of China is one that’s steeped in ancient traditions and
belief systems. As such, superstitions and the supernatural have played a role in the lives of
Chinese citizens for centuries with many of these practices still being observed today. Here are
some examples of Chinese Superstitions.

A. Finger and toe nails

Chinese custom forbids the clipping of one’s toe or finger nails at night as it is believed that
this may cause a visit from the dead or a ghost. Nail clippings are to be carefully collected and
disposed of in a place unknown to others as it is believed that nail clippings can be used to cast a
spell or curse upon the person from whom the clippings have come.

B. The fluid from a dog’s eye

Dogs are believed to have the ability to see supernatural beings such as ghosts and
phantoms, and howl when they see one. If a dog howls continuously, it is believed that this
presages an imminent death.Following from this, it is believed that the fluid from a dog’s eye can
enable humans to see the spirit world, for example ancestors’ souls. A medium will smear the fluid
on his/her eyes in order to see the supernatural world for the purposes of exorcism etc. However it
is believed that ordinary people who smear the fluid from a dog’s eye on their own eyes may die
from the shock of seeing the afterlife.

C. Don’t Give A Clock

Giving gifts is often seen as a good gesture, especially when it is someone’s birthday or
even during a housewarming event. However, one gift to avoid is clocks or even watches. In
Chinese, giving clocks sounds similar to giving someone a final farewell or goodbye.

6. Gift Giving

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 As Christmas approaches, many individuals give gifts with friends, family, coworkers,
neighbors, etc. Christmas celebrations are still a recent phenomenon in China. The Chinese
exchange gifts considerably more frequently around Chinese New Year.
Chinese New Year, commonly referred to as the Spring Festival or the Lunar New Year,
falls on Monday, February 8 of this year. In China, it is observed for an entire week. It's possible
that you desire to give a gift to a close Chinese friend as the Chinese New Year approaches.

While most Americans give gifts to whomever they know for Christmas, there are some
Chinese traditions regarding who gets gifts for Chinese New Year. Gifts are typically given to
youngsters under 18 by parents or other family members who are older.

Money in a red envelope, or "hóngbo" in Mandarin, is a requirement from senior family

members to younger members of the family. Children frequently receive gifts of tiny toys, clothing,
or other things they want. Children under the age of ten typically don't present gifts to their parents,
but those relatives who give them red envelopes will receive formal visits from the young ones to
deliver their New Year's greetings. This act is called as in Chinese, despite the fact that there is no
precise translation for it. This is comparable to American children who do not reside in the family
home but visit over the holidays.

Friends don't typically exchange New Year's presents with one another. But it's typical to
purchase a tiny object or obtain a red envelope for a friend's child. Visits to friends during the New
Year's festivities are also extremely popular. It's polite to bring fruits and other meals with you when
you visit friends so you can enjoy the visit. Cognac and other small luxury things are regarded as
excellent gifts. Avoiding the embarrassment of mailing the wrong gift is also crucial. Certain goods
could give your Chinese friend the wrong impression. One symbol of someone being sent to death
is a clock. It would be advisable to stay away from delivering items like blades or scissors unless
you are attempting to convey that you no longer want to be their friend. These items stand for
cutting off or ending relationships. If you give your friend a green hat as a gift, you can unwittingly
create a fight. Your wife is cheating on you, according to this. This approach could still fail if you
decide to continue with the traditional "safe" present of cash in a red envelope. Quantities and
numbers might sometimes mean distinct things. Sending money in multiples of four, for instance,
may not be well received in some parts of China because "4" sounds like "death" in Chinese. In
some areas, nonetheless, it would be preferable to contribute 400 Yuan rather than 300 Yuan.
7. Respect for Elders
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 Respect for elders is often the basis for the way society is organized and has been at the
foundation of Chinese culture and morality for thousands of years. Older people are respected for
their wisdom and most important decisions have traditionally not been made without consulting
them. Confucian filial piety encourages the younger generation to follow the teachings of elders
and for elders to teach the young their duties and manners. The elderly enjoy high status. Respect
has traditionally been regarded as something earned with age. An emphasis on youth isn't as
strong as it is in the West. Respect for the elderly is manifested through the custom of allowing the
elderly people to go first, giving up seats to them on buses and generally deferring to them, helping
them out and respecting their opinions and advise.

China is known for its strong family system. Traditionally, the Chinese family had well-
defined roles for different family members. Elders were supposed to be respected and followed
unquestioningly. In Chinese culture elders are viewed as a source of wisdom and spirituality, and
they are respected to the extent that questioning their authority is considered offensive. In
traditional Chinese houses altars are made for deceased elders to honor and remember them.
Even after departing from the world they are supposed to be the guiding forces in spirit. See more
on The Culture of Death in China.

Here are some Cultural DO’S and DON’Ts in Chinese Elderly:

● Address the elderly as Mr. or Mrs.; out of respect, do not call them by their first names.
● Be honest and open about what you don't know or aren't familiar with when speaking with
the elderly. Pretending knowledge offends the elderly.
● Paying attention and listening carefully to the elderly are considered respectful and polite. It
is very rude to interrupt the elder when he or she is speaking.
● Wait for the elder to sit or eat first or wait for their permission.
● Elderly are seen as family and social treasures. They are considered to be wise, and it is
correct to consult them before making decisions affecting the family and the community.
● The elderly believe in specific ceremonies at specific times. Taboos also exist. The most
specific taboo is to never speak of anything related to ghosts during the lunar month of July,
which is called "Ghost Month."

● It is very bad luck to give a clock as a gift to a Chinese person. "Giving a clock" is
pronounced "song-chung" in Mandarin Chinese. The same pronunciation also means
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 "farewell to the person who has passed away." Any kind of umbrella given as a wedding gift
is also a mistake, since umbrella is pronounced as "xian," which means "reparation."
● Chinese elderly subscribe to the traditional belief that the number 8 is the best number
because it signifies prosperity. 4 is the least desired number since it is related to death. Be
careful when referring to this number.
● The elderly enjoy talking about family relations, no matter how tenuous that relationship
maybe. In most situations dealing with foreign-born monolingual Chinese, it is permissible to
ask where the elder was born because he/she will usually feel honored to talk about their
homeland.
● The appropriate and most acceptable physical contact with the elderly is shaking hands.
Too much bodily contact, such as hugging or kissing, will usually make the elderly
uncomfortable

8. Tea Culture

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 Chinese tea embodies the spirit of respect, which is why in Chinese culture, serving tea to a
guest or an elder is deemed as an expression of a person’s respect and gratitude to the one the
tea is offered to. This is also why serving tea is common in special events such as birthdays and
the spring festival. In celebration of weddings, tea is also served by the bride and groom to their
parents as an expression of gratitude for being raised by them. Tea can also be offered as a form
of apology to another person and serving it is seen as a sincere display of one’s regret and
submission.

Drinking tea is an essential part of the Chinese people’s social life as its regular practice is
regarded in their culture as a demonstration of one’s morality and social status. Its importance as a
Chinese tradition and the significant role it plays in Asian culture for many centuries have led many
people today to regard the process of making tea and the method of drinking it as an art form. And
so, tea is not just a staple beverage to the Chinese people, it is a symbol of a more enlightened
and more appreciative way of life, which they intend to keep alive for generations to come.

Tea-drinking is a constituent part of Chinese culture. China is an original producer of tea and
is renowned for its skills in planting and making tea. Its customs of tea-drinking spread over to
Europe and to many other regions through cultural exchange via the ancient "Silk Road" and other
channels of trade. The Chinese nation has written a brilliant page for its tea culture in the history of
world civilization. The development and promotion of tea has been one of China's principal
contributions to the world.

First appearing as early as 5,000 years ago, Green Tea is the oldest category of Chinese
Tea. The original processing of the tea was quite simple. People either boiled the tea leaves
straight from the tree, or sun-dried tea leaves for future use. While the processing methods have
changed over the centuries it still resembles its ancient ancestor in that it is not fermented and only
very slightly oxidized. This allows the tea to retain more of the original taste of the leaf.

Tea Ceremony，drinking and appreciating tea can be life style. The Chinese tea ceremony
contains the wisdom of oriental philosophy. Furthermore, Chinese tea ceremony reflects the central
idea of Taoism, Confucian and Buddhism it’s a combination of philosophy and life style. Through
the whole set of ceremony——making tea, appreciating tea, smelling tea, enjoying tea, friendship
is increased, virtue is cultivated, traditional virtues etiquette are learned. The ceremony can refresh
mind and clear thoughts. The spirit of tea ceremony is the core of tea culture and the spirit is
represented by Taoism. Tea ceremony is originated in China yet more popular in Japan since it
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has been introduced to Japan and Korean Peninsula during South Song Dynasty. When it came to
yuan dynasty, tea ceremony was not that favored anymore in the central China. Tea ceremony
today is better represented by Japan in fact. Tea and Horse Road refers to the folk international
trade channel, which was originated from the ancient tea-horse trading in southwest of China. It
was started during Tang and Song Dynasties, flourished in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, but its
hey-day were in the late World War II period. The ancient tea horse road is divided into Sichuan
Tibet line and Yunnan Tibet line. It extends into Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal and India, until it reaches
the Red Sea coast of West Asia and West Africa. In March 5, 2013, Tea Horse Road was selected
as the seventh batch of national cultural relics protection sites by the State Council of People’s
Republic of China. Find a teashop with a good reputation and you will be shown how to brew and
drink tea properly to experience the full flavor; you will soon realize the pleasure and health
benefits of the Chinese tea culture.

9. Taboos
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 Every culture has its own taboos, and it is important to remain aware of them when traveling
or encountering another culture to ensure you don't commit a social faux-pas. In Chinese culture,
some of the most common taboos involve gift-giving, birthdays, and weddings.

Numbers
According to Chinese tradition, good things come in pairs. Therefore odd numbers are
avoided for birthday celebrations and weddings. To avoid bad things happening in pairs, activities
such as burials and gift-giving are not performed on even-numbered days.In Chinese, the number
four ( 四 , sì) sounds like the word for death ( 死 , sǐ). For this reason, the number four is avoided—
particularly on phone numbers, license plates, and addresses. For addresses that do contain fours,
the rent is usually less and apartments on the fourth floor are typically rented by foreigners.

Food
Young children should not eat chicken feet as it is believed that doing so will prevent them
from writing well when they start school. They may also become prone to fighting like roosters.

Leaving food on one’s plate—particularly grains of rice—is believed to result in marriage to a

spouse with many pockmarks on his or her face. Not finishing a meal is also believed to incur the
wrath of the thunder god./Another Chinese taboo relating to food is that chopsticks should not be
left standing straight up in a bowl of rice. This act is said to bring bad luck to restaurant owners as
chopsticks stuck in rice look similar to incense placed in urns.

Gift-giving
Since good things are believed to come in pairs, gifts given in pairs (except sets of four) are
best. When preparing the gift, do not wrap it in white as that color represents sorrow and poverty.
Certain gifts are also seen as inauspicious. For example, never give a clock, watch, or pocket
watch as a gift because "to send a clock" ( 送 鐘 , sòngzhōng) sounds like "the funeral ritual" ( 送 終 ,
sòngzhōng). According to Chinese taboo, clocks symbolize that time is running out. There are
many other such ominous Chinese gifts to avoid. If you give an unlucky gift by accident, the
receiver can make it right by giving you a coin which changes the gift to an item they have
symbolically purchased.

Holidays
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 It is a Chinese taboo to share stories about death and dying and ghost stories during special
occasions and holidays. Doing so is considered extremely unlucky.

Birthday
One long noodle is typically slurped on one’s birthday. But revelers beware—the noodle
should not be bitten or cut as this is believed to shorten one’s life.

Wedding
In the three months leading up to a couple’s wedding, they should avoid going to a funeral
or wake or visiting a woman who has just had a baby. If one of the couple’s parents passes away
before the wedding, the wedding must be postponed for 100 days, as attending happy celebrations
during mourning is considered disrespectful to the dead./If a roasted pig is given as part of the
bride’s gift to the groom’s family, the tail and ears should not be broken. Doing so would mean the
bride is not a virgin.

References:
Geography

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 - https://infcis.iaea.org/udepo/Resources/Countries/China.pdf
History
- https://www.historyhit.com/the-dynasties-that-ruled-china-in-order/
Economy
- https://asialinkbusiness.com.au/china/getting-started-in-china/chinas-economy?doNothing=1
Government
- https://multimedia.scmp.com/widgets/china/cpc-primer/

Culture:
Language and Writings
- https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-languages
Philosophy and Religion
- https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/chinese-religions-and-philosophies/#
- https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2023/08/30/confucianism-taoism-and-chinese-folk-
religions/#:~:text=Named%20after%20the%20sage%20Confucius,classify%20it%20as%20a
%20religion
- https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/chinese-religions-and-philosophies/#
Art and Craft
- https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-art
- https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/art-chinese-calligraphy-window-chinas-rich-cultural-heritage-
wang
- https://artsandculture.google.com/usergallery/tAKSJHIstVT5Kw
Performing Arts
- https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/culture/china-performing-art.htm
- https://arthist.net/archive/35761#:~:text=In%20China%2C%20performance%20art
%20is,behaviour%20art
Cuisine
- https://hakkasan.com/stories/eight-culinary-traditions-china/
- https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Chinese_cuisine
Festivals
- https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/how-do-people-celebrate-chinese-new-yea
- https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-New-Year
- https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/special-report/chinese-new-year/
- https://www.ivisa.com/china/blog/festivals-in-china
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Traditional Medicine
- https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/chinese-medicine
- https://www.webmd.com/balance/what-is-traditional-chinese-medicine
Invention and Innovation
- http://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/znjl/Culture/200412/t20041213_7631027.htm
Family and Social Structure
- https://www.thoughtco.com/filial-piety-in-chinese-688386
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6363941/#:~:text=Filial%20piety%20not
%20only%20specifies,relations%20and%20socialization%20for%20millennia
Modern Influence
- https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/12/05/chinas-economic-growth-mostly-welcomed-
in-emerging-markets-but-neighbors-wary-of-its-influence/
- https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/102214/why-china-worlds-factory.asp
- https://epic.org/the-rise-of-chinese-surveillance-technology-in-africa-2/
Ethnic and Diversity
- https://www.cusef.org.hk/en/cusef-blog/traveling-with-cusef/exploring-the-ethnic-groups-of-
china

Literature
- https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-literature
Fashion and Clothing
- https://interactchina.wordpress.com/2017/05/31/modern-chinese-clothing/
- https://thesciencesurvey.com/arts-entertainment/2023/03/13/the-history-of-hanfu-design-
and-its-influence-today/
Martial Arts
- https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/an-introduction-to-the-different-kinds-of-martial-
arts-in-china
- http://en.chinaculture.org/chineseway/2012-08/07/content_438086.htm

Architecture
- https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-architecture
- https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/architecture/#google_vignette
- https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/architecture/examples.htm
Leisure
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 - https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/the-literature-of-leisure-and-chinese-modernity/
Greetings and Politeness
- https://www.chinaculturetour.com/culture/etiquette-customs.htm
Family Values
- https://www.lovetoknow.com/life/relationships/chinese-family-values
Dining Etiquette
- https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm
- https://www.chinadiscovery.com/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.html
- https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/chinese-table-manner.htm
Wedding Customs
- https://www.linandjirsa.com/chinese-wedding-customs/
- https://www.brides.com/chinese-wedding-traditions-5077983
Superstitions
- http://us.mofcom.gov.cn/article/aboutchina/202011/20201103012645.shtml
- https://www.singaporecasket.com.sg/10-most-known-chinese-superstitious-beliefs/
Gift Giving
- https://www.interproinc.com/blog/best-practices-gift-giving-china
Respect for Elders
- https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat4/sub21/item106.html
- https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-family-values.htm
Tea Culture
- https://www.topchinatravel.com/china-guide/chinese-tea-culture/
Taboos
- https://www.thoughtco.com/examples-of-chinese-taboo-687482

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