Office Memorandum
An Office Memorandum is an official government document used to convey significant policy
decisions. A notable example is the memorandum issued on August 13, 1990, introducing
27% reservation in government jobs for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes
(SEBC). This decision expanded reservations, previously limited to Scheduled Castes (SC)
and Scheduled Tribes (ST).
Origins: The memorandum was based on the recommendations of the Mandal Commission
(1979), which emphasized addressing socio-economic disadvantages of backward groups.
Impact: The announcement led to widespread protests, debates, and legal challenges,
reflecting the societal and political divide it caused.
Significance: This decision became a milestone in affirmative action policies, aiming to
bridge systemic inequalities.
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SEBC (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes)
The SEBC category refers to communities identified as socially and educationally
disadvantaged.
Definition: SEBCs are groups that lack adequate representation in employment and
education due to historical and social discrimination.
Policy Details: A 27% quota was introduced for SEBCs in government jobs and educational
institutions.
Debate: While many supported the policy as a measure for social justice, critics argued it
undermined meritocracy and deepened caste-based divisions.
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Office Memorandum and Its Chain of Events
The 1990 Office Memorandum was the culmination of several steps over a decade:
1. Mandal Commission (1979):
Established by B.P. Mandal, it proposed a 27% reservation for SEBCs in public employment.
2. Parliamentary Discussions (1980–1989):
The recommendations were debated extensively, creating political and social polarization.
3. 1989 Elections:
The Janata Dal, led by V.P. Singh, promised to implement the Mandal Commission report
and won the election.
4. Implementation (1990):
Prime Minister V.P. Singh announced the decision.
Protests and legal challenges followed, leading to the Supreme Court’s 1992 Indira Sawhney
Case, which upheld the policy but excluded the "creamy layer" among SEBCs.
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Need for Political Institutions
Political institutions are vital for governance and democracy. They ensure the smooth
functioning of the country by dividing responsibilities.
Functions:
1. Formulate and implement laws.
2. Manage resources and allocate taxes for public welfare.
3. Resolve conflicts through an independent judiciary.
Significance:
Institutions maintain continuity, ensuring governance even when governments change.
They promote accountability, representation, and public participation.
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Why Do We Need a Parliament?
Parliament is the cornerstone of democracy, where elected representatives deliberate,
legislate, and make decisions.
Roles:
1. Law-making: Parliament enacts, amends, and repeals laws.
2. Oversight of the Executive: It holds the government accountable through debates,
motions, and questions.
3. Control over Finances: Approves budgets and monitors public spending.
4. Public Forum: Discusses and resolves national issues.
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Two Houses of Parliament
India’s bicameral Parliament comprises the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, ensuring a
balance between people's representation and state interests.
1. Lok Sabha (House of the People):
Composed of 543 elected members and 2 nominated members.
Holds greater power, especially in financial matters and government accountability.
Can dismiss the government through a no-confidence motion.
2. Rajya Sabha (Council of States):
Composed of 245 members (233 elected by state legislatures and 12 nominated by the
President).
Reviews and amends legislation passed by the Lok Sabha.
Cannot reject financial bills but may recommend amendments within 14 days.
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Political and Permanent Executive
The executive is divided into two categories, each playing a distinct role in governance:
Political Executive:
Includes elected leaders like the Prime Minister and ministers.
Responsible for policy-making and representing public interests.
Accountable to Parliament.
Permanent Executive:
Consists of civil servants who assist the political executive by implementing policies.
Provides continuity and technical expertise.
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Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
The Prime Minister is the head of the government and the Council of Ministers. Together,
they form the executive branch of governance.
Structure of the Council of Ministers:
1. Cabinet Ministers: Senior-most leaders managing key ministries like finance and defence.
2. Ministers of State (Independent Charge): Handle smaller ministries independently.
3. Ministers of State: Assist Cabinet Ministers in their respective roles.
Role:
The Council of Ministers is collectively accountable to the Lok Sabha.
It ensures unified governance and effective policy implementation.
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Powers of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister wields significant authority as the head of government:
1. Executive Powers:
Chairs Cabinet meetings and supervises ministries.
Allocates and reshuffles portfolios among ministers.
2. Legislative Powers:
Guides the passage of policies in Parliament.
Can recommend the dissolution of the Lok Sabha.
3. Foreign and Defence Leadership:
Represents India internationally and shapes foreign policy.
Oversees national security and military strategy.
4. Party Leadership:
Coordinates party activities to ensure government stability.
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The President
The President is the ceremonial head of state, symbolizing the unity of the nation.
Election: Elected indirectly by an electoral college comprising MPs and MLAs.
Powers and Functions:
Legislative: Signs bills into law and can issue ordinances.
Executive: Appoints the Prime Minister, Governors, and key officials.
Military: Acts as the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.
Discretionary Powers:
Appoints the Prime Minister in case of a hung Parliament.
Can return bills for reconsideration but must assent if re-passed.
Significance:
Represents India at state functions and ensures constitutional compliance.
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