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: , * 6 5 +  , + 0 ; 0 6 5

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTAMINANTS
IN BIOTA
Interpreting Tissue Concentrations
S E C O N D E D I T I O N

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTAMINANTS
IN BIOTA
Interpreting Tissue Concentrations

Edited by
W. Nelson Beyer
James P. Meador

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8406-1 (Ebook-PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
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Contents
Editors ..............................................................................................................................................vii
Authors ..............................................................................................................................................ix
Reviewers ....................................................................................................................................... xiii

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1
W. Nelson Beyer and James P. Meador

Chapter 1 History of Wildlife Toxicology and the Interpretation of Contaminant

Concentrations in Tissues.............................................................................................9
Barnett A. Rattner, Anton M. Scheuhammer, and John E. Elliott

Chapter 2 DDT and Other Organohalogen Pesticides in Aquatic Organisms ............................ 47

Nancy Beckvar and Guilherme R. Lotufo

Chapter 3 Dioxins, PCBs, and PBDEs in Aquatic Organisms ................................................. 103

Richard J. Wenning, Linda Martello, and Anne Prusak-Daniel

Chapter 4 Methylmercury in Freshwater Fish: Recent Advances in Assessing Toxicity

of Environmentally Relevant Exposures .................................................................. 169
Mark B. Sandheinrich and James G. Wiener

Chapter 5 Selenium Accumulation and Toxicity in Freshwater Fishes .................................... 193

David K. DeForest and William J. Adams

Chapter 6 Trace Metals in Aquatic Invertebrates ..................................................................... 231

Philip S. Rainbow and Samuel N. Luoma

Chapter 7 Organotins in Aquatic Biota: Occurrence in Tissue and

Toxicological Significance ...............................................................................255
James P. Meador

Chapter 8 Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients and Aquatic Organisms ................................... 287

Christian G. Daughton and Bryan W. Brooks

Chapter 9 Organic Contaminants in Marine Mammals: Concepts in Exposure,

Toxicity, and Management ....................................................................................... 349
Lisa L. Loseto and Peter S. Ross

v
vi Contents

Chapter 10 Select Elements and Potential Adverse Effects in Cetaceans and Pinnipeds .......... 377
Todd O’Hara, Takashi Kunito, Victoria Woshner, and Shinsuke Tanabe

Chapter 11 Toxicological Significance of Pesticide Residues in Aquatic Animals ....................409

Michael J. Lydy, Jason B. Belden, Jing You, and Amanda D. Harwood

Chapter 12 DDT, DDD, and DDE in Birds ................................................................................. 425

Lawrence J. Blus

Chapter 13 Cyclodiene and Other Organochlorine Pesticides in Birds ...................................... 447

John E. Elliott and Christine A. Bishop

Chapter 14 Effects of Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and

Dibenzofurans, and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Wild Birds ...................... 477
Megan L. Harris and John E. Elliott

Chapter 15 Toxicological Implications of PCBs, PCDDs, and PCDFs in Mammals ................. 531
Matthew Zwiernik, Frouke Vermeulen, and Steven Bursian

Chapter 16 Lead in Birds ............................................................................................................ 563

J. Christian Franson and Deborah J. Pain

Chapter 17 Lead in Mammals .................................................................................................... 595

Wei-Chun Ma

Chapter 18 Mercury in Nonmarine Birds and Mammals ...........................................................609

Richard F. Shore, M. Glória Pereira, Lee A. Walker, and David R. Thompson

Chapter 19 Cadmium in Small Mammals .................................................................................. 627

John A. Cooke

Chapter 20 Cadmium in Birds .................................................................................................... 645

Mark Wayland and Anton M. Scheuhammer

Chapter 21 Selenium in Birds ..................................................................................................... 669

Harry M. Ohlendorf and Gary H. Heinz

Chapter 22 Radionuclides in Biota ............................................................................................. 703

Bradley E. Sample and Cameron Irvine
Index .............................................................................................................................................. 733
Editors

Dr. W. Nelson Beyer is an ecotoxicologist at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, in the U.S.
Geological Survey. He earned a doctorate in terrestrial ecology from Cornell University in 1976,
studying the natural history of slugs, and remains curious about all manner of living things. With
help from colleagues in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, he has examined contaminated sites,
studying phytotoxic injury to the chestnut oak forest adjacent to the Palmerton zinc smelters in
Pennsylvania, lead poisoning of swans and other waterfowl in the Coeur d’Alene River Basin in
Idaho, and zinc poisoning of wild birds at the Tri-State Mining District in Oklahoma, Kansas, and
Missouri. Many of his studies have documented the movement of environmental contaminants from
soil and sediments into wildlife and through food chains, often showing how ingestion of soil or
sediment is the most important route of exposure of lead and related metals to wildlife. Recently
he has turned his eye toward sediment ingestion by bottom-feeding fish. He believes in using tissue
residues as a means to emphasize injury to animals, basic to wildlife toxicology. His work is usu-
ally conducted to support Natural Resource Damage Assessments. He balances his down-to-earth
approach to wildlife toxicology, however, with an inordinate fondness for clouds. His daily cycling
inspires him, and his wife, Mary, keeps his laboratory running.

vii
viii Editors

Dr. James P. Meador is an environmental toxicologist with the National Marine Fisheries Service in
Seattle, WA, U.S., which is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Jim has a Ph.D. in aquatic toxicology from the University of Washington and has more than 30 years
experience in the field. He has been with NOAA for 20 years and has previously worked at the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the Naval Oceans Systems Center in San Diego. For many
years he has studied the environmental factors that control the bioavailability of contaminants and
their role in bioaccumulation with the goal of developing relationships for predicting tissue concen-
trations, especially for aquatic species in the field. This work was supplemented with toxicokinetic
studies that are useful for predicting bioaccumulation and highlighting species-specific differences
in toxic responses. Gradually, these studies evolved to include analysis of toxic effects as a function
of bioaccumulated tissue concentrations. In 2007, Jim organized and chaired a Pellston workshop,
sponsored by the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, to review the tissue residue
approach for toxicity assessment. His current research is focused on alterations to growth and ener-
getics in fish resulting from low-dose exposure to a variety of environmental contaminants. Jim has
been married for 30 years to Susan, a recently retired NOAA statistician, who keeps him busy in
the garden and serves as his buddy on their tropical-therapy SCUBA diving trips. He is also an avid
bicycle rider/commuter and logs far more miles on his bike than on his car.
Authors

William J. Adams Steven Bursian

Rio Tinto Department of Animal Science
Lake Point, UT Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI
Nancy Beckvar
National Oceanic and Atmospheric John A. Cooke
Administration School of Biological and Conservation Sciences
Office of Response and Restoration University of KwaZulu-Natal
Assessment and Restoration Division Durban, South Africa
Seattle, WA
Christian G. Daughton
Jason B. Belden U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Zoology Office of Research and Development
Oklahoma State University Environmental Sciences Division
Stillwater, OK National Exposure Research Laboratory
Las Vegas, NV
W. Nelson Beyer
U.S. Geological Survey David K. DeForest
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Windward Environmental
Laurel, MD Seattle, WA

Christine A. Bishop John E. Elliott

Environment Canada Environment Canada
Science and Technology Branch Science and Technology Branch
Pacific Wildlife Research Centre Pacific Wildlife Research Centre
Delta, Canada Delta, Canada

Lawrence J. Blus (retired) J. Christian Franson

U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey
Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem National Wildlife Health Center
Science Center Madison, WI
Corvallis, OR
Amanda D. Harwood
Bryan W. Brooks Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture Center
Department of Environmental Science Department of Zoology
Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Southern Illinois University
Systems Research Carbondale, IL
Baylor University
Waco, TX Megan L. Harris
Lorax Environmental
Bonshaw, Canada

ix
x Authors

Gary H. Heinz Todd O’Hara

U.S. Geological Survey Institute of Arctic Biology
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center University of Alaska Fairbanks
Laurel, MD Fairbanks, AK

Cameron Irvine Harry M. Ohlendorf

CH2M HILL CH2M HILL
Sacramento, CA Sacramento, CA

Takashi Kunito Deborah J. Pain

Department of Environmental Sciences Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust
Shinshu University Slimbridge
Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan Gloucestershire, UK

Lisa L. Loseto M. GlÓria Pereira

Fisheries and Oceans Canada Centre for Ecology & Hydrology
Freshwater Institute Lancaster Environment Centre
Winnipeg, Canada Lancaster, UK

Guilherme R. Lotufo Anne Prusak-Daniel

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ENVIRON International Corporation
Engineer Research and Development Center Portland, ME
Vicksburg, MS
Philip S. Rainbow
Samuel N. Luoma Department of Zoology
John Muir Institute of the Environment The Natural History Museum
University of California at Davis London, UK
Davis, CA
Barnett A. Rattner
Michael J. Lydy U.S. Geological Survey
Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture Center Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
Department of Zoology Laurel, MD
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL Peter S. Ross
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Wei-Chun Ma Institute of Ocean Sciences
Environmental Sciences Group Sidney, Canada
Wageningen University and Research Centre
Wageningen, The Netherlands Bradley E. Sample
Principal Scientist
Linda Martello
Ecological Risk, Inc.
ENVIRON International Corporation
Rancho Murieta, CA
San Francisco, CA
Mark B. Sandheinrich
James P. Meador
University of Wisconsin–La Crosse
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
River Studies Center
Administration
La Crosse, WI
Northwest Fisheries Science Center
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Fish
Anton M. Scheuhammer
Health Program
Environment Canada
Seattle, WA
National Wildlife Research Centre
Ottawa, Canada
Authors xi

Richard F. Shore Richard J. Wenning

Centre for Ecology & Hydrology ENVIRON International Corporation
Lancaster Environment Centre San Francisco, CA
Lancaster, UK
James G. Wiener
Shinsuke Tanabe University of Wisconsin–La Crosse
Center for Marine Environmental Studies River Studies Center
Ehime University La Crosse, WI
Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama, Japan
Victoria Woshner
David R. Thompson Independent Consultant
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Pittsburg, PA
Research Ltd.
Wellington, New Zealand Jing You
State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry
Frouke Vermeulen Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry
Department of Animal Science Chinese Academy of Sciences
Michigan State University Guangzhou, China
East Lansing, MI
Matthew Zwiernik
Lee A. Walker Department of Animal Science
Centre for Ecology & Hydrology Michigan State University
Lancaster Environment Centre East Lansing, MI
Lancaster, UK

Mark Wayland
Canadian Wildlife Service
Environment Canada
Saskatoon, Canada
Reviewers
The authors and editors thank our distinguished reviewers for their assistance.

Mehran Alaee Jeremy Buck

Aquatic Ecosystem Protection U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Research Division Oregon State Fish and Wildlife Office
Water Science and Technology Directorate Portland, OR
Science and Technology Branch
Environment Canada Christine M. Custer
Burlington, Canada U.S. Geological Survey
LaCrosse, WI
Gerald Ankley
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Thomas W. Custer
Mid-continent Ecology Division U.S. Geological Survey
Duluth, MN LaCrosse, WI

Jill Awkerman Damon Delistraty

Biological Effects & Population Responses Washington State Dept. of Ecology
U.S. EPA—Gulf Ecology Division Spokane, WA
Gulf Breeze, FL
Paul Drevnick
Mace G. Barron INRS-ETE, Université du Québec
Biological Effects & Population Responses Québec, Canada
U.S. EPA—Gulf Ecology Division
Gulf Breeze, FL David Evers
BioDiversity Research Institute
Nancy Beckvar Gorham, ME
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration Patricia Fair
Office of Response and Restoration National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Assessment and Restoration Division Administration
Seattle, WA Center for Coastal Environmental Health and
Biomolecular Research at Charleston
Ronny Blust Charleston, SC
Department of Biology
University of Antwerp Antonio Juan Garcia Fernandez
Antwerp, Belgium Department of Sociosanitary Sciences
University of Murcia
Birgit Braune Murcia, Spain
Environment Canada
National Wildlife Research Centre Michael Fry
Ottawa, Canada Conservation Advocacy American Bird
Conservancy
Washington, DC

xiii
xiv Reviewers

Robert A. Grove Joseph S. Meyer

U.S. Geological Survey ARCADIS
Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Lakewood, CO
Science Center
Corvallis, OR Steve Mihok
Environmental Risk Assessment Division
Ailsa J. Hall Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission
Scottish Oceans Institute Ottawa, Canada
University of St Andrews
St. Andrews, Scotland John Newsted
ENTRIX
Chad R. Hammerschmidt Okemos, MI
Department of Earth & Environmental
Sciences Lisa Nowell
Wright State University Chemist, Pesticides National Synthesis Project
Dayton, OH National Water Quality Assessment Program
(NAWQA)
Dr. Thomas Heberer U.S. Geological Survey
Lower Saxony Federal State Office of Sacramento, CA
Consumer Protection and Food Safety
(LAVES) Oliver H. Pattee
Oldenburg, Germany U.S. Geological Survey
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
Gary H. Heinz Laurel, MD
U.S. Geological Survey
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Kevin D. Reynolds
Laurel, MD U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Arizona Ecological Services Field Office
David Hoffman Phoenix, AZ
U.S. Geological Survey
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Peter S. Ross
Laurel, MD Institute of Ocean Sciences (Fisheries and
Oceans Canada)
Michael J. Hooper Sidney, Canada
U.S. Geological Survey
Columbia Environmental Research Center Michael Salazar
Columbia, MO Applied Biomonitoring
Kirkland, WA
Lisa Loseto
Fisheries and Oceans Canada Lance J. Schuler
Freshwater Institute School of Biological Sciences
Winnipeg, Canada Louisiana Tech University
Ruston, LA
Rafael Mateo
Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Jeffery Steevens
Cinegéticos (IREC) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Ciudad Real, Spain Waterways Experimental Station
Vicksburg, MS
Chris Mebane
U.S. Geological Survey
Boise, ID
Other documents randomly have
different content
the canoes were yelling and screaming loudly enough and
brandishing their spears with as threatening an aspect as they could
make, seemingly with the intention of cowing us. They approached
within twenty yards, when the captain ordered the guns at the bow to
be pointed fair for the batch of canoes ahead, while he arranged for
those approaching the stern. ‘Are you ready, men, fore and aft?’ ‘Ay,
ay, sir.’ ‘Let go, then.’ The two carronades discharged their fatal
showers of grape, and before the smoke had rightly cleared away
they were loaded and again fired amongst the savages. ‘Load again,
my lads,’ said the captain. There was scarcely any wind, and the
smoke which hung low on the water was a few minutes in clearing
away. The screaming of the wounded people was appalling; some
canoes were sunk or capsized and numbers of natives were
swimming towards the shore. Nevertheless, there were many of
them yet that kept their ground and had the reckless daring to make
another bold push for the vessel’s side. ‘Fire,’ said the captain again,
and another volley of grape flew amongst them. This discharge had
not the great effect of the former ones, as the canoes were closer
and the contents of the guns had not distance enough to scatter. The
savages seemed to comprehend this, and in another moment were
clinging to the schooner’s sides endeavouring to board; but the rapid
use of muskets and pistols ultimately drove them away in an
indescribable confusion, with, I am sorry to say, considerable loss.
“The whole affair was caused by the natural treachery of the
natives. The part we played was unavoidable; in fact, our lives were
at stake, and there was only one unnecessary shot fired after the
final retreat of the natives. The men who had charge of the bow gun
loaded it again unperceived by the captain, and before they could be
stopped fired it after the savages who were making for the shore.
This parting shot was, as they said, to revenge Tom Staples, the
seaman who was speared. There was no one on board the schooner
hurt during the affray but the carpenter, whose arm was broken by
the blow of a heavy club wielded by a huge savage who was
endeavouring to board.”
To repeat Mr. Coulter’s words, “The whole affair was caused by
the natural treachery of the natives.” As the gentleman was on the
spot he of course should know all about it. Still one cannot help
suspecting that the captain’s “impatience” had not a little to do with
the carnage which ensued. It would be interesting to be informed
what were the orders of the impatient captain to the boat’s crew sent
ashore to hurry the unwilling natives. Why were they unwilling? Was
the firewood piled on the beach already paid for, or did that “really
humane man,” the American captain, expect the oft-deluded
barbarians to trust to his honour for payment when the cargo was
fairly aboard. The first boatful was allowed to depart—the second—
then came the third and last. “Where’s the price?” “Price be hanged,
you precious lot of niggers! guess the only price you’ll get for this yer
freight will be pitched at you from our big guns. Hands off the boat
there, and let us shove her off!” This of course is a fancy picture; but
there is a possibility that it is not very wide of the mark. If so, the
niggers who, after they had seen their comrades mangled and torn
by the murderous grape “made another bold push for the ship’s
side,” showed themselves brave men, and compels us to reflect with
abhorence on the firers of that “one unnecessary shot.”
 CHAPTER XXIII.

Figian “fustian”—Figian battle-field tactics—The first rending of the

root—Fighting implements of the Figians—Five-bladed swords—
Execution of Tahitian Prisoners—The obdurate Cacahoo—
Heroism of Nonfaho’s widow—Figian ship-building—Surprising
skill of savage boat-builders—Ordinary sea-women—
Superstitions of Figian sailors—The warrior of New Zealand—The
sacred wind of Tu—Distribution of the locks of the slain—Cooking
the warriors’ hearts—Australian weapons—Throwing the
boomerang—The Australian spear—Thick and thin heads—
Remarkable mode of Duelling.
n Figi the disposition to quarrel and fight is no less rife than in
Samoa. A very trifling matter constitutes a casus belli, and
their forces are gathered by the taga, a kind of review. Of
these there is a series,—one at every place where the army
stops on its way to the scene of action. If any part of Figian
warfare has interest, it is this, and to the parties engaged it is
doubtless glorious. They defy an enemy that is far away, and boast
of what they will do on a day which has not yet come, and all this in
the midst of their friends. The boasting is distinct from, though
associated with, the taga, which means “ready” or “on the move,”
namely, for challenging. The challenging is called bole-bole, and the
ceremony, when complete, is as follows:—If the head of the party of
allies just arrived is a great chief, his approach is hailed with a
general shout. Taking the lead, he conducts his followers to a large
open space, where the chief to whose help he comes waits with his
men. Forthwith, shouts of respect are exchanged by the two
companies. Presently a man, who is supposed to represent the
enemy, stands forth and cries out, “Cut up! cut up! the temple
receives;” intimating probably that the enemy will certainly be cut up,
cooked, and offered to the gods. Then follow those who bole or
challenge. First comes the leader, and then others, singly at the
beginning, but afterwards in companies of six, or ten, or twenty. It is
impossible to tell all that is said when many are speaking at once;
but there is no lack of bragging, if single challengers may he taken
as specimens. One man runs up to the chief, brandishes his club,
and exclaims, “Sir, do you know me? Your enemies soon will.”
Another, darting forward, says, “See this hatchet! how clean! To-
morrow it will be bathed in blood!” One cries out, “This is my club!—
the club that never yet was false!” The next, “This army moves to-
morrow; then you shall eat dead men till you are surfeited!” A man
striking the ground violently with his club, boasts, “I cause the earth
to tremble; it is I who meet the enemy to-morrow!” “See,” exclaims
another, “I hold a musket and a battle-axe; if the musket miss fire the
hatchet will not!” A fine young man stepped quietly towards a king,
and, holding a pole used as an anchor for a canoe, says, “See, sire,
the anchor of Natewa (the name of the locality threatened); I will do
thus with it,” and he breaks the pole across his knee. A man
swinging a ponderous club says, “This club is a defence: a shade
from the heat of the sun and the cold of the rain.” Glancing at the
chief, he adds, “You may come under it.” A fiery youth runs up as
though breathless, crying out, “I long to be gone; I am impatient.”
One of the same kind says, “Ah! ah! these boasters are deceivers; I
only am a true man in the battle; you shall find me so.” These great
swelling words are listened to with mingled laughter and applause.
Although the speeches of the warriors are marked with great
earnestness, there is nothing of the horrifying grimace in which the
New Zealander indulges on similar occasions. The fighting men have
their bodies covered with black powder; some, however, confine this
to the upper part only. An athletic warrior, thus powdered, so as to
make his skin wear a velvet-like blackness, has a truly formidable
appearance, his eyes and teeth gleaming with very effective
whiteness.
Figians, says Williams, make a show of war at the taga, do no
mischief, and incur no danger; and this is just what they like. The
challenging is their delight; beyond it their ambition does not reach,
and glory is without charms.
Notwithstanding the boasts of the braves, the chief will sometimes
playfully taunt them, intimating, that from their appearance he should
judge them to be better acquainted with spades than clubs, and fitter
to use the digging stick than the musket.
 With taunting scorn the antagonist would reply much in the same
strain, sometimes mingling affected pity with his denunciations.
When they had finished their harangue, the omoreaa club of insult or
insulting spear was raised and the onset commenced. Sometimes it
was a single combat fought in the space between two armies and in
sight of both.
At other times several men engaged on both sides, when those
not engaged, though fully armed and equipped, kept their seat on
the ground. If a single combat, when one was disabled or slain, the
victor would challenge another, and seldom thought of retreating so
long as one remained. When a number were engaged and one fell, a
warrior from his own party rose and maintained the struggle; when
either party retreated, the ranks of the army to which it belonged,
rushed forward to sustain it; this brought the opposing army on, and
from a single combat or a skirmish, it became a general
engagement. The conflict was carried on with the most savage fury,
such as barbarous warriors might be expected to evince—who
imagined the gods on whom their destinies depended had actually
entered into their weapons, giving precision and force to their blows,
direction to their missiles, and imparting to the whole a supernatural
fatality.
The din and clamour of the deadly fury were greatly augmented
by the efforts of the Rauti. These were the orators of battle. They
were usually men of commanding person and military prowess,
arrayed only in a girdle of the leaves of the ti-plant round their waist,
sometimes carrying a light spear in the left, but always a small bunch
of green ti-leaves in the right hand. In this bunch of leaves the
principal weapon, a small, sharp, serrated and barbed airo fai (bone
of the sting-ray), was concealed, which they were reported to use
dexterously when in contact with the enemy. The principal object of
these Rautis was to animate the troops by recounting the deeds of
their forefathers, the fame of their tribe or island, and the interests
involved in the contest. In the discharge of their duties they were
indefatigable, and by night and day, went through the camp rousing
the ardour of the warriors. On the day of battle they marched with the
army to the onset, mingled in the fury, and hurried to and fro among
the combatants, cheering them with the recital of heroic deeds or
stimulating them to achievements of daring and valour.
Any attempt at translating their expressions would convey so
inadequate an idea of their original force as to destroy their effect.
“Roll onward like the billows,—break on them with the ocean’s foam
and roar when bursting on the reeds,—hang on them as the forked
lightning plays above the frothing surf,—give out the vigilance, give
out the strength, give out the anger, the anger of the devouring wild
dog, till their line is broken, till they flow back like the receding tide.”
These were the expressions sometimes used, and the recollection of
their spirit-stirring harangues is still vivid in the memory of many who,
when anything is forcibly urged upon them, often involuntarily
exclaim, tini Rauti teia—“this is equal to a Rauti.”
If the battle continued for several successive days, the labours of
the Rautis were so incessant by night through the camp, and by day
amid the ranks in the field, that they have been known to expire from
exhaustion and fatigue. The priests were not exempted from the
battle; they bore arms and marched with the warriors to the combat.
The combatants did not use much science in the action, nor
scarcely aim to parry their enemy’s weapons; they used no shield or
target, and, believing the gods directed and sped their weapons with
more than human force upon their assailants, they depended on
strength more than art for success. Their clubs were invariably
aimed at the head, and often with the lozenge-shaped weapon they
would cleave the skulls of their opponents. When the first warrior fell
on either side a horrid shout of exultation and of triumph was raised
by the victors, which echoed along the line, striking a panic through
the ranks of their antagonists, it being considered an intimation of the
favour of the gods towards the victorious parties. Around the body
the struggle became dreadful, and if the victors bore him away, he
was despoiled of his ornaments, and then seized by the priests or
left to be offered to the gods at the close of the battle.
The first man seized alive was offered in sacrifice, and called te
mata-ahaetumu Taaroa, the first rending of the root. The victim was
not taken to the temple, but laid alive upon a number of spears, and
thus borne on men’s shoulders along the ranks in the rear of the
army, the priest of Ora walking by the side, offering his prayer to the
god, and watching the writhings and involuntary agitation of the
dying man. If these agonies were deemed favourable, he
pronounced victory as certain. Such indications were considered
most encouraging, as earnests of the god’s cooperation.
They sometimes practised what they called tiputa taata. When a
man had slain his enemy, in order fully to satiate his revenge and
intimidate his foes, he sometimes beat the body flat, and then cut a
hole with a stone battle-axe through the back and stomach, and
passed his own head through the aperture, as he would through the
hole of his tiputa or poncho; hence the name of this practice. In this
terrific manner, with head and arms of the slain hanging down before
and the legs behind, he marched to renew the conflict. A more
horrible act and exhibition it is not easy to conceive, yet there once
lived a man in Fare, named Tavara, who, according to his own
confession, and the declaration of his neighbours, was guilty of this
deed during one of their recent wars.
In times of war, all capable of bearing arms were called upon to
join the forces of the chieftain to whom they belonged; and the
farmers, who held their land partly by feudal tenure, were obliged to
render military service whenever their landlord required it. There
were, besides these, a number of men celebrated for their valour,
strength, or address in war, who were called aito, fighting-men or
warriors. This title was the result of achievements in battle; it was
highly respected, and proportionably sought by the courageous and
ambitious. It was not, like the chieftainship and other prevailing
distinctions, confined to any class, but open to all, and many from
the lower ranks have risen as warriors to a high station in the
community.
 Tonga Weapons.
Originally their weapons were simple and formed of wood; they
consisted of the spear, which the natives called patia or tao, made
with the wood of the cocoa-nut tree or of the aito, iron-wood or
casuarina. It was twelve or eighteen feet long, and about an inch or
an inch and a half in diameter at the middle of the lower end, but
tapering off to a point at the other. The spears of the inhabitants of
Rurutu and other of the Austral Islands are remarkable for their great
length and elegant shape, as well as for the high polish with which
they are finished. The omore or club was another weapon used by
them; it was always made of the aito or iron-wood, and was
principally of two kinds, either short and heavy like a bludgeon, for
the purpose of close combat, or long and furnished with a broad
lozenge-shaped blade. The Tahitians did not often carve or ornament
their weapons; but by the inhabitants of the Southern Islands they
were frequently very neatly though partially carved. The inhabitants
of the Marquesas carve their spears, and ornament them with
human hair; and the natives of the Harvey Islands, with the Friendly
and Figian islanders, construct their weapons with taste and carve
them with remarkable ingenuity.
The pacho was a terrific sort of weapon, although it was
principally used at the heva or seasons of mourning. It resembled in
some degree a club; but having the inner side armed with large
sharks’ teeth, it was more frequently drawn across the body, where it
acted like a saw, than used for striking a blow. Another weapon of
the same kind resembled a short sword, but instead of one blade, it
had three, four, or five. It was usually made of a forked aito branch;
the central and exterior branches, after having been pointed and
polished, were armed along the outside with a thick line of sharks’
teeth, very firmly fixed in the wood. This was only used in close
combat, and, when applied to the naked bodies of the combatants,
must have been a terrific weapon. The bowels or lower parts of the
body were attacked with it, not as a dagger is used, but drawn
across like a saw. Some of the fighting men wore a kind of armour of
network formed by small cords wound round the body and limbs so
tight as merely to allow of the unencumbered exercise of the legs
and arms, and not to impede the circulation of the blood. This kind of
defence was principally serviceable in guarding from the blows of a
club, or force of a stone, but was liable to be pierced by a spear. In
general, however, the dress of the Tahitian warriors must have been
exceedingly inconvenient. To make an imposing appearance, and
defend their persons, seem to have been the only ends at which they
aimed, differing greatly in this respect from the Hawaians, who
seldom thought of guarding themselves, but adopted a dress that
would least impede their movements.
The Tahitians went to battle in their best clothes, and often had
the head not only guarded by an immense turban, but the body
enveloped in folds of cloth, until the covering was many inches in
thickness, extending from the body almost to the elbows, where the
whole was bound round the waist with a finely braided sash or girdle.
On the breast they wore a handsome military gorget ingeniously
wrought with mother-of-pearl shells, feathers, and dog’s hair, white
and coloured. The captives taken in war called ivi or titi were
murdered on the spot, or shortly afterwards, unless reserved for
slaves to the victors. The bodies of the slain were treated in the most
savage manner. They were pierced with their spears and at times
the conduct of the victors towards their lifeless bodies was
inconceivably barbarous.
On the day following the battle the bure taata was performed. This
consisted in collecting the bodies of the slain and offering them to
Oro as trophies of his prowess, and in acknowledgment of their
dependence upon his aid. Prayers were preferred, imploring a
continuance of his assistance.
The bodies were usually left exposed to the elements and to the
hogs or wild dogs that preyed upon them. The victors took away the
lower jaw-bones of the most distinguished among the slain as
trophies, and often some of the bones, converting them into tools for
building canoes with, or into fish hooks. Sometimes they piled the
bodies in a heap, and built the skulls into a kind of wall around the
temple, but they were commonly laid in rows near the shore, or in
front of the camp, their heads all in the same direction. Here the
skulls were often so battered with the clubs that no trace of the
countenance or human head remained.
As to the manner of disposing of prisoners towards whom the
king, when supplicated for forgiveness, preserves silence, the
following brief account of a warrior execution as related by Mariner
may be offered:—
“About mid-day, or a little after, the large canoe, in which were the
prisoners lashed hand and foot, pushed out to sea under the
command of Lolo Hea Malohi, an adopted son of Finow. They had
on board three old small canoes, in a very leaky, rotten state, in
which the prisoners were destined to be put and thus to be left
gradually to sink, leaving the victims to reflect on their approaching
dissolution, without having it in their power to help themselves.
 THE CONCLUSION OF THE TERRIBLE FARCE.
“The distance they had to go was about two leagues, and the
weather being calm the canoe was obliged to be paddled most of the
way. In the meanwhile, some conversation passed between the
prisoners, particularly Nonfaho and Booboonoo. Nonfaho observed
to Booboonoo, that it would have been much better if they had never
made a peace with Finow, and to a certain degree, he upbraided
Booboonoo with not having followed his advice in this particular: to
this the latter replied that he did not at all regret the late peace with
Finow, for being his relation, he felt himself attached to his interests,
and as to his own life, he thought it of no value since the king did not
think his services worth having. Nonfaho stated that he had a
presentiment of his fate that very morning; for as he was going along
the road from Feletoa to Macave, he met a native woman of Hapai,
and as he passed, he felt a strong inclination, he knew not from what
cause, to kill her, and this bias of his mind was so powerful, that he
could not help turning back and effecting his purpose; at the same
time he felt a secret presentiment that he was going to die, and this
murder that he had committed appeared now to be a piece of
vengeance on the Hapai people, weak indeed in itself, yet better
than no revenge at all. Nonfaho, among other things lamented that
his friend Booboonoo had not repaired to the Figi Islands when
peace was first made, and by that means have preserved his life. As
to his own safety, he said it was not a matter of much consequence;
he only lamented that he was not about to die in an honourable way.
Booboonoo expressed sentiments to the same purpose. Cacahoo
now and then joined in the conversation, remarking that he only
lamented his death inasmuch as no opportunity had been afforded
him of revenging himself upon his enemies by sacrificing a few of
them.
There were eighteen prisoners on board, of whom the greater
part, before they arrived at the place where they were to be sunk,
begged that the manner of their death might be changed to the more
expeditious one of having their brains knocked out with a club, or
their heads cleaved with an axe: this was granted them, and the
work of execution was immediately begun. Having dispatched a
number in this way, it was proposed, for the sake of convenience,
that the remainder who begged to be thus favoured, should be taken
to a neighbouring small island to be executed; which being agreed
on they disputed by the way who should kill such a one and who
another. Such was the conversation, not of warriors—for knocking
out brains was no new thing to them—but of others not so well
versed in the art of destruction, who were heartily glad of this
opportunity of exercising their skill without danger; for, cowardlike,
they did not dare to attempt it in a field of battle. The victims being
brought on shore, nine were dispatched at nearly the same moment,
which, with the three killed in the canoe, made twelve who desired
this form of death. The remaining six, being chiefs and staunch
warriors of superior bravery, scorned to beg any favour of their
enemies, and were accordingly taken out to sea, lashed in two rotten
canoes which they had on board, three in each, and left to reflect on
their fate, whilst their destroyers remained at a little distance to see
them sink. Booboonoo, whilst in this situation, said that he only died
unhappy on account of his infant son, who would be left friendless
and unprotected; but calling to a younger chief in the larger canoe, of
the name of Talo, begged, for the sake of their gods, that he would
befriend his child, and never see him want either clothes or food
suitable to the son of a chief: upon which Talo made a solemn
promise to take the most attentive care of him, and Booboonoo
seemed quite satisfied. Nonfaho lamented the sad disasters of that
day, saying how many great and brave men were dying an
ignominious death, who some time before were able to make the
whole army of Finow tremble: he lamented, moreover, that he had
ever retreated from his enemies, and wished that on such an
occasion he had faced about, however inferior in strength, and sold
his life at a high price, instead of living a little longer to die thus a
shameful death: he earnestly requested them to remember him in an
affectionate manner to his wife. Cacahoo swore heartily at Finow
and all the chiefs of Hapai, cursing them in the most bitter manner,
and their fathers for begetting them, and heaping maledictions upon
all their generation. He went on in this manner, cursing and swearing
at his enemies, till the water came up to his mouth, and, even then,
he actually threw back his head for the opportunity of uttering
another curse, spluttering the water forth from his lips till it bereft him
for ever of the power of speech. They were about twenty minutes
sinking, after which the large canoe returned immediately to Vavaoo.
The widows of those who were executed on the beach in the
morning and of those who were dispatched at the small island in
their way out to sea, petitioned Finow to grant them leave to perform
the usual rites of burial in behalf of their deceased husbands, which
the king readily acceded to: and they accomplished the ceremony
with every mark of unfeigned sorrow and regret. When the last
affectionate remembrances of Nonfaho were made to his widow, she
appeared greatly moved; for, though she scarcely wept, her
countenance betrayed marks of violent inward agitation: she retired
to her house, and arming herself with a spear and a club, went about
to seek for the other widows who had lost their husbands in the
same way, and urged them to take up arms, as she had done, and
go forth to revenge their husbands’ death, by destroying the wives of
Finow and his principal chiefs; finding, at length, that none of the
others were willing to follow her example, she was obliged to give up
altogether. It was suspected that Finow would have been very angry
on hearing her intention, but, on the contrary, he praised it much,
and approved of it as being not only a meritorious act of bravery, but
a convincing proof that her affection for her deceased husband was
great and genuine.
Four classes of canoes are found in Figi: the velovelo, the
camakau, the tabilai, and the drua. All these have various
modifications of outrigger (cama), and are distinguished by
peculiarities in the hulk. The velovelo, or more properly the takia, is
open throughout its length like a boat, and the spars to which the
cama is secured rest on the gunwale. The camakau, as its name
imports, has a solid spar for its cama: the hulk has a deck over the
middle third of its length, twice its own width, and raised on a deep
plank built edgeways on each gunwale. Between the edge of this
deck and the outrigger all is open. The projecting ends of the canoe,
which are lower than the main-deck or platform, as much as the
depth of the plank on which it is raised, are each covered with one
solid triangular piece of wood, hollowed underneath, and thickest at
the broad end next the centre deck, to which it thus forms a gradual
ascent. The two ridges, formed by the hollowing underneath on the
sides of the triangle, are united to the edge of the hulk, so as
completely to box it up. The rig of the camakau is the same as that of
the double canoe described presently; and from the small resistance
this build offers to the water, it is the “clipper” of Figi, and the vessel
described under the name of pirogue in the Imperial Dictionary.
The tabilai is a link between the camakau and drua, and is made
with the outrigger of either. It is often of great length, several feet at
each end being solid wood, cut away something like the hull of a
ship stern-ward, the sternpost of the ship representing the cut-water
of the canoe, which, instead of being sharp, presents a square
perpendicular edge to the water. This is the same at both ends, and
is distinctive of the class.
The drua, or double canoe, differs from the rest in having another
smaller canoe for its outrigger, and the deck is laid across both.
When not more than thirty or forty feet long, canoes are often cut
out of a single tree, and require comparatively little skill in their
construction. When, however, a first-class canoe is to be built, the
case is far otherwise, and its creditable completion is a cause of
great triumph.
A keel is laid in two or three pieces carefully scarfed together.
From this the sides are built up, without ribs, in a number of pieces
varying in length from three to twenty feet. The edge of each piece
has on the inside a flange; as the large pieces are worked in,
openings of very irregular form are left to be filled in, as suitable
pieces may be found. When it is recollected that the edges of the
planks are by no means straight, it will be seen that considerable
skill is required in securing neat joints; yet the native carpenters
effect this with surprising success. After the edges are fitted together,
holes of about three-eighths of an inch in diameter are bored a hand-
breadth apart in them, having an oblique direction inwards, so as to
have their outlet in the flange: the holes in the edge of the opposite
board are made to answer these exactly. A white pitch from the
bread-fruit tree, prepared with an extract from the cocoa-nut kernel,
is spread uniformly on both edges, and over this a strip of fine masi
is laid, which is burnt through with a small fire-stick where it covers
the holes. The piece or vono is now ready for fixing, which is done by
what is commonly but wrongly called “sewing;” the native word better
describes the process, and means, “to bind.” The vono being lifted to
its place, a well dressed but not large sinnet is passed through the
hole in the top flange, so as to come out through the lower one: the
end is then inserted in the sinnet further on, and the sinnet runs
rapidly through the hole, until eight or twelve loose turns are taken:
the inserted end is then sought and laid on the round projection
formed by the united flanges, and fastened there by drawing one
turn of the sinnet tightly over it; the other turns are then tightened,
the last but one being made a tie to the last. The spare sinnet is now
cut off close, and the operation repeated at the next hole. The
bindings, already very strong, have their power increased by fine
wedges of hard wood, to the number of six or seven, being driven in
opposite directions under the sinnet, whereby the greatest possible
pressure is obtained. The ribs seen in canoes are not used to bring
the planks into shape, but are the last things inserted, and are for
securing the deep side-boards described below, and uniting the deck
more firmly with the body of the canoe. The outside of the vono is
now carefully adzed into form, and the carpenter has often to look
closely to find the joint. When the body of the canoe is cleaned off
and rubbed down with pumice stone, the surface is beautifully
smooth. Of course no signs of the fastenings are seen outside. This
process is not used in fixing the deep planks which support the main
deck, or the triangular coverings of the two ends already described.
These being on the top of the gunwale, and above the water-mark,
the sinnet is seen, at regular intervals, passing, like a band, over a
flat bead which runs the whole length of the canoe, covering the joint
and making a neat finish. Into the upper edge of planks, two or three
feet deep, fixed along the top of the sides perpendicularly, the cross
beams which join on the outrigger are let and lashed down, and over
these a deck of light wood is laid. The scuttle holes for baling are left
at each corner. The deck also has six holes forward, and six aft,
through which to work the sculling-oars, used in light winds to help
the sail, or when dead calm or foul wind makes the sail useless. A
small house or cuddy is built amid-ships, on which boxes or bales
are stowed, and on a platform over it persons can sit or lie; a rack
behind it receives guns, and spears, and clubs, or baskets are hung
upon it. Any aperture inside not filled with the sinnet is tightly caulked
with cocoa-nut husk, and such as are next the water are flushed up
with the white pitch or resin.
Women, as well as men, discharge the duties of “ordinary
seamen.” When ready for sea the mast, which is “stepped on deck in
a chop,” stands erect, except that it is hauled to bend towards the
outrigger. It is secured by fore and back stays, the latter taking the
place of shrouds: when the sail is hoisted the halyards also become
back stays; these ropes as long as the canoe is under sail may be
called her standing rigging, not being loosed in tacking. The halyards
are bent on the yard at less than a third of its length, at the upper
end, and passed over the top of the mast, which has generally a
crescent form. The great sail is allowed to swing a few feet from the
deck till orders are given to get it under weigh. The yard is now
hoisted hard up to the mast-head, but as the length of the yard from
the halyards to the tack is longer than the mast, the latter is slacked
off so as to incline to that end of the canoe to which the tack is fixed,
thus forming with the lower length of the yard a triangle, of which the
line of deck is the base.
The ends of the deck beams on the cama side serve for belaying
pins, on which a turn of the halyards is taken, the loose ends being
passed round the “dog” or belaying pole. The steersman, holding a
long oar, stands nearly on a line with the tacks on the far edge of the
main deck; while in the opposite corner is the man who tends the
sheet. The sheet is bent on the boom about two-thirds, and by giving
it a couple of turns on a beam one man can hold it even in a breeze.
Like the felucca of the Mediterranean the helm is used at either end,
and on tacking is put up instead of down, that the outrigger may be
kept to windward: the wind being brought aft the tack is carried to the
other end, which is thus changed from stern to bow, the mast being
slacked back again to suit the change; the helmsman and sheet-
holder change places, and the canoe starts on a new tack.
A steer oar for a large canoe is twenty feet long, with an eight feet
blade, sixteen inches wide. Being made of heavy wood, the great
difficulty of handling it is eased by a rope, which is passed through
the top of the blade, and the other end of which is made fast to the
middle beam of the deck.
Figian canoe sailing, we are informed by the missionary Williams
(from whose interesting account the above description of Figian
naval architecture and canoe management is mainly taken), is not
silent work. The sail is hoisted and the canoe put about with merry
shouts; a brisk interchange of jest and raillery is kept up while sailing
over shoal reefs, and the heavier task of sculling is lightened by
mutual encouragement to exertion, and loud thanks to the scullers
as each set is relieved at intervals of five or ten minutes. A dead
calm is enlivened by playful invitations to the wind most wanted, the
slightest breath being greeted with cries of “Welcome! welcome on
board!” If there should be drums on board their clatter is added to the
general noise.
The announcement to the helmsman of each approaching wave,
with the order to lavi—keep her away—and the accompanying “one,
two, three, and another to come,” by which the measured advance of
the waves is counted, with passing comments on their good or ill
demeanour, keep all alive and in good humour.
Figian sailors, like all other sailors throughout the world, are very
superstitious. Certain parts of the ocean, through fear of the spirits of
the deep, they pass over in silence, with uncovered heads, and
careful that no fragment of wood or part of their dress shall fall into
the water. The common tropic bird is the shrine of one of their gods,
and the shark of another; and should the one fly over their heads, or
the other swim past, those who wear turbans would doff them, and
all utter some word of respect. A shark lying athwart their course is
an omen which fills them with fear. A basket of bitter oranges on
board a vessel is believed to diminish her speed. On one sort of
canoe it is “tapu” (sacrilege) to eat food in the hold; on another in the
house on deck; on another on the platform near the house. Canoes
have been lost altogether because the crew, instead of exerting
themselves in a storm, have quitted their posts to soro to their gods,
and throw yagona and whales’ teeth to the waves to propitiate them.
Very different from the elaborate Figian vessel is the canoe of the
native of Torres Straits. This latter, which is often ninety feet in
length, is constructed out of a single tree, obtained from the
mainland of New Guinea. It is burnt out or hacked out, according to
the New Guinean’s convenience; it has a raised gunwale, and in the
centre is a platform. The stem and stern are closed, the head being
shaped to the rude resemblance of a shark or some other marine
monster, and in the stern is generally to be found a projecting pole
from which is dangling a bunch of emu feathers. They carry a mat
sail set forward between two poles hooked to the gunwale, bringing
the heads of the poles to the wind as required.
 Torres Straits Canoe.

To return, however, to the “war path.” No less superstitious than

the Figian is his savage brother the New Zealander, who, as we are
informed by Taylor and other trustworthy authorities, did not dare to
go to war before he had undergone a sort of confirmation at the
hands of the priest. Each priest, on the declaration of war,
assembled his own party, and went to a sacred water. At first they all
sat down, but after a time they stood up naked in the water, which
they heaped up against their bodies, and threw over their heads.
After they had been sprinkled by the priest, he said:
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