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Leviathan
which pitted the Royalists (who supported the monarchy)
INTR
INTRODUCTION
ODUCTION against the Parliamentarians (who supported Parliament).
Charles I was captured, tried, and found guilty of keeping
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF THOMAS HOBBES tyrannical power over the people and was sentenced to death
Thomas Hobbes was born in 1588 in Westport, a village near by beheading. After Charles I’s execution on January 30, 1649
the town of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England. Hobbes had an began the period of the Interregnum, during which time
older brother and a sister, and his father, an uneducated vicar, England was ruled by Parliament, not the monarchy. In 1653,
did not value education for his children. When Hobbes was a Oliver Cromwell (an English general who led the charge against
child, his father left Westport after some sort of dispute, and Charles I and the Royalists) became Lord Protector, the head of
Hobbes spent the remainder of his childhood with his father’s state of the new British Protectorate. Under Cromwell’s rule
brother, Francis, a successful local manufacturer. Hobbes was during the Interregnum, Puritan views began to take hold in
educated in both private and public schools, and he attended English society, which led to the suppression of Christian
Hertford College, Oxford, where he studied logic and physics. holidays, like Easter and Christmas. English citizens were
Hobbes also studied at the University of Oxford; however, he expected to live a life of the utmost purity and piety, and forms
left before completing his degree and later obtained a BA in of entertainment that were considered immoral and lewd, like
1608 from St. John’s College, Cambridge. After completing gambling houses and theaters, were banned. Cromwell died in
school, Hobbes worked as a private tutor to the future Earl of 1658, and his son, Richard, was appointed Lord Protector.
Devonshire, and he traveled Europe under the family’s Richard, however, was a poor leader and politician, and the
employment from 1610 to 1615. After this time, Hobbes again Protectorate ended in 1659. The monarchy was restored in
found work as a tutor in both London and in Paris and had many England when Charles I’s son, Charles II, came out of exile in
prominent students, including the 3rd Earl of Devonshire and Europe and took back the crown in 1660.
Charles II, the future King of England. Around 1640, Hobbes
turned his attention to philosophy, and he circulated a RELATED LITERARY WORKS
pamphlet, The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, which
proposed many of the ideas that would later become Leviathan. A major theme within Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan is the state
During the English Civil War (1642–1651), anti-Royalist of human beings in nature and the advent of civil society.
sentiments began to rise in England, and Hobbes, a well-known Hobbes argues that humans in a state of nature are “nasty,
Royalist, was forced to flee to Paris. During this time, Hobbes brutish, and short,” an opinion that dismisses Aristotle’s idea of
began to prolifically write philosophy, including the Latin humans as naturally social and generally peaceful. The state of
Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Teria de Cive (“Philosophical humans in nature and the subsequent creation of civil society is
rudiments concerning government and society”) in 1642 and a topic that is also seen in The Second Treatise of Government by
Of Liberty and Necessity in 1646. In 1651, Hobbes published John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Discourse on the
Leviathan, and when he returned to London that same year Origin of Inequality. Unlike Hobbes, however, both Locke and
after the end of the English Civil War, he was one of the most Rousseau’s philosophies more closely align with Aristotle’s
infamous intellectuals of the time. In 1660, at the end of the view of humans in nature. Hobbes was a famous Royalist, and
Interregnum, Charles II became King of England and awarded he is openly supportive of the monarchy and King Charles II in
Hobbes a yearly pension of 100 pounds. In 1666, Hobbes was Leviathan, in which he argues monarchies are the best form of
accused of atheism and blasphemy by the House of Commons government and civil society. This staunch support of the
(the lower house of Parliament) because of the ideas expressed monarchy is also a prominent theme in Sir Robert Filmer’s
in Leviathan, and he was banned from further publishing in Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings, in which Filmer
England. Following this order, Hobbes took to publishing his maintains that kings and queens rule by divine power given to
books in Amsterdam, including English translations of Homer’s them by God. Hobbes contends that a monarch’s power is
Odyssey and Iliad and a Latin translation of Leviathan. In 1679, derived from the people, not God, but he nevertheless supports
Hobbes suffered a massive stroke after falling ill with a bladder a monarch’s right to rule. Hobbes’s Leviathan is first and
infection, and he died soon after at 91 years old. foremost a work of political philosophy, a general area of
philosophy that focuses on laws, rights, and justice—a genre
that many argue began with Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince
Prince.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Other famous works of political philosophy include On Liberty
In Leviathan, Hobbes briefly mentions the execution of King by John Stuart Mill and The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx
Charles I of England and the English Civil War (1642–1651), and Friedrich Engels.

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KEY FACTS According to Hobbes, when an object is removed, an image of
the object is retained in the human mind, and this retained
• Full Title: Leviathan, or The Matter, Forme, and Power of a image is called imagination. As time passes, the images of
Common-wealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civill
objects begin to decay and deteriorate in a process known as
• When Written: 1651 memory, and multiple memories of many things is called
• Where Written: Paris, France experience. Imagination, memory, and experience each rely on
• When Published: 1651 and are limited by the human senses; therefore, no idea or
• Literary Period: English Renaissance
concept can ever be infinite. Hobbes does admit that God’s
power is infinite, but this only means that God’s power can
• Genre: Political Philosophy
never be fully comprehended by any one human being.
• Point of View: First Person
In nature, outside of civil society, all human beings are equal.
Whenever two people desire the same object, they are said to
EXTRA CREDIT be enemies, and the destruction of one’s enemy is included in
Impressive Résumé. Early in Hobbes’s career, before he began their desired end. There is no common power in nature to
writing his own philosophy, he worked as an amanuensis mediate disputes, so people are generally antisocial and
(someone who copies the dictated words of another) for aggressive, and they are forced to fight for sustenance and
Francis Bacon, a respected English philosopher who is credited honor. Without the establishment of a common power, people
with the development of the scientific method. are in a constant state of war. To escape this state of war and
ensure peace, people are drawn to certain agreements or rules,
In Good Company. In 1636, Hobbes met Galileo Galilei, an which Hobbes refers to as the Laws of Nature. According to the
Italian astronomer, physicist, and philosopher who was under Laws of Nature, which God gave to humankind, everyone has a
house arrest in Florence for heresy during the Holy Inquisition. right to defend their life by any means necessary; however,
they must also seek peace as long as peace is reasonable. The
only way to ensure peace is to forfeit one’s right to violently
PL
PLO
OT SUMMARY defend their life and place that right in another through the
creation of a covenant, or contract. The Laws of Nature
Human life is nothing but the movement of arms and legs, maintain that a covenant must be honored by both parties, and
Hobbes argues, and any automated machine that has “artificial a covenant can only be broken once the terms of the
life” is no different. So is the case in art and in any other work agreement are fulfilled or the obligation is forgiven by the
created by humankind, such as in the “great LEVIATHAN,” also person or people who desired it. There are several Laws of
known as a common-wealth, or state, which is itself an Nature, but each can be reduced to one simple rule: “Do not
“Artificiall Man.” In Leviathan, Hobbes describes the nature of a that to another, which thou wouldest not have done thy selfe.”
common-wealth—how a common-wealth is made and under
According to Hobbes, people “naturally love Liberty, and
what circumstances it is maintained or destroyed—and he also
Dominion over others,” and the Laws of Nature cannot be
explains the “Christian common-wealth” and the “Kingdome of
expected to be followed without the creation of a central
Darkness.”
power to compel people to honor their covenants. Thus, people
Hobbes begins with the basic thoughts of humankind. Human have joined together in common-wealths. A common-wealth is
thoughts are a “Representation” or “Appearance” of some any number of people living together under one unified power
physical body known as an “Object,” which works upon one of as determined by a covenant in which the people forfeit their
the human sense organs to produce different representations. right to self-preservation to single person, or an assembly of
The production of such appearances are collectively known as people, known as the sovereign. The purpose of the common-
the human senses, and every human thought originates in some wealth is to protect the people, or subjects, from injury and
way from the sense organs. In short, an object places pressure death and to work for their highest possible contentment. The
on one of the human sense organs, and a message is sent to the sovereign is given all the rights and power of the subjects it
brain via the nerves. Those messages are in turn experienced as represents, and that power can never be forfeited or usurped.
sights, sounds, odors, tastes, and textures. Objects are in A sovereign can do no injury onto its subjects, and subjects are
constant motion, placing constant pressure on sense organs not permitted to accuse the sovereign of any wrongdoing, nor
and creating constant thoughts and appearances. “Yet still the can they punish the sovereign for any perceived offense. The
object is one thing,” Hobbes says, “the image or fancy is sovereign alone can judge of what is necessary for the peace
another.” Aristotle considered the human senses in a different and defense of the common-wealth and is responsible for
way. According to Aristotle, vision is produced by a “visible passing laws and decrees.
species,” and hearing is produced by an “audible species,” both of
There are three major kinds of commonwealths: if the
which rely on an object’s fancy, rather than the object itself.

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sovereign power of a group of people is one person, it’s a abandon their natural reason and commonsense. Christian
monarchy; if the sovereign power of a group of people is a common-wealths rely on books of holy scripture that contain
limited assembly of people, it’s an aristocracy; and if the “Rules of Christian life,” and in some common-wealths, these
sovereign power of a group of people is the people, it’s a rules are even made into civil laws. While it is impossible to
democracy. A common-wealth can be only one of these three, ascertain the authors of Holy Scripture with any certainty, the
Hobbes argues, as a sovereign power can be only one of the rules in such writings are nevertheless accepted as the “Word
people, some of the people, or all of the people. A common- of God,” and they carry great authority within the Christian
wealth’s power is directly proportional to number of people in common-wealth.
it, and no one kind of common-wealth has any more power than To better understand his argument, Hobbes says it is necessary
the next. The only difference between the three kinds of to first define the terms “body” and “spirit,” which are known in
common-wealths is how they wield their power. There are Holy Scripture as “Substances, Corporeall, and Incorporeall.” A
benefits and drawbacks to each kind of common-wealth, and no body is something that has mass and takes up space, whereas a
one form of government can ever be perfect; however, Hobbes spirit is like a ghost and is made up of something intangible, like
argues that a monarchy is the best kind of common-wealth. It is air. To claim a substance is incorporeal is to destroy these
impossible for monarchs to disagree with themselves over accepted definitions, as something cannot be incorporeal and
jealousy or self-interest, and a king or queen is only as good as have a body. Thus, when Holy Scripture speaks of the “Spirit of
the subjects they represent. Of course, Hobbes says, a God” being in the air or within another person, this is most
monarch can relieve a subject of their money or property for certainly a metaphor for faith and does not mean that some
any reason whatsoever, but the sovereign of an aristocracy or intangible part of God’s body exists in the body of another.
democracy has the very same power. Another popular misinterpretation of Holy Scripture is the
The sovereign has the right to appoint officers and agents to belief that God’s Kingdome exists in the present-day Christian
assist in the maintenance of a common-wealth, but no official Church. Hobbes argues that God’s Kingdome is anywhere a
can ever have more power than the sovereign. To diminish or covenant exists between God and the people, like what existed
divide the sovereign’s power violates the covenant and reverts between God and the people of Israel. God made a covenant
the people back to a state of nature and inevitable war. A with Adam in the Garden of Eden (which Adam did not honor),
subject’s obligation to obey the sovereign lasts as long as the and God also made a covenant with the Israelites through
common-wealth stands. If the sovereign power of a common- Moses to become God’s “Peculiar People” on Earth. The
wealth is captured in war and willingly transfers their power to Israelites were “Peculiar” because God was their sovereign
the invading force, subjects of the common-wealth are power over and above the “Divine Power” he already claims
obligated to obey the invading power as their own. However, if over all of humankind. Thus, God’s Kingdome cannot truly exist
a sovereign power is captured in war and does not willingly again until Christ’s second coming, at which time Christ will
transfer their power, subjects remain under the power of their establish his Kingdome—on Earth or in Heaven—under God’s
sovereign and are not expected to obey the invading power. A power through a covenant with the people.
sovereign power has the right to punish subjects if they do not Until Judgement Day and the creation of God’s Kingdome,
follow the law, and fear of that punishment must be greater there is no central power to which all Christians are beholden,
than the perceived benefit of breaking a law. The destruction of other than God and their individual sovereign power. As a
a common-wealth can come from any number of reasons but is sovereign’s power can never be divided or given away, it is not
most often the result of a sovereign who settles for less power lawful for the sovereign of one Christian common-wealth, for
than what they have. Power is denied through ignorance or for example the Pope in Rome, to claim power over the Christian
some benefit, but the result is always the same. To diminish or subjects of another common-wealth. To do so diminishes the
divide a sovereign’s power is fundamentally against the power of the sovereign and is counterproductive to the
purpose of the common-wealth. Therefore, subjects must obey common-wealth as a whole. It is possible to obey both God and
their sovereign in all things—provided that obedience does not one’s sovereign power and still be allowed entrance into God’s
violate God or the Laws of Nature. Kingdome, Hobbes maintains, since all that is really needed for
Hobbes considers the power of the sovereign in context with salvation is a genuine belief in Christ. Christ’s Apostles ordered
the power of God. All people are subjects of “Divine Power,” their converts to follow their earthly sovereigns in all things,
even if they deny God’s existence. God’s laws and power are even if that sovereign’s law conflicted with God’s law. In
known to people in one of three ways: through natural reason conclusion, one is obligated by God to obey their earthly
(which is God’s gift to all humankind), by “Revelation,” or sovereign until the second coming of Christ, at which time the
through the manifestation of a miracle. A Christian common- saved will become Christ’s subjects through a covenant. The
wealth is one in which the subjects believe in the supernatural misinterpretation of Holy Scripture (which Hobbes argues is
power of God, but such a belief does not mean one must rooted in the false philosophies of Aristotle) and the desire of

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the Roman Catholic Church to claim unlawful authority over the object’s so-called essence or fancy—comes into direct
Christendom has thrust the common-wealth into a great contact with the human sense organs. Hobbes argues that the
“Kingdome of Darkness,” which Hobbes hopes to expose and Christian belief in incorporeal bodies and substances, which he
correct through Leviathan. contends is contradictory nonsense, is rooted in Aristotle’s
philosophy and the fancy of objects, and Hobbes hopes to
correct this absurdity through Leviathan. Hobbes also
CHARA
CHARACTERS
CTERS disagrees with Aristotle’s view of humankind in nature. While
Aristotle argues that people are naturally social and helpful,
MAJOR CHARACTERS Hobbes sees humankind in nature as naturally antisocial and
Thomas Hobbes – Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher violent. Perhaps most damaging, according to Hobbes, is
from the 17th century, and Leviathan is his discourse on politics Aristotle’s opinion of common-wealths. Aristotle argues that a
and power, both civil and ecclesiastical. Through Leviathan, democracy is the best kind of common-wealth, and he claims
Hobbes focuses on the state of humankind in nature, the that a monarchy is synonymous with tyranny. Hobbes, of
creation of covenants and common-wealths, the nature of a course, disagrees and argues instead that a monarchy is best
sovereign’s power in relation to God’s power, and the and that a democratic assembly can be tyrannical just as easily
misinterpretation of Holy Scripture and previous philosophies as a monarch can.
that has led Christianity to the “Kingdome of Darkness” and God – According to Hobbes, God is the spiritual sovereign who
away from God. Hobbes makes many arguments in Leviathan, has dominion over all of humankind. While Hobbes argues that
but he begins by discrediting Aristotle and the philosophies of God’s power is absolute, Hobbes ultimately maintains that the
the ancient Greeks and Romans. Hobbes moves on to the state subjects of a common-wealth must obey their earthly sovereign
of human beings in nature, which is synonymous with a state of before God. As God is the spiritual sovereign, his dominion
war. To escape the constant fear and threat of violent death does not begin until Christ’s second coming, at which time
that is nature, people abandoned nature and moved into God’s Kingdome will be created and the saved will enter it
common-wealths to establish a common power and ensure through a covenant. Until Christ’s second coming and
their safety and contentment. Hobbes argues that once a Judgement Day, Hobbes contends, the subject of a common-
covenant is entered, it can never be forfeited, and the subjects wealth is obligated to obey their civil, earthly sovereign, even if
of a common-wealth are obligated to obey their sovereign in all that sovereign’s will is against God’s law. Christ’s Apostles
things. The power of the sovereign is not to be confused with ordered new converts to obey their earthly sovereigns in all
the power of God, who is the spiritual power over all things; thus, Hobbes considers it God’s personal rule that one’s
humankind. While God has absolute power, his dominion over sovereign power is obeyed on Earth. Upon Christ’s second
humankind does not begin until Christ’s second coming and the coming, he will become the sovereign power of God’s
creation of God’s Kingdome through a covenant with the Kingdome; however, Christ’s power will be second to God’s. In
people. Until then, Hobbes maintains, a subject’s loyalties lie Hobbes’s opinion, God is the creator of all things and people,
with their earthly sovereign, and there is no additional contract even of those who don’t believe in God’s existence. While
or covenant that can usurp that power. Hobbes offers Leviathan Hobbes considers many religious practices and Holy Doctrine
as a bit of sound philosophy to counteract the false to be absurd—an opinion which earned him a reputation of an
philosophies of those who came before him. In Hobbes’s atheist during his time—he clearly believes in the existence and
opinion, previous philosophers, with the exception of those power of God, which he maintains is infinite and cannot be fully
espousing geometry and mathematics, do not begin their comprehended by humankind.
philosophies with established terms and definitions. As such,
Moses – Moses is a biblical figure in the Old Testament.
Hobbes meticulously defines and explains every term used in
Hobbes repeatedly refers to Moses at Mount Sinai, where
Leviathan in an effort to elevate his own philosophy to that of
Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt on God’s command, after
geometry or mathematics, thereby making it irrefutable.
which the Israelites entered into a covenant with God via
Aristotle – Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher from Moses to be God’s “peculiar people” on Earth. According to
the fourth century BCE. Hobbes frequently refers to Aristotle Hobbes, the Israelites were “peculiar” because they accepted
in Leviathan and attempts to discount several of his theories. God as their civil sovereign, over and above the spiritual power
Hobbes’s main disagreement with Aristotle is Aristotle’s God already claims over all of humankind. Hobbes refers to
philosophy of objects and the human senses. According to Moses as God’s “first Lieutenant,” which gives Moses the
Aristotle, objects have an essence, or fancy, and that essence authority to speak God’s words. In Hobbes’s opinion, Moses
works on any one of the human senses to create a perception, was a true prophet, and the work he did on God’s behalf in
or representation of said object. Hobbes is a materialist and Egypt, like the parting of the Red Sea, can rightly be considered
fundamentally disagrees with Aristotle’s concept of essences. miracles. Moses is the prophet who spoke to God most directly,
For Hobbes, an object is perceived when the object itself—not

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but, Hobbes points out, even Moses’s communication with God was also the brother of Sidney Godolphin, Hobbes’s personal
was mediated through an angel, which supports Hobbes’s friend, who died fighting the parliamentarians during the
argument that the voice of God cannot be comprehended by English Civil War in 1643. It is because of Hobbes’s respect and
human ears. admiration for Sidney that he dedicates Leviathan to Francis.
Cardinal Bellarmine – Robert Bellarmine was a cardinal in the Sidne
Sidneyy Godolphin – Sidney Godolphin was an English poet and
Roman Catholic Church during the 17th century, who wrote Hobbes’s personal friend. Godolphin was a Member of
several books of Holy Scripture. Like Theodore Beza, Hobbes Parliament, and like Hobbes, he was a royalist. Godolphin died
offers Cardinal Bellarmine as an example of a writer of fighting against the parliamentarians in 1643 during the
erroneous Holy Scripture. In his writings, Bellarmine argues English Civil War, and it is because of Hobbes’s respect for
that St. Peter was the first bishop in Rome and that all Sidney that he dedicates Leviathan to Sidney’s brother, Francis.
subsequent Popes are his successors. Bellarmine also argues Judas Iscariot – Judas was one of Christ’s 12 original Disciples.
that the Pope’s power over all Christians is absolute, and that Judas betrayed Christ to the Romans, which ultimately led to
the Pope’s judgements are “infallible,” something that Hobbes Christ’s arrest and crucifixion. Hobbes briefly mentions Judas
adamantly denies. and his betrayal when he cites Luke 22:4: “Satan entered into
Christ – In Christian belief, Christ is the son of God. Hobbes him, and thereupon that he went and communed with the Chief
repeatedly refers to Christ in Leviathan, and he maintains that Priests, and Captaines, how he might betray Christ unto them.” The
Christ, through the power of God, will serve as the sovereign of word Satan, according to Hobbes, is meant as merely the
God’s Kingdome on Earth. Christ sacrificed himself to redeem “Enemy,” who metaphorically enters Judas and makes him
the sins of humankind, but upon Christ’s second coming, hostile and disloyal to Christ; it does not mean Satan is an
Hobbes contends that all Christians must again repent to be actual person whose spirit form has entered Judas.
redeemed and saved. According to Holy Scripture, Christ held
Matthias – Matthias is a biblical figure and Apostle from the
three official offices: Savior, Counselor, and eternal King. While
New Testament. Matthias was the first Apostle who was not a
Christ is to be King, his power will still remain second to God.
martyr, which means he did not witness the Resurrection of
Christ was sent to the Jews to convince them to accept God
Christ. Like Paul and Barnabas, Matthias was not selected as an
and follow him, and Hobbes argues that Christ will come again.
Apostle directly by Christ. While Paul and Barnabas were
Upon Christ’s second coming and Judgement Day, those who
selected as Apostles by the assembly of the Church of Antioch,
are saved will enter into God’s Kingdome and eternal life,
Matthias was selected by an assembly of 120 Christians. The
provided they accept Christ as their King, which Hobbes
Acts of Apostles, the part of the New Testament that tells of
contends is the only thing necessary for entrance into God’s
Matthias’s selection, was written some 80 years after Christ.
Kingdome.
For Hobbes, the further the writing of Holy Scripture gets from
Cicero – Cicero was a Roman philosopher from the first God and Christ, the more dubious its authorship and authority
century BCE. Hobbes mentions Cicero multiple times in becomes.
Leviathan, especially Cicero’s writings about an ancient judge
Paul – Paul was an Apostle who taught Christ’s word in the first
who always asked criminals about the benefit of their illegal century. Saints Paul and Luke are the only writers of the New
actions. Hobbes applies this same question to the unlawful Testament who did not live during the time of Christ. Like
actions discussed in Leviathan, especially those unlawful actions Barnabas, Paul was made an Apostle by the assembly at the
perpetrated by the Roman Catholic Church, which Hobbes Church of Antioch, and he is one of the biblical figures Hobbes
maintains always benefit the Pope. cites frequently in Leviathan.
Elizabeth I – Queen Elizabeth I was sovereign queen of Peter – Peter is a biblical figure, saint, and one Christ’s 12
England and Ireland from 1558 until her death in 1603. Queen Apostles. According to Cardinal Bellarmine, St. Peter was the
Elizabeth formally severed the Pope’s power over England and first bishop in Rome, and all other Popes are his successors.
was excommunicated from the Catholic Church 1570. In Hobbes maintains that many people dispute this claim, and if
addition to excommunicating Queen Elizabeth, a power which the first bishop in Rome was the “Supreme Pastor,” then that
Hobbes argues the Pope does not ultimately have, the Pope first Roman bishop was Constantine, Rome’s first Emperor, not
also released the Queen’s subjects and declared her power St. Peter.
illegitimate. Since the covenant that imbues a sovereign with
power comes from the people, not the Pope, Hobbes argues Samuel – Samuel is a biblical figure from the Old Testament
that the Pope has no natural power over the sovereign of who plays a key role in the transfer of God’s Kingdom in Israel
another common-wealth, even if that sovereign is Christian. to Saul, and later to David. Hobbes maintains that the Books of
Samuel in the Old Testament were written long after the life of
Francis Godolphin – Francis Godolphin is the dedicatee of Samuel, which negatively affects the authority of Holy
Leviathan. He was a royalist and a Member of Parliament. He Scripture in Hobbes’s opinion. As the authorship of Holy

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Scripture can never be certain, one must fine authority within Isaiah – Isaiah was an Israelite who appears in the Old
God’s message itself, not the language and stories of others. Testament. Isaiah, along with Moses and Samuel, are Hobbes’s
Saul – Saul was the first king of Israel according to the Hebrew examples of true Prophets.
Bible. Hobbes refers to Saul, who, in the Book of Judges in the James VI and I – James VI and I was the King of England and
Old Testament, was affected by the “Spirit of God.” Hobbes Ireland from 1603 to 1625 and King of Scotland from 1567 to
maintains that such references to the “Spirit of God” in Holy 1625. Hobbes briefly mentions King James as “the most wise
Scripture are only metaphor for faith, as it is impossible for a King” who tried to unite England and Scotland.
physical body to manifest as a spirit and be poured or inspired Jacob – Jacob is a biblical figure and the grandson of Abraham.
into another. Hobbes frequently cites the Old Testament where Jacob
Solomon – Solomon was one of the kings of Israel according to appears, particularly the passages that are associated with
the Old Testament. Hobbes uses Solomon as an example of a angels.
civil sovereign in Leviathan, and Hobbes also refers to John – John is one of Christ’s Disciples in the New Testament.
Solomon’s consecration of his temple, which he blessed and Hobbes quotes the Gospel of John multiple times in Leviathan
offered onto the people. The consecration of Solomon’s temple and uses John and the people of Samaria as an example of the
is the proper definition of the word, which is often “Imposition of hands,” which is often used in blessings or the
misinterpreted as having to do with exorcism or the conjuring ordaining of a new minister.
of spirits for holy practice.
Joshua – Joshua was Moses’s assistant and the leader of the
Israelites after Moses’s death. According to Hobbes, the Book
MINOR CHARACTERS of Joshua in the Old Testament was written well after Joshua’s
Aaron – Aaron was a prophet and Moses’s brother, and he was time. This discrepancy is yet another dubious point of Holy
the sovereign power of the Israelites after Moses. Hobbes uses Scripture for Hobbes.
Aaron and his Golden Calf as an example of idolatry. Luk
Lukee – Luke was a prominent Christian figure and is generally
Abr
Abraham
aham – Abraham is a biblical figure from the Old accepted as the main writer of the New Testament. Like Paul,
Testament. Abraham was the first to make a covenant with Luke did not live during the time of Christ, which for Hobbes,
God, in which he agreed to obey God in all things. According to gives Luke less authority than those biblical figures who lived
Hobbes, God appeared to Abraham as three angels. during Christ’s time, like Saint Peter.
Adam – Adam is a biblical figure from the Old Testament. Adam Necho – Necho was an Egyptian king from the 6th century
and God had a covenant in which Adam was to live forever in BCE. Necho worshipped idolatry, but still God spoke through
the Garden of Eden; however, Adam did not obey God and the him. Necho is Hobbes’s example that all prophets are not pious,
covenant was voided. nor are they always Christian.
Barnabas – Barnabas was one of Christ’s Apostles according to Nostr
Nostradamus
adamus – Nostradamus was a French astronomer and
the New Testament. Like Matthias and Paul, Barnabas was not seer whose 1555 book of poems, Les Prophéties, is said to
selected as an Apostle by Christ and was instead selected by an predict the future. Hobbes uses Nostradamus as an example of
assembly of people at the Church of Antioch, one of the earliest a false prophet in Leviathan.
Christian churches. Plato – Plato was a Greek philosopher from the fourth century
Theodore Beza – Theodore Beza was a French theologian and BCE and Aristotle’s teacher. Like Aristotle, Plato is one of the
Protestant from the 16th century, whom Hobbes offers as an Gentiles whose false philosophies have led to the
example of a writer of erroneous Holy Scripture. Beza argues in misinterpretation of Holy Scripture.
his philosophy that the Kingdome of God began with Christ’s
Resurrection.
Constantine – Constantine was Emperor of Rome from 306 to TERMS
337, and other than Moses, he was the first Christian sovereign Author – An author is whoever owns the actions of any one
of a common-wealth. According to Hobbes, the New Testament person. Inanimate objects cannot be authors, nor can those
was not considered civil law until Constantine ordered it so lacking natural reason, like “Children, Fooles, or Mad-men.”
during his reign. There are two kinds of authors: those who own the actions of
Henry VIII – Henry VIII was King of England from 1509 to another provisionally, like a lawyer or guardian, and those who
1547. King Henry VIII separated the Church of England from own the actions of another unconditionally, like a civil
papal authority and was excommunicated by Pope Clement VII. sovereign. When any number of people unite in a common-
Hobbes briefly mentions Henry VIII as an example of unlawful wealth under a single sovereign power, those people, or
excommunication. subjects, are represented by a single author. A sovereign power

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is the author of a subject’s actions, as the subject of a common- in discourse, and all discourse must begin with established and
wealth is only permitted to do those things approved by the accepted terms and definitions.
sovereign; however, since a sovereign gathers authority and Dreams – Dreams are imagination during sleep, which are
power directly from the people, the subjects are likewise the constituted, either in whole or in part, from past perceptions
authors of everything a sovereign does. and experience. Fearful dreams come from fearful objects, and
Common-wealth – A common-wealth is any number of people the emotions and passions experienced in dreams can cause an
united under a single sovereign power, in which the people, or actual response in the human body. According to Hobbes, the
subjects, forfeit their right to self-preservation and place it in a inability to discern dreams from reality is rooted in past
person or group of people via a covenant. There are three basic religions that believed in nymphs, fairies, and satyrs. People
kinds of common-wealths: a monarchy is created when a group often claim that God spoke to them in a dream, but Hobbes
of people place their collective power in a single person, an clarifies that such people only dreamed about God. Dreaming
aristocracy is created when sovereign power is placed in an that God has spoken isn’t to say that God has actually spoken,
assembly of people, and a democracy is created when power is and Hobbes warns that people often lie.
placed in all the people equally. There is no one kind of Experience – Experience is the accumulation of sense
common-wealth that has more power than the next, and each perceptions that exist in any one person’s memory. People with
has unique benefits and complications; however, Hobbes the most experience are often those with the most prudence,
ultimately argues that a monarchy is the best kind of common- since they know the “most Signes [signs] to guesse by.”
wealth. Hobbes’s purpose in penning Leviathan is to outline the According to Hobbes, philosophy does not include knowledge
ideal common-wealth, to illustrate how a common-wealth is that comes from experience or prudence, because such
created, and to explain under what circumstances and knowledge comes from memory, not from reason.
conditions a common-wealth is destroyed.
Fancy – The term “fancy,” as Hobbes uses it, is best understood
Consecr
Consecration
ation – To consecrate something is to “Offer, Give, or in context with the philosophy of Aristotle. According to
Dedicate” an object for some religious or holy practice. But Aristotle, objects have an essence, or “fancy,” which sends a
consecration in Holy Scripture is often confused with “visible species” to the eye, for example, or an “audible species” to
conjuration, especially in Catholicism, in which consecration is the ear, and that “fancy” in turn produces some human
specifically associated with exorcism and the conjuring of evil sensation. Hobbes disagrees and argues such sensations are
spirits. True consecration has absolutely nothing to do with produced when an object—not that object’s essence or
exorcism, Hobbes maintains, and it is one of the many ways in “fancy”—comes into direct contact with one of the human sense
which Christians frequently misinterpret Holy Scripture. organs. Hobbes argues that Aristotle’s essences and the “fancy”
Co
Covvenant – A covenant is a contract that is entered into of objects has led, at least in part, to the Christian belief in
willingly by at least two parties. Every covenant is made in the spirits and transubstantiation.
eyes of God, and, according to the Laws of Nature, every Gentile – Hobbes defines a Gentile as someone from ancient
covenant must be honored. A covenant only expires once its Greek or Roman society, in which numerous gods, demigods,
terms are fulfilled or the obligation is rescinded by the party and deities were worshipped. The Gentiles did not, for the most
who implemented it. A common-wealth, for example, is based part, know of the natural causes of things, so they attributed
on a covenant in which any number of people forfeit their right everything to gods and religion. When the Gentiles were
to self-preservation and place that right in a single sovereign converted to Christianity, quoting Holy Scripture was no use,
power. since they did not believe in God; thus, Christ’s Apostles used
Cr
Craft
aft – Craft is prudence applied to unjust ends. According to natural reason to refute the Gentile’s idolatry. According to
Hobbes, craft is frequently seen within common-wealths, and Hobbes, there are many relics of the Gentiles that remain
royalists in Hobbes’s day viewed many of the actions of within the Christian Church, such as the belief in ghosts and
parliamentarians as craft. other spirits of the dead. Additional relics include the
Discourse – Discourse can be generally understood as the worshipping of false images and idols, the canonizing of saints,
language employed to express a certain topic or debate. Human and the belief that the Catholic Pope is the absolute sovereign
thoughts that remain within the mind are known as mental power over all of Christendom. Hobbes offers his own
discourse, and that which is spoken is known as verbal philosophy in Leviathan to counter the civil and moral doctrine
discourse. According to Hobbes, discourse can never end in of the Gentiles.
“absolute knowledge of fact,” because no one can ever know by Idolatry – Idolatry is worshipping or honoring an image as if
discourse alone if something is true all of the time. All that image is a body with a soul. If a subject bows before a king
philosophy, including science, is the conditional knowledge in civil worship and recognizes the power that king has a the
drawn from discourse; therefore, sound reasoning is necessary sovereign, this is not idolatry; however, if the same subject

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bows before a king and praises him for the weather, this is rainbows and eclipses were miracles, but those with special
idolatry, as only God has power over the weather. When Aaron knowledge of the natural causes of things do not see such
made the Golden Calf and presented it to the people for natural phenomena as miracles. By definition, a miracle is the
religious use without the authority of God or Moses, this was work of God, often done through the hand of another known as
idolatry. Likewise, when Christians worship images that are not a prophet. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt on God’s
authorized through Holy Scripture, like cherubs, or prescribe to command and parted the Red Sea, this was a miracle; however,
unauthorized practices, like transubstantiation, this, too, is Hobbes is dubious of modern miracles claimed by Christianity,
idolatry. such as statues that weep blood or people who claim the ability
Imagination – Imagination is the image of an object that is to heal with the laying on of hands.
retained in the mind, and these retained images were known to Passions – Passions are the emotions of human beings.
the ancient Greeks as fancy. According to Hobbes, imagination Different people feel different passions, and different passions
is the foundation of all human acts and is “nothing but decaying come from different experiences and different levels of
sense.” Memory and imagination are the same thing, only they education. Too much passion is known as madness, and
have different names and different considerations. Multiple passions that predispose people to peace include the fear of
memories of many things is known as experience, whereas death, the desire for things that are necessary for life (like food
imagination includes only those things that have already been and shelter), and the hope to obtain such vital necessities.
perceived, either in whole or in part, by one of the human Prophet – A prophet is someone who speaks the words of God,
senses. like Moses, Samuel, or Isaiah. According to Hobbes, a “true
The La
Laws
ws of Nature – The Laws of Nature are agreements or prophet” can be known by two marks: they must perform a
covenants that people are drawn to in order to ensure peace miracle, and they must teach only Christianity. If both of these
and avoid war. The Laws of Nature are God-given and are marks are not present, the prophet is not true and cannot be
revealed through one’s natural ability to reason. There are trusted.
several Laws of Nature, under which one is not permitted to do Prudence – Prudence, also known as wisdom, is the assumption
anything that is destructive to life. According to the Laws of that “like events will follow like actions.” In short, prudence is
Nature, one must always strive for peace as long as peace is the presumption of future events based on past experience,
reasonable, and they must honor all covenants they enter into. and when it is applied to unjust ends, it is known as craft.
Each of the Laws of Nature can be condensed into one single Prudence can be false, but it those with the most experience
rule: treat others as one would want to be treated themselves. who have the most prudence.
Of course, Hobbes admits that one cannot expect the Laws of
Punishment – Punishment is “an Evill inflicted by publique
Nature to be followed without the creation of a central power
Authority” on one who has broken the law and gone before a
to compel others to honor their covenants. Therefore, people
judge. The right to punish subjects comes from the covenant of
moved out of nature and into civil societies and common-
the common-wealth, which imbues the sovereign with the
wealths to create this central power and ensure peace.
power to punish those who do not conform to the law and the
Martyr – Hobbes defines a martyr as someone who witnessed right to appoint judges to issue that punishment. Private
the Resurrection of Christ—not someone who dies in the name revenge done onto a subject by another subject is not
of some religious cause. The confusion as to who, and what, a punishment, nor is punishment inflicted by an authority that is
martyr is exactly is an example of the widespread not made public. Any pain that an authority inflicts in the name
misinterpretation of Holy Scripture that Hobbes claims plagues of punishment must be in respect to the good of the common-
Christianity. wealth, not the evil of the crime that was committed. There are
Memory – Memory is the “decaying sense” of imagination. many different forms of punishment, such as corporal
When the image of an object is retained in one’s imagination, punishment or exile, and it is against the Laws of Nature to
that image begins to decay and degrade over time in one’s punish an innocent subject. According to Hobbes, for any
memory. Memory and imagination are the same thing, only they covenant or law to be honored, the fear of punishment for
are known by different names, and multiple memories of many breaking said law or covenant must be greater than the
things is known as experience. According to Hobbes, perceived reward of breaking it.
philosophy includes only that knowledge that comes from Science – Science is “the knowledge of Consequences” and is
reason, not knowledge that comes from memory, like the “true Mother” of the arts and philosophy, mostly
experience and prudence. mathematics. However, since science is brought to light by the
Mir
Miracle
acle – A miracle is a rare event that has no natural cause. imagination of another, it has very little power. Some signs
What one person considers a miracle is not always a miracle to within science are certain and factual, while others are not, as
the next person. For instance, early human beings thought the knowledge that comes from prudence is always uncertain.

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An ignorance of science and the natural causes of events can God. God is the spiritual sovereign, but his dominion will not
lead a person to rely too much on other people’s opinions or begin until Christ’s second coming, at which time the saved will
attribute supernatural causes to natural events. Hobbes warns enter God’s Kingdome through a covenant. Until then, Hobbes
that power can never be maintained through the suppression argues, a subject must obey the earthly sovereign of their
of science and reason. common-wealth in all things.
Sign – A sign is the consequence of an action that was Transubstantiation – Transubstantiation is the Christian (and
previously observed. Signs that are less observed are less especially Catholic) belief that bread and wine can be
certain than those signs that are observed all the time. transformed into the body and blood of Christ through
Prudence is the presumption of future events based on the incantation. According to Hobbes, the practice of
experience of past signs. transubstantiation is absurd and is not rooted in Holy Scripture
So
Sovvereign – A sovereign is the central power of a common- (it began during the reign of Pope Innocent III, 1198-1216),
wealth. A sovereign power can be either a single person, as it is which makes it idolatry. Instead of Holy Scripture,
in a monarchy, or it can be an assembly of people, as it is in an transubstantiation is rooted in the philosophy of Aristotle, who
aristocracy or democracy. A sovereign is imbued with all the supports the false belief that bodies can be made of incorporeal
rights and power of the people through a covenant and is substances and spirits.
responsible for the safety and contentment of all the subjects War – War, according to Hobbes, is battle and the intention or
of the common-wealth. The sovereign alone is responsible for desire for battle. People living outside a common sovereign
the passing and enacting of all laws and regulations. While a power are in a constant state of war, and this state of war
sovereign may appoint officials to assist in the running of a includes every person against every person. War is inevitable in
common-wealth, no official authority can have more power a state of nature where there is no common power to keep
than the sovereign. A sovereign’s power cannot be usurped and people in line; thus, people have abandoned nature and created
is beyond all contestation. If a sovereign power is held prisoner common-wealths to escape the violence and war that is implicit
by an invading force, that force has no claim to the subjects of a in nature. If at any time, the power of a sovereign is divided or
common-wealth unless the sovereign willingly forfeits their diminished, the common-wealth reverts back to a state of
power. If at any time, a sovereign’s power is divided or nature and inevitable war. War is one of the primary causes of
diminished, the covenant that joins the common-wealth is the dissolution of a common-wealth, and civil war in particular
voided, and the subjects revert back to a state of nature and is death to a common-wealth.
inevitable war. The main cause of the dissolution of common-
wealths according to Hobbes is a sovereign power who is
content with less power than they actually have. Power is THEMES
forfeited in ignorance or for some perceived benefit, but the
result is always the same: the sovereign is stripped of power, In LitCharts literature guides, each theme gets its own color-
which is counterproductive to the common-wealth as a whole. coded icon. These icons make it easy to track where the themes
One way in which power is stripped from a sovereign is the occur most prominently throughout the work. If you don't have
belief that the Pope in Rome has dominion over all Christians, a color printer, you can still use the icons to track themes in
even those who are subjects of another common-wealth and black and white.
sovereign. A subject can obey only one sovereign power at a
time, Hobbes argues, and subjects must obey the sovereign of NATURE, WAR, AND CIVIL SOCIETY
their own common-wealth before any other power, including Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, first published in
God. 1651, is an ambitious philosophical work that
Subject – A subject is a person within a common-wealth, who covers numerous topics, including science, religion,
willingly forfeits their right to self-preservation to a sovereign and politics. However, Hobbes’s primary argument focuses on
power through a covenant. Once a subject enters into a the state of humankind in nature—that is, how a human being
covenant and agrees to join a common-wealth, they are not behaves outside of civilized society. The state of humankind in
obligated to observe any other contract or power, and they nature prior to the advent of civilized society was a popular
cannot enter into any future covenants in which the same kind philosophical topic in Hobbes’s day, and most philosophers
of power is transferred. The subject of a common-wealth must based their arguments on the works of Aristotle, who argued
obey their sovereign above all others, including God. Christ’s that humans are naturally social and prone to working together
Apostles ordered converts to obey their earthly masters in all for the common good. Hobbes, however, completely dismisses
things, and it is the same for the subject of a common-wealth. this idea. According to Hobbes, human beings outside of
Even if a sovereign’s will is against God’s will, Hobbes maintains civilized society are not social, and they are driven solely by
that a subject can safely obey their sovereign without offending self-interest and the desire to stay alive by any means

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necessary. Everyone has an equal right to everything in nature, war, which again means that people in nature can never be truly
which leads to a state of war and makes nature an exceedingly secure or happy.
dangerous and violent place. Through Leviathan, Hobbes It is precisely this lack of security and happiness that leads
contends that war is an implicit part of nature, and he people to abandon nature and create civil societies, which
ultimately argues that the creation of civil society is the only Hobbes refers to as common-wealths. By definition, a common-
way to escape the danger of nature and achieve true security wealth is a multitude of people voluntarily joined together as
and happiness. one under a common power, and Hobbes’s idea of a perfect
Hobbes argues that human beings in nature are antisocial and society—or at least as perfect as a society can be—is what he
aggressive, which makes nature a hostile place and true calls “the Leviathan.” In a common-wealth, one forfeits their
happiness and security impossible. The “right of nature,” right to self-preservation and places that right in the hands of
according to Hobbes, “is the Liberty each man hath, to use his the common power, which then imposes rules, ensures
own power, as he will himselfe, for the preservation of his own contracts and covenants are honored, and works for the safety
Nature; that is to say, of his own Life: and consequently, of and preservation of the people. The creation of civil society and
doing any thing, which in his own Judgement, and Reason, hee the common-wealth effectively halts the state of war that
shall conceive to the aptest means thereunto.” In other words, it plagues humankind in nature, Hobbes argues, and it is the only
is the right of everyone in nature to do whatever they must to way to enjoy security and true happiness.
ensure their own survival, which means one has a right to
anything—and anyone—that makes that endeavor possible. In POWER, COMMON-WEALTHS, AND
nature, one can steal and kill, as long as such actions are done MONARCHIES
to preserve one’s life. Hobbes contends that all voluntary
actions of humans in nature “tend to the benefit of themselves,” One of Thomas Hobbes’s central arguments in
and he further maintains that everyone’s conservation and Leviathan is that people moved out of nature and
contentment is “committed to [their] own care.” Hobbes does into civil societies to establish a common power. Building on
not mean to imply that humans in nature don’t interact or that argument, Hobbes outlines the ways in which a common
attempt to reach various agreements, or covenants, to power is established and maintained. When creating a common
preserve life and achieve happiness; however, since everyone in power, any number of people enter into a contract, or covenant,
nature has the same rights and everyone is committed in which they agree to forfeit their right to self-preservation
primarily to self-preservation, there is little or no obligation to and give that right to a single person or group of people. This
others. According to Hobbes, the state of nature is one in which union of people joined under a single power is known as a
there is no culture, no knowledge of science, no art, and no common-wealth. If the power of a common-wealth is given to a
society to speak of. In nature, there is only “continuall feare, and single person, a monarchy is created; if the power of a common-
danger of violent death,” Hobbes says, “And the life of man, wealth is given to a few people, an aristocracy is created; and if
solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.” As everyone in nature the power of a common-wealth is given to a group of people, a
is concerned only with themselves and often at the expense of democracy is created. While each of these common-wealths
others, there can never be any security or happiness in nature. are different, they are each imbued with the power of the
people and operate to the same end: prioritizing the safety and
Furthermore, since everyone in nature is equal and after the happiness of the people. Hobbes considers each type of
same thing (self-preservation), and they can destroy and common-wealth and debates the ideal society, which he calls
subdue one another in the process, Hobbes argues that war in
the “great Leviathan,” and he ultimately argues that the best
nature is inevitable. In nature, where there is not a central
type of common-wealth is a monarchy.
power, people are in a condition that Hobbes calls “Warre; and
such a warre, as is every man, against every man.” In short, Whether a common-wealth is a democracy, an aristocracy, or a
there is an “everyone for themselves” mentality in nature, monarchy, each has a common power known as the sovereign,
which makes war and nature synonymous terms. According to which is endowed with the power of the people to rule over
Hobbes, war does not consist only of actual fighting and said people and ensure their safety and contentment.
battles; war exists “in the known disposition thereto, during all According to Hobbes, “from this Institution of a Common-
the time there is no assurance to the contrary.” As there can wealth are derived all the Rights, and Facultyes of him, or them,
never be assurance to the contrary in nature, nature is always on whom the Soveraigne Power is conferred by the consent of
in a state of war. Because of this constant state of war, nothing the People assembled.” In other words, in a common-wealth, a
in nature can ever be unjust, and traditional ideas of right and group of people agree to give their rights and power to a single
wrong do not exist. “Where there is not common Power,” entity, which has power in proportion to the number of people
Hobbes argues, “there is no Law: where no Law, no Injustice.” in agreement. In a common-wealth, the sovereign power “is
As nature lacks a common power, it will forever be in a state of judge of what is necessary for the Peace and Defence of his
Subjects.” As the subjects of a common-wealth have given up

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their right to self-preservation, the sovereign power must RELIGION
endeavor for peace and has an obligation to ensure the
Religion is a central theme in Thomas Hobbes’s
personal safety of each subject. The sovereign entity has many
Leviathan. The title of the book is itself a religious
rights and powers, including the right to make and enforce
reference: Leviathan is a biblical sea creature from
rules and the power to reward and punish subjects, and these
the Book of Job whose image is often used within Christianity
rights are “indivisible.” Sovereign power cannot be forfeited or
as a metaphor for the power of people united as one. In the
taken away, and it does not diminish or weaken with time. As
epistle dedicatory of Leviathan addressed to Hobbes’s friend
long as a common-wealth stands, the sovereign power is
and Member of Parliament, Mr. Francis Godolphin, Hobbes
absolute and is always derived directly from the people.
admits that his treatment of scripture will likely offend many
While Hobbes outlines multiple types of common-wealths, he readers, as he approaches God and holy doctrine differently
ultimately argues that the best common-wealth is a monarchy. than readers may be used to. Hobbes contends that scripture
In an aristocracy or democracy, Hobbes explains, it is easy for has largely been misinterpreted, much to the detriment of the
individual members of the sovereign power to increase their common-wealth, and he offers a completely new approach to
“private fortune” at the expense of “publique prosperity.” On religion and civil society. Hobbes is critical of religion in all its
the other hand, in a monarchy, “the private interest is the same forms, and his opinions earned him a reputation as an atheist in
with the publique. The riches, power, and honour of a Monarch his own time; however, Hobbes nevertheless contends that
arise onely from the riches, strength and reputation of his religion has an important place in the common-wealth. Through
Subjects.” In other words, a king or a queen is only as good as Leviathan, Hobbes explores and debates the role and purpose
their subjects, which motivates a monarch to ensure the best of religion in civil society, and while he maintains that religion is
life for their subjects. According to Hobbes, “a Monarch necessary in a common-wealth, he ultimately argues that
receiveth counsel of whom, when, and where he pleaseth; and subjects of a common-wealth must honor and obey their
consequently may heare the opinion of men versed in the earthly, sovereign political power above God.
matter about which he deliberates,” whereas a sovereign
Throughout much of Leviathan, Hobbes is quite critical of
assembly receives counsel and opinions from only a limited few
religion—especially Christianity, and Catholicism in
people and in certain circumstances. In a monarchy, Hobbes
particular—which he argues is, at times, downright ridiculous.
thus implies, the people have a better chance of being heard by
In Hobbes’s explanation of humankind and imagination, he
the sovereign power than they do in a democracy or an
argues that “Fayries, and walking Ghosts” exist only “to keep in
aristocracy. Lastly, Hobbes argues that a monarchy is best
credit the use of Exorcism, of Crosses, of holy Water, and other
because people “are subject to no other inconstancy, than that
such inventions of Ghostly men.” In other words, ghosts and
of Humane Nature; but in Assemblies, besides that of Nature,
other supernatural beings exist only to convince others of
there ariseth an Inconstancy from the Number.” Hobbes
religious doctrine, especially Catholic doctrine, which believes
maintains that it is human nature to be egocentric and put one’s
in possession by demonic forces and the power of exorcism. In
own needs ahead of others’. In a monarchy, there is only one
Hobbes’s account of reason and words, he explains insignificant
person potentially putting themselves ahead of the people; in a
speech and the abuse of words, which he refers to as
democracy or an aristocracy, there are more.
“Absurdity.” Absurd words are those put together that have “no
Despite Hobbes’s preference for monarchies, he does not signification at all,” like “the Trinity” and “Transubstantiation.”
pretend that monarchies are a perfect form of civil society. In The Trinity is a reference to Christian doctrine that maintains
fact, Hobbes argues that in a monarchy, a single subject “may God is three holy beings—the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ),
be deprived of all he possesseth” simply “for the enriching of a and the Holy Spirit. Transubstantiation is the conversion of
favourite or flatterer.” The absolute power of a single person bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, which
will always be fickle and prone to self-interest because, Hobbes Hobbes argues is just as absurd as the Trinity. A single entity
contends, humanity as a whole will always be fickle and prone can never be three, and bread and wine can never be
to self-interest. Hobbes wrote Leviathan in 1651, just a few transformed into flesh and blood. According to Hobbes, the
years into the Interregnum, the period of time in England “kind of Absurdity” religious doctrine espouses “may rightly be
between the execution of King Charles I and the abolishment of numbred amongst the many sorts of Madnesse” and defects
the monarchy in 1649, and the restoration of Charles I’s son, that plague the intellect and imagination of human beings. In his
Charles II, to the throne in 1660. During this time, the view, the nonsense and ghostly creations common in religious
sovereign power of the common-wealth of England resided doctrine make it “unintelligible” to reasonable people.
with Parliament, an assembly of people, rather than with a
Despite his rather harsh assessment of religion, Hobbes
single monarch. While Hobbes’s argument was likely a source
maintains that religion and God are an integral part of the
of controversy in his own time, he clearly supports the
human experience and of the common-wealth. Hobbes argues
monarchy and argues that it is the best type of common-wealth.
that human beings are each endowed with the “Right of

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Nature,” which gives each person equal right to nature and to common-wealths. Hobbes maintains that humans in a state of
self-preservation, and this right is given to the people by God. nature live in constant fear, and it is fear that drives people to
Hobbes admits that God created Earth for the benefit of society. Likewise, it is fear that preserves a common-wealth
humankind; thus, everything humankind has accomplished is once it is created. In Leviathan, Hobbes underscores the
due to this gift. As Hobbes explains covenants, or contracts, ubiquity of fear, and he effectively argues that fear is a
between individual people, he says that an oath may be sworn powerful and motivating force that binds people together as a
before God in the creation of a contract. This oath, however, community.
does nothing to strengthen the obligation. “For a Covenant, if Fear is at the foundation of Hobbes’s examination of God and
lawfull,” Hobbes argues, “binds in the sight of God, without the religion, and, Hobbes contends, it was fear that brought human
Oath, as much with it.” For Hobbes, a covenant—the very beings to religion in the first place. According to Hobbes, there
foundation of a common-wealth—is always made in the eyes of exists within humankind a constant fear created by an
God. While Hobbes argues that religion is often absurd, he “ignorance of causes.” When nothing can be seen, and “there is
maintains that “all manner of men do so believe in God, as to nothing to accuse, either of their good, or evill fortune, but
hold all for truth they heare him say, whether they understand some Power, or Agent Invisible: In which sense perhaps it was,
it, or not; which is all the Faith and trust can possibly be had in that some of the old Poets said, that the Gods were at first
any person whatsoever: But they do not all believe in the created by humane Feare.” Not only is fear central to Hobbes’s
Doctrine of the Creed.” This belief in God, not in doctrine, argument concerning religion, but he suggests that fear is likely
guides the decisions and actions of people—and for many, God the motivating force that brought humans to manufacture God,
is the supreme authority and judge. faith, and religion. (Hobbes’s implication that humans created
While Hobbes understands and commends this deep belief and God and religion in response to fear contradicts his general
reverence for God, he warns that such devotion can be harmful argument regarding religion. Hobbes argues that religion is
to the common-wealth. According to Hobbes, “Temporall and nonsense, but he nevertheless maintains God’s existence and
Spirituall Government, are but two words brought into the power. This contradiction is something Hobbes leaves
world, to make men see double, and mistake their Lawfull unresolved.) Hobbes argues that it is natural for human beings
Soveraign.” Hobbes admits that God is the supreme authority to wonder about the causes of events and about the causes of
and judge in Heaven; but on Earth, in a common-wealth, the one’s own fortune. Of course, these things aren’t always clear,
sovereign power is the supreme authority and judge, and this causes “anxiety,” so “he supposes causes of them, either
regardless of the sovereign’s own religion. “There are such as his own fancy suggesteth; or trusteth to the Authority
Christians, in the Dominions of severall Princes and States; but of other men.” When no reasonable cause for events can be
every one of them is subject to that Common-wealth, whereof found, humankind creates a cause to dampen their anxiety.
he is himself a member; and consequently, cannot be subject to Ultimately, Hobbes argues that human beings turned to
the commands of any other Person,” even if that “person” is religion, and perhaps even created it, to answer questions and
God. To hold anyone in a position of authority over the explain events and causes, thereby alleviating the anxiety and
sovereign power, Hobbes argues, contradicts the purpose of fear that comes from living in ignorance.
the common-wealth and returns the people back to a state of Just as fear is central in Hobbes’s argument regarding religion,
war. it is also vital in his examination of human beings, nature, and
civil society, which further highlights the pervasiveness of fear.
FEAR In a state of nature, where everyone has an equal right to self-
Fear is present throughout most of Thomas preservation through violence, Hobbes argues that there is
Hobbes’s Leviathan. In 1651, when Leviathan was “continuall feare, and danger of violent death; And the life of
first published, England was nearing the end of the man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.” The constant
English Civil War, a 10-year conflict that pitted the “Cavaliers” fear present in nature compounds one’s misery, making nature
(those who supported the monarchy) against the “Roundheads” an unbearable place to live and prompting humankind’s
(those who supported Parliament). The English Civil War saw transition to civil society. Hobbes maintains that human beings
the abolition of the monarchy, the execution of King Charles I, moved out of nature and created civil societies and common-
and the near destruction of English society. Fear and wealths to get “themselves out from the miserable condition of
uncertainty were a daily part of life during Hobbes’s time, and Warre.” In a civil society, a common power is established via a
that fear is reflected in the references to civil war and regicide contract, or covenant, that protects people and frees them of
in Leviathan. Fear is also reflected in many of Hobbes’s the constant fear of violent death that accompanies nature and
arguments. Fear is present in Hobbes’s examination of religion, war. The contract that establishes the common-wealth cannot
and it is paramount in his argument concerning human beings, be sustained, Hobbes contends, “without the feare of some
the state of nature, and the creation of civil societies and coerceive Power; which in the condition of meer Nature, where

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all men are equall, and judges of the justnesse of their own the thing (not the essence of the thing) comes into direct
fears cannot possibly be supposed.” In short, for a contract to contact with one of the human sense organs. In Hobbes’s
be maintained—especially the contract that establishes a explanation of motion, he claims that an object will remain still
common-wealth—those involved in the contract must fear the forever unless something moves it “is a truth that no man
consequences of breaking said contract. doubts of”—except, of course, for Hobbes. Hobbes argues the
When a common-wealth is created by acquisition, meaning it is opposite, claiming that an object is eternally in motion unless
created willingly by a group of people who otherwise fear death something stops it. This theory of motion is in direct opposition
in nature, those people “who choose their Soveraign, do it for to popular philosophical ideas and theories, which Hobbes
fear of one another, and not of him whom they Institute.” Again, thereby implies are merely opinion. Hobbes also explores
people choose society and a common sovereign power because human imagination and says that certain philosophers claim
they fear nature and the state of war that is implicit in it; “that Imaginations rise of themselves, and have no cause.”
however, it also is fear—fear of the sovereign power, fear of Hobbes again disagrees. For Hobbes, imagination and thoughts
God, and fear of returning to a state of nature and war—that must come from somewhere and are rooted in experience and
keeps people loyal and obedient to a common-wealth. Fear was memory. In other words, Hobbes maintains that one cannot
a useful argument during Hobbes’s day, in which fear of war imagine what they haven’t sensed before in some form, either
and death was prominent, and he uses that fear to promote his through sight, sound, taste, odor, or touch. Again, Hobbes
theories and philosophies. Hobbes argues that “life itself is but suggests that many prior philosophies are rooted in opinion,
motion, and can never be without desire, or fear,” and his not verifiable fact.
assessment of human beings in Leviathan reflects this assertion. Unlike virtually every other type of philosophy, Hobbes argues
that geometry and arithmetic are grounded in fact and are
REASON, FACT, AND PHILOSOPHY therefore indisputable. He maintains that there is no
philosophy other than geometry that begins “ratiocination from
Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan is a work of political
the Definitions, or Explications of the names they are to use.” As
philosophy, and philosophy in general is a
geometry does begin with established meanings and
prominent theme within the book. Hobbes argues
explanations, the conclusions drawn are therefore irrefutable.
that all areas of study—politics, poetry, science, and the
According to Hobbes, if one bases their philosophy on accepted
like—fall under the greater umbrella of philosophy, and he
definitions and explanations, it is easy to avoid absurdity. All
further asserts that all philosophy is rooted in opinion, not in
people “by nature reason alike, and well, when they have good
fact. As philosophy is not necessarily rooted in sound reason
principles,” Hobbes says. “For who is so stupid, as both to
and fact, it can, according to Hobbes, be completely absurd at
mistake in Geometry, and also to persist in it, when another
times. The exceptions, Hobbes maintains, are geometry and
detects his error to him?” Again, unlike other philosophies,
arithmetic, which are grounded in fact and are therefore
geometry and its conclusions are indisputable. When there are
infallible. Hobbes also makes a third exception to his general
indisputable rules for doing any one thing, “as in Engines, and
rule: for all his talk of philosophy resting on the flimsy
Edifices, the rules of Geometry,” Hobbes argues, “all the
foundation of opinion, Hobbes presents his own philosophy as
experience of the world cannot equall his Counsell, that has
infallible. That Hobbes frames his own philosophy in this light,
learnt, or found out the Rule.” Like geometry, “engines” (or
and that he notes his intention to discount other philosophers,
machinery) and “edifices (buildings and architecture) are based
suggests that Hobbes sees his philosophy as being backed by
on arithmetic and fact, not opinion, and they’re beyond
reason and fact. Of course, that Hobbes elevates his own
contestation.
philosophy to the level of geometry and arithmetic may also
unintentionally reaffirm his overall argument: that philosophy However, Hobbes also implicitly makes a third exception to the
rests on the flimsy foundation of opinion. idea that all philosophy is based on opinion, as he presents his
own political philosophy as infallible. “The skill of making, and
According to Hobbes, (almost) all philosophies are based on
maintaining Common-wealths, consisteth in certain Rules, as
opinion, not fact. In explaining the human senses, Hobbes cites
doth Arithmetique and Geometry; not (as Tennis-play) on
Aristotle, who argued that vision and sight are achieved by a
Practise onely,” Hobbes argues. While this may suggest that
“visible species” and hearing is caused by an “audible species.” In
Hobbes’s philosophy of the ideal society—“the Leviathan”—is
short, Aristotle claimed that human beings are able to take in
therefore rooted in fact, it also may just speak to the idea that
and identify objects both by directly sensing the thing through
philosophy is based on opinion and therefore is disputable. The
one of the five senses and by sensing the essence of the thing.
“certain Rules” of common-wealths that Hobbes defines and
Hobbes disagrees. For Hobbes, “the object is one thing, the
explains (for instance, that common-wealths were created to
image or fancy is another.” Hobbes implies that Aristotle’s
escape the violence and fear of nature, that they rely on
philosophy is only opinion, and one that is easily dispelled
covenants and contracts, and that they are best when ruled by
through a more materialist view—that an object is sensed when

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a single sovereign monarch) are, after all, just Hobbes’s The Introduction Quotes
opinions and are disputed by the very philosophies he rejects.
To describe the Nature of the Artificiall man, I will consider
First, the Matter thereof, and the Artificer; both
SYMBOLS which is Man.
Secondly, How, and by what Covenants it is
Symbols appear in teal text throughout the Summary and made; what are the Rights and just Power or
Analysis sections of this LitChart. Authority of a Soveraigne; and what it is that
preserveth and dissolveth it.
LEVIATHAN Thirdly, what is a Christian Common-wealth.
Lastly, what is the Kingdome of Darkness.
Leviathan, a sea monster from the biblical Book of
Job that is usually depicted as giant crocodile, is
used within Christianity as a metaphor for the power of people Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God
united as one. In Thomas Hobbes’s philosophical discourse by
the same name, Leviathan is symbolic of the ideal common- Related Themes:
wealth. Hobbes mentions Leviathan several times in his book
and likens the beast to the “Artificial man” that is “the great Related Symbols:
LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE.” This
analogy is exactly how Hobbes sees the ideal common-wealth: Page Number: 82
many people united under a single sovereign power, who are
Explanation and Analysis
stronger together than they could ever be alone. On the
original cover of Hobbes’s book, Leviathan is depicted as a giant This quote, which appears during the introduction,
man whose body is made up of all the individual subjects of the establishes the key points Hobbes will cover in Leviathan.
common-wealth. The “Artificall man” referred to here is Hobbes’s theory of
the ideal common-wealth, which he calls the Leviathan.
According to Hobbes, God made the “great power of Leviathan,”
Hobbes likens the ideal common-wealth to an “Artificiall
named him “King of the Proud” and said: “There is nothing on
man” throughout the book, and it is susceptible to all of the
earth, to be compared with him. He is made so as not to be afraid.
diseases and infirmities of humankind. To illustrate his
Hee seeth every high thing below him; and is King of all the children
argument, Hobbes begins with the “Matter” and “Artificer,”
of pride.” As Hobbes argues that a fear of violence and of God
which means he will discuss the basic thoughts and actions
drove humankind to create the common-wealth, it is
of humankind, the very creator of the common-wealth.
particularly noteworthy that God made Leviathan not to be
afraid. As the sovereign power of a common-wealth is After his discussion of humankind, Hobbes addresses
unmatched and gathers all its power from its subjects, exactly how humankind abandoned the violence and fear of
Leviathan is an apt symbol for a common-wealth’s strength, as nature for the safety of a common-wealth and the
there is nothing on Earth that can be rightly compared to “Covenants,” or contracts, which made such civil societies
Leviathan. possible. He explores the establishment of a common
power, or “Soveraigne,” and considers under what conditions
a sovereign’s power is preserved or dissolved. In the third
QUO
QUOTES
TES part of Leviathan, Hobbes considers the sovereign’s power
in context with God’s power, and in the fourth part, he
Note: all page numbers for the quotes below refer to the explores those things, like false philosophies and the
Penguin edition of Leviathan published in 1985. misinterpretation of scripture, which thrust both the
common-wealth and Christianity into the “Kingdome of
Darkness.” Hobbes’s key points can get lost in the length and
language of Leviathan, but referring back to this passage can
assist readers in understanding the significance of Hobbes’s
many arguments.

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Chapter 1 Quotes
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Aristotle
Yet still the object is one thing, the image or fancy is
another. So that Sense in all cases, is nothing els but originall Related Themes:
fancy, caused (as I have said) by the pressure, that is, by the
motion, of externall things upon our Eyes, Eares, and other Page Number: 90
organs thereunto ordained.
Explanation and Analysis
This passage appears in the chapter that covers human
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Aristotle
imagination and dreams, and it reflects Hobbes’s general
Related Themes: attack on what he calls “false philosophy.” One of Hobbes’s
primary arguments in Leviathan is that some philosophy,
Page Number: 86 primarily that which stems from Aristotle and the ancient
Greeks, is false and based on opinion rather than fact. While
Explanation and Analysis Hobbes does not explicitly state it here, he refers to the
This quote appears in the chapter about objects, motion, dream argument, a popular philosophy from René
and the human senses, and it is significant because it Descartes, a French mathematician and Hobbes’s
reflects Hobbes’s rejection of Aristotle’s philosophies. contemporary. Descartes’s dream argument claims that the
Hobbes refers to many philosophers throughout Leviathan, human senses can never be fully trusted, since one can
both directly and indirectly, but he mentions Aristotle the never truly know if they are awake or dreaming.
most. According to Aristotle, physical objects have an Hobbes, however, disagrees. For Hobbes, Descartes’s
essence, or “fancy,” which works on one of the five human dream argument is another false philosophy based on
senses to create a perception, but Hobbes disagrees. For opinion rather than fact, and Hobbes uses his own dreams
Hobbes, an object is perceived by one of the human sense to explain. Hobbes claims he does not usually dream “of the
organs when that object, not its “fancy,” comes into direct same Persons, Places, Objects, and Actions” as those he
contact with a sense organ. meets during waking hours. He frequently notes that his
According to Hobbes, human sense “is nothing els but dreams are absurd, but he doesn’t dream about how
original fancy,” by which he means sense is nothing but an strange his “waking Thoughts” are. Based on this, Hobbes is
image left in one’s imagination and memory due to the “well satisfied” that he knows when he is really awake, even
“pressure” of “externall things,” or objects, on the “Eyes, though he often thinks himself awake in his dreams.
Eares, and other organs.” Hobbes was a materialist, which Descartes’s dream argument is just one of several theories
means he believed in the theory that nothing exists but and philosophies Hobbes dismisses in Leviathan, and since
matter and its movement, and that belief is seen here. Descartes was influenced by the philosophies of Aristotle,
Hobbes’s materialist views are fundamentally at odds with the dream argument is yet another example of the wide-
the essences and “fancy” Aristotle espouses, and Hobbes reaching impact of false philosophies and opinion. Hobbes
repeatedly brings up this particular theory, which he claims implies that Aristotle’s false philosophies, beyond just being
is the cause of the widespread misinterpretation of holy misleading in themselves, also led to even more false
scripture among Christians, particularly the practice of philosophies from other thinkers.
transubstantiation and the belief in the Holy Trinity.

From this ignorance of how to distinguish Dreams, and

Chapter 2 Quotes other strong Fancies, from Vision and Sense, did arise the
For my part, when I consider, that in Dreams, I do not greatest part of the Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that
often, nor constantly think of the same Persons, Places, worshipped Satyres, Fawnes, Nymphs, and the like; and now
Objects, and Actions that I do waking; nor remember so long a adayes the opinion that rude people have Fayries, Ghosts, and
trayne of coherent thoughts, Dreaming, as at other times; And Goblins; […] And for Fayries, and walking Ghosts, the opinion of
because waking I often observe the absurdity of Dreames, but them has I think been on purpose, either taught, or not
never dream of the absurdities of my waking Thoughts; I am confuted, to keep in credit the use of Exorcisme, of Crosses, of
well satisfied, that being awake, I know I dreame not; though holy Water, and other such inventions of Ghostly men.
when I dreame, I think my selfe awake.
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Aristotle

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This passage, which appears in Hobbes’s chapter on the

Related Themes:
train and consequences of human imagination, reflects the
social and political unrest of the time and also suggests that
Page Number: 92
human thought is dependent upon personal experience.
Explanation and Analysis Hobbes wrote Leviathan during the last year of the English
This passage, which appears in the chapter on human Civil War, which fundamentally changed the common-
imagination and dreams, further underscores the influence wealth of England. During the war, King Charles I was
of false philosophies. The inability “to distinguish Dreams, overthrown and executed, and Parliament took over as
and other strong Fancies from Vision and Sense” is another England’s sovereign power. To royalists like Hobbes, King
veiled attack on Aristotle and his philosophies, which Charles was unlawfully usurped, and the power Parliament
Hobbes contends are built on opinion, not fact or sound claimed over England was illegitimate. In this quote, Hobbes
reason. Hobbes refers to ancient Romans and Greeks, like illustrates how quickly the human train of thought jumps
Aristotle, as “the Gentiles” of the past, who, instead of from one subject to the next, but each subject is connected
practicing Christianity, worshipped numerous gods, and based on past experiences.
“Satyres, Fawnes, Nymphs, and the like.” Each of Hobbes’s thoughts, while seemingly random and
This quote also highlights Hobbes’s disapproval of the unguided, are the result of his country’s civil unrest. Hobbes
Roman Catholic Church. Hobbes argues that the Gentiles’ begins his train of thought with war, which he claims earlier
religious beliefs led to the belief in “Fayries, Ghosts, and is death to a common-wealth, and jumps to “delivering up
Goblins” that plagues the modern Christian Church. the King to his Enemies,” as was done to Charles I in the
Hobbes suggests that this is especially true for Roman early days of the war. Hobbes then thinks of delivering
Catholics, whose religious practices involve “Exorcisme,” Christ. As a king rules by divine power, delivering up
“Crosses,” and “holy Water.” Hobbes’s religious views mirror Charles I to his enemies was tantamount to delivering
the anti-Catholic sentiments of the time. With the start of Christ himself, just as Christ was also delivered to Pontius
the Protestant Reformation just a century before, the Pilot and the Romans during the Crucifixion. Hobbes implies
Roman Inquisition was still in full swing, and Catholic here that those who delivered Charles I to his enemies—an
authorities routinely imprisoned and tortured Christians act of “treason”—did so for a reward of “30 pence,” a
across Europe. Hobbes’s connection of the philosophies and negligible amount worth less than the weekly wages of an
religious practices of the Gentiles to the modern practices unskilled worker. (This, of course, also points to the 30
of the Christian Church suggests that false philosophies and pieces of silver that Judas received for betraying Jesus to
idolatrous practices of past societies have real and the Jewish authorities.) Hobbes’s unguided thoughts reflect
longstanding implications, which, according to Hobbes, his theory that all thoughts and human imagination are
must be corrected. rooted in experience.

Chapter 3 Quotes Whatsoever we imagine, is Finite. Therefore there is no

For the Thought of the warre, introduced the Thought of Idea, or conception of anything we call Infinite. No man can
delivering up the King to his Enemies; The Thought of that, have in his mind in Image of infinite magnitude; nor conceive
brought in the Thought of the delivering up of Christ; and that infinite swiftness, infinite time, or infinite force, or infinite
again the Thought of 30 pence, which was the price of that power. When we say any thing is infinite, we signifie onely, that
treason: and thence easily followed that malicious question; we are not able to conceive the ends, and bounds of the thing
and all this in a moment of time; for Thought is quick. named; having no Conception of the thing, but of our own
inability. And therefore the Name of God is used, not to make us
conceive him; (for he is Incomprehensible; and his greatnesse,
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Christ and power are unconceivable;) but that we many honour him.
Also because whatsoever (as I said before,) we conceive, has
Related Themes:
been perceived first by sense, either all at once, or by parts; a
man can have no thought, representing any thing, not subject to
Page Number: 95
sense.
Explanation and Analysis
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God

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Related Themes: Explanation and Analysis

In this quote, Hobbes identifies exactly what an abuse of
Page Number: 99 speech is. An example of the abuse of speech, according to
Hobbes, is the joining of two names to make one, in which
Explanation and Analysis
the individual “significations are contradictory and
This quote, which comes from the chapter on the train of inconsistent,” as they are in “incorporeall body” and
human thoughts and the consequences of imagination, “incorporeall substance.” By definition, a body or a substance
reflects Hobbes’s overreaching argument that God and his is something made of matter that takes up space, but that
power are inconceivable; however, this passage also which is incorporeal has no body and consists of something
outlines Hobbes’s theory as to the limitations of imagination like air or an intangible spirit. These two words put together
and sovereign power. Hobbes refers to other philosophers as one cancel each other out, and as a result, the words
who contend that human imagination arises from nothing signify “nothing at all.”
and is completely original, but Hobbes argues that all
In addition, this quote reflects Hobbes’s rejection of
human thought and imagination must first be perceived
Aristotelian philosophy, as well as the anti-Catholic
through one of the human sense organs. It is only after an
sentiments of the time. Hobbes repeatedly argues that the
object is perceived by one’s senses and stored within their
contradictory terms of “incorporeall body” stem back to
memory that said object can become part of one’s
Aristotle, who argues that objects have an essence, or
imagination.
“fancy,” that can work on the human senses in the same way
In this vein, Hobbes argues that no idea can ever be an object can. Hobbes disagrees, but Christian beliefs and
“Infinite,” because the human mind can only conceive of what practices, especially Catholicism, are rife with concepts of
it has previously sensed through the sense organs, and that “incorporeall substances.” This contradictory understanding is
which is “Infinite” can never be fully sensed. According to observed in the Holy Trinity, the belief that God is three
this logic, Hobbes maintains that God and his omnipotence physical beings—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
is beyond human understanding, just as it is beyond human Hobbes suggests that these sacred beliefs and claims also
understanding for any one sovereign power—like the Pope signify “nothing at all,” an assertion that no doubt
in Rome, for instance—to claim unlimited power over all of contributed to Hobbes’s own reputation as an atheist.
Christendom. The inability to comprehend what is
considered “Infinite” has implications beyond that of human
imagination, and Hobbes draws attention to this fact. For Chapter 5 Quotes
Hobbes, if “infinite power” and “infinite force” are
incomprehensible to human beings as a whole, one cannot And words whereby we conceive nothing but the sound,
possibly claim such power over another person or group of are those we call Absurd, Insignificant, and Non-sense. And
people. therefore if a man should talk to me of a round Quadrangle; or
accidents of Bread in Cheese; or Immateriall Substances; or of A
free Subject; A free-Will; or any Free, but free from being
Chapter 4 Quotes hindered by opposition, I should not say he were in an Errour;
but that his words were without meaning; that is to say, Absurd.
Another, when men make a name of two Names, whose
significations are contradictory and inconsistent; as this name,
an incorporeall body, or (which is all one) an incorporeall Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Christ
substance, and a great number more. For whensoever any
affirmation is false, the two names of which it is composed, put Related Themes:
together and made one, signifie nothing at all.
Page Number: 113

Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Aristotle, Explanation and Analysis

God This passage defines the absurdity of words and further
reflects Hobbes’s religious sentiments, especially his
Related Themes: rejection of Catholic beliefs and practices, as well as the
limitations of a subject within a common-wealth. Absurdity
Page Number: 108 in speech is that which is “Insignificant, and Non-sense,” like “a

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round Quadrangle.” A quadrangle is a shape with four sides, creatures capable of absurdity, and he claims that the most
so to describe the same shape as also being round is absurd absurd human beings are those who “professe Philosophy.”
and renders the phrase “Insignificant, and Non-sense.” The Hobbes calls on Cicero, a Roman philosopher from the first
same can be said for those who speak of “accidents of Bread century BCE, who apparently shares his opinion. While
in Cheese,” which is another veiled reference to Cicero certainly fits the definition of the Gentiles of ancient
transubstantiation and the conversion of bread and wine Rome and Greece whom Hobbes sees as the worst
into the physical body and blood of Christ. To claim the offenders of absurdity, Hobbes often agrees with Cicero’s
ability to transform bread and wine into the literal body and works and opinions.
blood of another is, according to Hobbes, absurd, as is the Hobbes’s main complaint with philosophy is that
belief that a substance can be incorporeal. philosophers usually do not provide “the Definitions, or
Hobbes ranks these religious absurdities right up there with Explications of the names they are to use,” which renders
people who speak of “A free subject; A free-Will; or any Free.” their philosophies matters of opinion, not reason or fact. To
The subject of a common-wealth is held under the power of counter this in his own philosophy, and to elevate it to the
the sovereign. While a subject’s actions are not technically study of geometry, which is rooted in such “ratiocination,”
“hindered by opposition,” meaning there is no physical force Hobbes meticulously defines and explains every term he
being placed on a subject to impede their actions, every includes in Leviathan, so that his own philosophy may be
subject is limited to the behavior that has been approved considered “indisputable.” Despite the fact that Hobbes
and authorized by the sovereign power of a common-wealth believes his own philosophy to be grounded in fact and
in the form of laws. While a subject is certainly free to act as reason, his argument may just end up proving that those
they please, they are not free from the consequences of philosophies not rooted in numbers and shapes can never
their actions, which is always at the discretion of the be fact and will always be a philosopher’s opinion.
sovereign. Therefore, to say the subject of a common-
wealth is wholly free is just as absurd as it is to claim a
physical body can be made of an intangible substance. Chapter 7 Quotes
But by Beleeving in, as it is in the Creed, is meant, not trust
in the Person; but Confession and acknowledgement of the
But this priviledge, is allayed by another; and that is, by the Doctrine. For not onely Christians, but all manner of men do so
priviledge of Absurdity; to which no living creature is believe in God, as to hold all for truth they heare him say,
subject, but man onely. And of men, those are of all most whether they understand it, or not; which is all the Faith and
subject to it, that professe Philosophy. For it is most true that trust can possibly be had in any person whatsoever: But they
Cicero sayth of them somewhere; that there can be nothing so do not all believe the Doctrine of the Creed.
absurd, but may be found in the books of Philosophers. And the
reason is manifest. For there is not one of them that begins his Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God
ratiocination from the Definitions, or Explications of the names
they are to use; which is a method that hath been used onely in Related Themes:
Geometry; whose Conclusions have thereby been made
indisputable. Page Number: 133

Explanation and Analysis

Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Cicero
This passage is near the end of Hobbes’s chapter on the
Related Themes: purpose of discourse, and it is important because it
underscores the difference between believing in God and
Page Number: 113-114 believing in Christian doctrine. To be a Christian during
Hobbes’s day was to believe in accepted “Doctrine,” which is
Explanation and Analysis the approved Holy Scripture, such as the Bible and other
This passage, which appears in the chapter on reason and religious writings that are considered the official “Word of
science, reflects Hobbes’s attack on philosophy and his God.” For Hobbes, believing in “the Creed,” or accepted
attempt to elevate his own philosophy to that of geometry, Christian doctrine, is not to trust in God; believing in “the
the only philosophy that is “indisputable.” Hobbes has Creed” is to trust in the dubious authorship and
already argued that human beings are the only living interpretation of Holy Scripture. Hobbes separates a belief
in God from a belief in the authority of Holy Scripture, a

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particularly controversial claim during the 17th century and subject of a common-wealth who can claim natural
likely the cause of Hobbes’s reputation as an atheist. superiority or power over another, which is in keeping with
Hobbes, however, does not consider such an opinion God’s laws of equality and fairness.
blasphemous or offensive to God. On the contrary, a belief
in God in the absence of doctrine to back it up is the height
of faith and is all the trust that can “possibly be had in any Chapter 12 Quotes
person whatsoever.” Hobbes argues that a belief in God And in these foure things, Opinion of Ghosts, Ignorance of
does not necessarily mean a belief in accepted doctrine, second cause, Devotion towards what men fear, and Taking of
which Hobbes claims is largely due to the misinterpretation things Casuall for Prognostiques, consisteth the Naturall seed
of Holy Scripture. To fix this problem, Hobbes offers of Religion; which by reason of the different Fancies,
alternative—and, he claims, correct—interpretations of Holy Judgements, and Passions of severall men, hath grown up into
Scripture throughout Leviathan. Through correction of ceremonies so different, that those which are used by one man,
scripture, Hobbes illustrates exactly how one can have faith are for the most part ridiculous to another.
in God while still rejecting widespread Christian doctrine.
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God
Chapter 11 Quotes Related Themes:
And therefore the voluntary actions, and inclinations of all
men, tend, not only to the procuring, but also to the assuring of Page Number: 172-173
a contented life; and differ onely in the way: which ariseth
Explanation and Analysis
partly from the diversity of passions, in divers men; and partly
from the difference of the knowledge, or opinion each one has This quote appears in Hobbes’s chapter on religion, and it is
of the causes, which produce the effect desired. significant because it defines “the Naturall seed of Religion”
and underscores Hobbes’s primary argument that most
religious practices and scripture are rooted in the
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God
“Passions” of men, not God. The “the Naturall seed of
Religion,” according to Hobbes, involves a few basic things: a
Related Themes:
belief in “Ghosts” and spirits; an ignorance of science and
Page Number: 161 the natural causes of things; honor of that which is feared;
and the mistaking of normal events for prophecy. Hobbes
Explanation and Analysis claims that religion, like absurdity, is peculiar to humans
This passage, which appears in the chapter addressing the alone and is not found in any other living creature, and he
different manners of humankind, underscores Hobbes’s further suggests religion is just as absurd and relies on
primary argument that all of humankind is equal, in a state myth, ignorance, fear, and naivety.
of nature and in a common-wealth. According to Hobbes, For Hobbes, religion is not the “Passions” of God, but those
humans in nature are in a state of perfect equality, in which of many men, who have parlayed the very same Holy
no one person is above the other, unless one subdues the Scripture “into ceremonies so different, that those which
other with violence and war. In nature, the “voluntary are used by one man, are for the most part ridiculous to
actions, and inclinations of all men” are geared at obtaining a another.” Hobbes points out the major differences in
“contented,” or happy, life. The only difference, Hobbes religious practices between different kinds of Christians,
contends, is the “diversity of passions,” or individual Catholics and Protestants in particular, but he ultimately
emotions, which arise from each person. maintains that most religious practices are the result of a
Hobbes also concedes that different people have different misinterpretation of Holy Scripture. Through Leviathan,
levels of education, experiences, and opinions, which Hobbes argues that a belief in God’s supernatural power
produce a myriad of desired effects, but these differences does not mean one must abandon their common sense and
all stem back to a similar place and similar opportunities. accept absurdity, like ghosts and prophecy, as spiritual law.
Therefore, there is not one person in nature who begins
from a place of privilege or power, and this argument holds
true in Hobbes’s understanding of civil society as well. With
the exception of the sovereign power, there is not one civil

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But where God himselfe, by supernaturall Revelation, For who is there that does not see, to whose benefit it
planted Religion; there he also made to himself a peculiar conduceth, to have it believed, that a King hath not his
Kindgome; and gave Lawes, not only of behavior towards Authority from Christ, unlesse a Bishop crown him? That a
himself; but also towards one another; and thereby in the King, if he be a Priest, cannot Marry? That whether a Prince be
Kingdome of God, the Policy, and lawes Civill, are a part of born in lawfull Marriage, or not, must be judged by Authority
Religion; and therefore the distinction of Temporall, and from Rome? That Subjects may be freed from their Alleageance,
Spirituall Domination, hath there no place. It is true, that God is if by the Court of Rome, the King be judged a Heretique? That a
King of all the Earth; Yet may he be King of a peculiar, and King (as Chilperique of France) may be deposed by a Pope (as
chosen Nation. Pope Zachary,) for no cause; and his Kingdome given to one of
his Subjects?
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Christ
Related Themes:
Related Themes:
Page Number: 178
Page Number: 182
Explanation and Analysis
This passage also appears in Hobbes’s explanation of Explanation and Analysis
religion, and it is significant because it illustrates the This quote, which outlines the power of the Catholic Pope,
difference between a “Temporall,” or civil, earthly sovereign, further highlights the anti-Catholic sentiments of the time
and a sovereign that is “Spirituall,” or godly. While Hobbes and Hobbes’s own understanding of civil power. Despite the
implies that religion itself can be absurd due to humankind’s Protestant Reformation and the creation of the Church of
passions, he nevertheless argues God’s existence and England, the Catholic Pope still claimed authority and
absolute power. In nations where God has revealed his power over all of Christendom during Hobbes’s day. This
supernatural power, he made a “peculiar Kingdome,” in power was exerted through the Roman Inquisition (which
which God’s laws were made civil law and there was no led to the imprisonment and execution of countless
distinction between “Temporall, and Spirituall Domination.” Christian heretics) and the authority claimed over the
While Hobbes doesn’t explicitly state it here, he explains Christian sovereigns of other common-wealths. For
later that this “peculiar Kingdome” has only existed with the Hobbes, it is easy to see that the Pope alone benefits from
Israelites, who had a personal covenant with God. the power he claims over the sovereigns of other
Hobbes explains that the people of Israel, after fleeing independent common-wealths.
captivity in Egypt, entered into a covenant with God, in As the sovereign of a civil common-wealth, such as a king,
which they agreed to observe God as their civil, “Temporall” derives his power directly from Christ and the covenant
sovereign, as well as their “Spirituall” sovereign. In God’s created with the people, it makes no difference if that king is
Kingdome, religious law and civil law were one and the crowned by a Catholic Bishop. Nor does the Pope have the
same, but this is not the case with common-wealths in authority to keep a king from marrying, even if said king is a
general. According to Hobbes, “God is King of all the Earth,” priest. By allowing the Pope to decide which children and
but God was King of the Israelites over and above the which marriages are legitimate, this allows the Pope to
dominion he already claims over all humankind as a spiritual influence royal succession, which is also outside the Pope’s
sovereign, which is why the Israelites constituted God’s claim to power. Furthermore, Hobbes argues that the Pope
“peculiar Kingdome.” This point again becomes important in does not have the power to dissolve an existing covenant if
Hobbes’s discussion of the difference between civil and he deems a king a heretic, as Pope Zachary did in 751 when
religious laws, as religious laws can only become civil law if he deposed Childeric III, the King of Francia, at the behest
approved by a civil sovereign. of a rival king. The Pope, according to Hobbes, has no
natural or supernatural claim to such power, especially over
the sovereign kings of common-wealths, whose own power
cannot be matched or usurped.

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Chapter 13 Quotes Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of Warre,

where every man is Enemy to every man; the same is
Hereby it is manifest, that during the time men live
consequent to the time, wherein men live without other
without a common Power to keep them all in awe, they are in
security, than what their own strength, and their own invention
that condition which is called Warre; and such a warre, as is of
shall furnish from withal. In such a condition, there is no place
every man, against every man. For Warre, consisteth not in
for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and
Battel lonely, or the act of fighting; but in a tract of time,
consequently no Culture of the Earth; […] no Knowledge of the
wherein the Will to contend by Battell is sufficiently known: […]
face of the Earth; no account of Time; no Arts; no Letters; no
All other time is peace.
Society; and which is worst of all, continuall feare, and danger
of violent death; And the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty,
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker) brutish, and short.

Related Themes:
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), Aristotle
Page Number: 185-186
Related Themes:
Explanation and Analysis
Page Number: 186
This passage appears in the chapter on the condition of
humankind in nature, and it is significant because it outlines Explanation and Analysis
Hobbes’s definition of war and suggests that war is always
This quote also appears in the chapter that explains the
implicit in nature. According to Hobbes, anytime in which
condition of humankind in nature, and it is significant
people are living outside of the authority of a “common
because it reflects Hobbes’s opinion that the state of
Power,” those people are in a “condition which is called
humankind in nature is one of violence, fear, and discontent.
Warre,” and that condition “is of every man, against every
Throughout history, the state of humankind in nature has
man.” Without a central power to keep people in line, people
been debated by numerous philosophers, including
are violent, aggressive, and confrontational. In Hobbes’s
Aristotle, who believed that humankind in a state of nature
view, this condition does not just include actual “Battell,” or
is social and prone to kindness, compassion, and community.
fighting, but it includes the desire or intention to do battle
Hobbes’s idea of a natural human is the exact opposite of
with another, which, without a central power, is all the time.
Aristotle’s, as Hobbes instead maintains that humans are
As the very definition of nature is the lack of a central power naturally “solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.”
to control and mediate humankind, it can reasonably be
This passage outlines just how unpleasant Hobbes
concluded that a state of nature and a state of war are
considers the state of nature to be. Without a centralized
synonymous. Thus, one cannot expect to ever find peace or
power to keep people in line, there is constant war, and no
security in a state of nature, which is why, Hobbes
one has security outside of what their physical strength or
ultimately argues, humankind abandoned nature and
imagination can produce. In this condition, there is no
created common-wealths through covenants in which they
happiness or safety, and since there is no society, there is
endowed a single entity with the power to preserve the
nothing that society offers, like “Art,” “Culture,” or
lives and rights of those subjects who entered into the
“Knowledge.” There is only constant fear and “danger of
covenant. By agreeing to place their natural right to self-
violent death,” which does not paint a pretty picture of
preservation with a single power, the subjects of a common-
humankind in nature. Furthermore, this quote also
wealth ensure their safety and reasonable contentment by
highlights the pervasiveness of fear, which Hobbes numbers
ending the state of war that is nature.
as one of the most motivating forces of humankind.

The Passions that encline men to Peace, are Feare of

Death; Desire of such things as are necessary to
commodious living; and a Hope by their Industry to obtain
them. And Reason suggesteth convenient Articles of Peace,
upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These Articles,
are they, which otherwise are called the Lawes of Nature:
whereof I shall speak of more particularly, in the two following
chapters.

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Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God because it outlines the universal right that each human
being naturally has. Jus Naturale is Latin for “natural law,”
Related Themes: and it is a reference to the fundamental ideas of right and
wrong inherent in each human being. This natural law, or
Page Number: 188 “Right of Nature,” as Hobbes calls it, is that every human
Explanation and Analysis being has the right to preserve their own life through any
means necessary or reasonable, and that each person has a
This passage appears near the end of Hobbes’s chapter on natural right to any part of nature that may make the
the condition of humankind in nature, and it is significant preservation of life more likely or feasible.
because it introduces the Laws of Nature and underscores
why humankind is opposed to war and nature. According to As each human beings are naturally endowed with the same
Hobbes, there are certain “Passions,” or emotions, which rights, the Laws of Nature exist so that each human being
every human being has that predispose them to peace, and can live in peace while also observing their fundamental
those emotions include the fear of violent death and the right of self-preservation. However, the entire point of
desire for a better life and the things that make such a life Hobbes’s argument is that without a central power to
possible. It is these “Passions” that drive humans towards compel people to follow laws and respect others’ rights, it
peace annd away from nature and a state of war. cannot be reasonably expected that people will follow any
laws, including the Laws of Nature. Thus, when people leave
As people are naturally drawn to certain “agreements,” or nature and enter into common-wealths via covenants,
“Articles,” in search of peace, Hobbes refers to a group of everyone’s natural right to self-preservation is handed over
general rules as the Laws of Nature. According to Hobbes, to the sovereign power to ensure the greater peace and
the Laws of Nature are based on the universal rights given safety of the common-wealth.
to each human by God, and each person discovers these
laws with their own natural reason, which is also a gift from
God. The Laws of Nature, which Hobbes explains in depth
over the next two chapters, are the basic laws that one must Men are freed of their Covenants two ways; by
observe in order to live in peace with other human beings. Performing; or by being Forgiven. For Performance, is the
Of course, since there is no central power in nature, there is naturall end of obligation; and Forgivenesse, the restitution of
no guarantee that any one person will follow the Laws of liberty; as being a retransferring of that Right, in which the
Nature; however, Hobbes maintains that the rules are obligation consisted.
nevertheless essential, and adhering to them is the only way
to stop the constant fear and violence that is nature. Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker)

Related Themes:
Chapter 14 Quotes
Page Number: 198
The Right of Nature, which Writers commonly call Jus
Naturale, is the Liberty each man hath, to use his own power, as Explanation and Analysis
he will himselfe, for the preservation of his own Nature; that is This passage outlines the ways in which one is freed of the
to say, of his own Life; and consequently, of doing any thing, obligation of a covenant under the Laws of Nature, as well
which in his own Judgement, and Reason, hee shall conceive to as the circumstances under which a sovereign power is
be the aptest means thereunto. freed from its obligation to a common-wealth. According to
Hobbes and the Laws of Nature, one is only freed from the
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker) obligation of a covenant once the terms of said covenant are
performed and fulfilled, or once the person with whom one
Related Themes: enters the covenant rescinds the terms of the contract. In
other words, the person to whom rights are transferred in
Page Number: 189 the creation of a covenant cannot forfeit those rights under
any circumstances and is obligated to perform them to the
Explanation and Analysis
desired end.
This passage appears in the chapter that discusses
As a common-wealth is created with a covenant, the same
contracts and the Laws of Nature, and it is important
general rules hold true for a sovereign power, to which the

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subjects’ right to self-preservation are transferred in the be no established definitions of right, wrong, or injustice. As
creation of the covenant. For the sovereign, “Performance, every covenant, common-wealth, and sovereign is different,
is the naturall end of obligation,” and the covenant never this also reinforces Hobbes’s argument that there can be no
expires. As such, a sovereign power is obligated to perform established definitions of justice and injustice whatsoever.
the rights the subjects have transferred over to the
sovereign without question, until such a time “as being a
retransferring of that Right” with the creation of new Chapter 18 Quotes
covenant, at which time a subject’s right to self-
Fifthly, and consequently to that which was sayd last, no
preservation is returned or invested in another. Then, and
man that hath Soveraigne power can justly be put to death, or
only then, Hobbes argues, can a sovereign be lawfully
otherwise in any manner by his Subjects punished. For seeing
relieved of their power.
every Subject is Author of the actions of his Soveraigne; he
punisheth another, for the actions committed by himselfe.

Chapter 15 Quotes
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker)
And in this law of Nature, consisteth the Fountain and
Originall of JUSTICE. For where no Covenant hath proceeded, Related Themes:
there hath no Right been transferred, and every man has right
to every thing; and consequently, no action can be Unjust. But Page Number: 232
when a Covenant is made, then to break it is Unjust: and the
definition of INJUSTICE, is no other than the not Performance of Explanation and Analysis
Covenant. And whatsoever is not Unjust, is Just. This quote, which appears in the chapter in which Hobbes
outlines the rights of the sovereign power, reflects the Law
of Nature that maintains a sovereign can never be wrong or
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker)
questioned. The previous rule outlined in this chapter states
Related Themes: that no sovereign can ever be punished by a subject for a
wrongdoing, and this rule continues that argument. As a
Page Number: 202 sovereign can never be punished, a sovereign can never be
lawfully “put to death.” According to the Laws of Nature,
Explanation and Analysis since a sovereign is imbued with the power and rights of its
This passage appears in the final chapter discussing the subjects, a subject is technically the “Author of the actions
Laws of Nature, and it is important because it underscores of his Soveraigne,” and it is impossible to punish “another, for
Hobbes’s argument that accepted definitions of justice and the actions committed by himselfe.”
injustice do not exist. Hobbes argues that in a state of This argument takes on increased weight when put into
nature, where there exists no covenants and “no Right [has] context with the political and social unrest of the common-
been transferred,” there can be no right or wrong. In nature, wealth of England during Hobbes’s day. During the English
“every man has a right to every thing,” and because of this, Civil War, King Charles I was put on trial for tyranny by his
nothing is ever “Unjust.” In Hobbes’s view, this proves that subjects and executed. Here, Hobbes implies that such an
definitions and terms can never be fixed and must be action was not only prohibited according to the Laws of
defined at the outset, a contention that becomes Nature, he implies that the parliamentarians (those who
particularly important in Hobbes’s argument regarding fought against the royalists during the war) punished their
philosophy and the knowledge of truth and fact, versus the rightful king for the parliamentarians’ own tyrannous
knowledge of opinion or false assumptions. actions. In Hobbes’s view, the usurpation of King Charles
A covenant defines that which is unjust, and without a and the institution of Parliament as England’s sovereign
covenant, words such as just and unjust cannot exist. From power violates the Laws of Nature and the initial covenant
the moment a covenant is struck, to break the covenant entered into by the people.
becomes the very definition of “INJUSTICE” and must be
avoided at all costs. When a common-wealth is created by a
covenant, it is the sovereign’s responsibility, according to
the Laws of Nature, to decide what is permissible by law,
which also defines that which is just or unjust. Without the
covenant and the creation of the sovereign power, there can

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Chapter 19 Quotes Chapter 20 Quotes

Now a Monarchy, the private interest is the same with the The skill of making, and maintaining Common-wealths,
publique. The riches, power, and honour of a Monarch arise consisteth in certain Rules, as doth Arithmetique and
onely from the riches, strength and reputation of his Subjects. Geometry; not (as Tennis-play) on Practise onely: which Rules,
For no King can be rich, nor glorious, nor secure; whose neither poor men have the leisure, nor men that have had the
Subjects are either poore, or contemptible, or too weak leisure, have hitherto had the curiosity, or the method to find
through want, or dissention, to maintain a war against their out.
enemies; Whereas in a Democracy, or Aristocracy, the publique
prosperity conferres not so much to the private fortune of one
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker)
that is corrupt, or ambitious, as doth many times a perfidious
advice, a treacherous action, or a Civill warre. Related Themes:

Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker) Related Symbols:

Related Themes: Page Number: 261

Page Number: 241-242 Explanation and Analysis

This passage, which appears in the chapter that explains the
Explanation and Analysis
types and dominions of power, further reflects Hobbes’s
This passage appears in the chapter that explains the attempt to elevate the political philosophy of Leviathan to
different kinds of common-wealths, and it is important that of “Arithmetique and Geometry,” which are
because it underscores Hobbes’s primary argument that a indisputable. This quote is quite sarcastic. Hobbes
monarchy is the best kind of common-wealth. Hobbes maintains that there are “certain Rules” to follow in creating
maintains that a monarch’s “private interest is the same” as the ideal common-wealth, which he refers to as “the great
the public interest, and that a monarch—a king, for Leviathan,” and Hobbes alone is privy to these rules. These
example—can only be as rich, strong, and honorable as his rules do not rely on “Practise,” or experience, as something
subjects. If a king’s subjects are “weak,” “poore,” or like playing tennis does. Rather, the building of common-
“contemptible,” so is the king. Since no king wants to be wealths relies on sound reason and knowledge of absolute
known in such a way, a king is motivated to give his subjects facts.
the best possible life. This is not the case, Hobbes argues, in
“Arithmetique and Geometry” are the only philosophies that
other kinds of common-wealths.
rely on solid facts and reason, and this is the same way
In the assemblies of aristocracies and democracies, public Hobbes views the building of common-wealths. There is a
“prosperity” and well-being means nothing in relation “to correct way to do things, and a wrong way to do things, and
the private fortune” of a “corrupt, or ambitious,” assembly the techniques that Hobbes establishes in Leviathan are,
member. When the sovereign power is an assembly, Hobbes according to Hobbes at least, beyond all contestation.
maintains that power is more susceptible to “perfidious Hobbes implies that no other philosophers to date “have
advice,” meaning a sovereign assembly is more likely to be hitherto had the curiosity, or the method to” create or
disloyal to subjects, as the collective good of a common- explain the ideal common-wealth, and Hobbes offers that
wealth’s subjects does not reflect on members of a method in Leviathan. In Hobbes’s opinion, his own
sovereign assembly in quite the same way as when the philosophy represents fact and reason, whereas other
sovereign is a single person. The weaknesses of a sovereign political philosophies offer only opinion.
assembly make it vulnerable to “treacherous action, or a
Civill warre,” which Hobbes warns are death to a common-
wealth. Thus, Hobbes argues, to avoid such complications, a Chapter 29 Quotes
monarchy is the absolute best kind of common-wealth.
Of which, this is one, That a man to obtain a Kingdome, is
sometimes content with lesse Power, that to the Peace, and defence
of the Common-wealth is necessarily required.

Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker)

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Related Themes: Page Number: 442

Explanation and Analysis

Page Number: 364
This passage reflects Hobbes’s primary argument that
Explanation and Analysis God’s Kingdome is not the present-day Christian Church, as
This passage underscores the primary reason why a it is commonly believed to be. Hobbes claims his own
common-wealth fails. According to the Laws of Nature, a interpretation of Holy Scripture indicates that God’s
sovereign power is imbued with all the rights and powers of Kingdome is a “Kingdome properly so named,” which means
the subjects of a common-wealth, and that power cannot be God’s Kingdome was common-wealth created through a
divided or diminished; however, Hobbes maintains that covenant and the “Votes of the People of Israel in peculiar
sovereign powers of common-wealths, primarily kings, are manner.” The “peculiar manner” that Hobbes speaks of here
“content with lesse Power” than the terms of the covenant is the Israelites’ agreement to make God their sovereign
that binds the common-wealth affords. When a king settles power, over and above the spiritual power God already
for less power than that which is naturally due him, it is claims over all of humankind.
fundamentally at odds with the very purpose of the In exchange for their individual rights and powers, God
common-wealth, and it puts the common-wealth in danger promised the people of Israel “possession of the land of
of dissolution. Canaan,” which is the land surrounding present-day
According to Hobbes, there are many ways in which a king Palestine. God gave this land to the Israelites for their
settles for less power than what he has, and this denial of common-wealth, and that land and common-wealth was
power can be in ignorance of for some perceived benefit, known as God’s Kingdome on Earth. Thus, according to
but the end result is always the same: the power of the Hobbes, God’s Kingdome is not the present day Christian
sovereign is diminished, and the common-wealth is left open Church, nor is it some place in Heaven. God’s Kingdome is
and vulnerable. The number one way in which a king settles wherever God enters into a covenant with the people and
for less power is allowing the Pope in Rome to claim creates a common-wealth. In Hobbes’s opinion, God’s
spiritual power over the Christian subjects of the king’s Kingdome is not to be taken “metaphorically,” and a subject
common-wealth. In dividing his power with the Pope, the can recognize God’s power and obey his rule without
king effectively makes his subjects beholden to two “prejudice to the [earthly] Soveraign.” As a subject is not
sovereigns, which violates the Laws of Nature. If a subject is beholden to the spiritual power of God until the Second
beholden to both a civil and a spiritual sovereign, they Coming and the end of earthly days, this does not violate
become confused as to which power to obey and may not nor interfere with any earthly covenant.
always obey their civil sovereign. Such confusion is
detrimental to a common-wealth, Hobbes says, and will
more than likely lead to its ultimate dissolution. Chapter 44 Quotes
This considered, the Kingdome of Darknesse, as it is set
forth in these, and other places of the Scripture, is nothing else
Chapter 35 Quotes but a Confederacy of Deceivers, that to obtain dominion over men
To the contrary, I find the Kingdome of God, to signifie in in this present world, endeavor by dark, and erroneous Doctrines, to
most places of Scripture, a Kingdome properly so named, extinguish in them the Light, both of Nature, and of the Gospell; and
constituted by the Votes of the People of Israel in peculiar so to dis-prepare them for the Kingdome of God to come.
manner; wherein they chose God for their King by Covenant
made with him, upon Gods promising them the possession of
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God
the land of Canaan; and but seldom metaphorically; and then it
is taken for Dominion over sinne; (and only in the New Related Themes:
Testament;) because such a Dominion as that, every Subject
shall have in the Kingdome of God, and without prejudice to the Page Number: 627-628
Soveraign.
Explanation and Analysis

Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker), God This quote, which appears in the chapter that focuses on the
misinterpretation of Holy Scripture, outlines Hobbes’s
Related Themes: definition of the “Kingdome of Darknesse.” According to

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Hobbes, his definition of the Kingdome of Darkness comes

Related Themes:
directly from Holy Scripture, which has additional authority
with his religious audience. The Kingdome of Darkness is
Page Number: 714
simply those who seek earthly power over others “by dark,
and erroneous Doctrines.” This power extinguishes “the Explanation and Analysis
Light, both of Nature, and of Gospell,” which means that this This quote occurs near the end of Leviathan, in the chapter
evil power violates both God’s law and the Laws of Nature.
on Darkness and whom it benefits, and it is significant
The Kingdome of Darkness “dis-prepares them for the because it highlights Hobbes’s primary argument that the
Kingdome of God to come” because to live in Darkness is to Kingdome of Darkness overwhelmingly benefits the Pope in
deny the power and Light of God. Without recognizing and Rome. Here, Hobbes compares the Pope’s power to “the
embracing the power and Light of God, one cannot possibly Kingdome of Fairies” that comes “from the Traditions of old
be expected to be saved and forgiven, which ensures one’s Wives, or old Poets.” From Hobbes’s point of view,
entrance into God’s Kingdome on Judgement Day. The Catholicism and the power that the Pope claims is
Kingdome of Darkness is often the result of imaginary and exists only “in the Fancies of ignorant people.”
misinterpretation of Holy Scripture, but it is also the result This, obviously, is highly offensive to Catholics and those
of false philosophies and corrupt political ambition. Hobbes who believe in the Pope’s authority over all of Christendom,
exposes the Kingdome of Darkness through Leviathan, and which again reflects the anti-Catholic sentiments of
with the correct interpretation of Holy Scripture and the Hobbes’s time.
Laws of Nature, he hopes to deliver the common-wealth of
Hobbes contends that this false power that the Pope claims
England from the Kingdome of Darkness.
is nothing more than an attempt to secure power over the
people where it does not rightly exist. By using fear and the
power of the Kingdome of Darkness, the Pope has “Seduced
Chapter 47 Quotes people” with “Excommunication,” “false Miracles, false
To this, and such like resemblances between the Papacy, Traditions, and false Interpretations of the Scripture.”
and the Kingdome of Fairies, may be added this, that as the Hobbes makes this fear and false power clear through
Fairies have no existence, but in the Fancies of ignorant people, Leviathan and attempts to lead people into the light. The
rising from the Traditions of old Wives, or old Poets: so the Pope’s power exists only within “the bounds of his own Civil
Spirituall Power of the Pope (without the bounds of his own Dominion” and extends only to the subjects of that
Civil Dominion) consisteth onely in the Fear that Seduced common-wealth. The Pope does not have absolute and
people stand in, of the Excommunication; upon hearing of false infinite power over the subjects of other common-wealths,
Miracles, false Traditions, and false Interpretations of the and to assume that he does, according to Hobbes, makes
Scripture. one complicit in the creation and maintenance of the
Kingdome of Darkness.
Related Characters: Thomas Hobbes (speaker)

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SUMMARY AND ANAL

ANALYSIS
YSIS
The color-coded icons under each analysis entry make it easy to track where the themes occur most prominently throughout the
work. Each icon corresponds to one of the themes explained in the Themes section of this LitChart.

THE EPISTLE DEDICATORY: TO MY MOST HONOR’D FRIEND MR. FRANCIS GODOLPHIN OF

GODOLPHIN
Hobbes dedicates Leviathan to Francis Godolphin and begins Francis Godolphin was an English politician and a member of
by mentioning Godolphin’s late brother, Mr. Sidney Godolphin, Parliament. Like Hobbes, Godolphin was a Royalist, and he
whom Hobbes held in high regard. It is because of this respect supported the monarchy. Godolphin’s brother, Sidney, was a poet
that Hobbes now dedicates his discussion of common-wealths who also served as a member of Parliament. Sidney was killed in
to Francis. Hobbes does not know how others will receive his 1643 fighting for the Royalists during the English Civil War
book. There is a great divide in England between those who (1642-1651). Hobbes refers to the Civil War—which pitted the
desire too much liberty and those who desire too much Royalists (those who supported the monarchy) against the
authority; thus, it is likely some people will find many of Parliamentarians (those who favored a more democratic approach
Hobbes’s ideas upsetting. to government)—several times in Leviathan, as he does here with
mention of England’s political divide. This letter also identifies the
purpose of Hobbes’s book: to address the political nature of
common-wealths, a particularly important topic of the time. The
war, which was ultimately a victory for the Parliamentarians, was
coming to an end, and society and government were changing
rapidly.

Despite the likelihood that Hobbes’s words will offend some Hobbes is writing from Paris, not England, because, as a famous
readers (like his treatment of Holy Scripture, for instance, Royalist, he was forced to flee England due to his political beliefs.
which Hobbes cites in unorthodox ways) he believes his book is Hobbes knew that his book was going to offend people, especially
nevertheless necessary for the advancement of civil society. his political opposition. As a member of Parliament, Godolphin
Furthermore, Hobbes speaks not of specific people, but of the worked closely with the very same people (the “Seat of Power”) that
“Seat of Power” in an abstract way. Still, if Francis Godolphin Hobbes writes of abstractly in his book, which could potentially put
finds that he disagrees with the ideas expressed in the Godolphin in a difficult position. In addition to Hobbes’s radical
following pages, he is free to tell others that Hobbes deeply ideas about government, he also has radical ideas about religion,
honored both Francis and his brother, Sidney, and this and he was accused of being an atheist. Like his political ideas,
dedication was written entirely without Godolphin’s Hobbes knows his religious views will outrage others.
knowledge. The letter is signed in Paris by Hobbes on April
15-25, 1651.

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THE INTRODUCTION
Hobbes claims that human life is nothing but the movement of Hobbes opens with an analogy of a common-wealth as a living
arms and legs, and any other automated machine is no human being, which is a comparison he returns to throughout the
different. An engine has “artificial life”—the heart is but a book. Hobbes has a theory concerning the ideal common-wealth
“Spring,” the nerves are “Strings,” and the whole body is given that he calls “Leviathan,” a reference to a powerful sea monster in
motion by “Wheeles.” So is the case in art and in any other work the biblical Book of Job. In Christianity, the image of Leviathan is
created by humankind, such as in the “great LEVIATHAN called often employed to represent the power of people united, which is
a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is exactly how Hobbes sees his ideal common-wealth: many people
but an Artificiall Man.” The sovereign is “an Artificiall Soul,” and united under a single power. As Hobbes claims civil war is “Death” to
the magistrates and members of the judiciary and executive a common-wealth, it can be inferred that he believes the common-
government are the “artificiall Joynts.” A sovereign nation’s wealth of England has died secondary to the English Civil War.
abilities to punish and reward citizens are the “Nerves,” and the
peoples’ safety is its “Businesse.” Laws are like “artificiall Reason”
and civil war is “Death.”

The purpose of Hobbes’s book is to “describe the Nature of this England changed drastically during the Civil War (the monarchy
Artificiall man,” and he will do so in four ways. First, Hobbes will was overthrown and King Charles I was executed), and Hobbes is
describe “Man,” who is the “Artificer” of the Leviathan. Then, offering a theory for the creation of the ideal society—one he hopes
Hobbes will describe how a Leviathan is made and under what England will adopt as it rebuilds. Religion and Holy Scripture were a
rights and power it is maintained or destroyed. Hobbes will also major part of life in 17th-century England, and Hobbes can’t offer a
discuss the “Christian Common-wealth” and the “Kingdome of model for a utopian society without addressing how religion and
Darkness.” God fits into that society. Hobbes’s reference to the “Kingdome of
Darkness” suggests he will also address evil and immorality.

Hobbes cites two common sayings: “Wisedome is acquired, not This passage speaks to the importance of knowledge and reason,
by reading of Books, but of Men,” and “Nosce teipsum, Read thy which are important components of philosophy. Hobbes implies
self.” Adages such as these teach others that passions and that politics and the building of a Leviathan (the ideal common-
thoughts are common to all of humankind and that everyone wealth) involves complex philosophy because it must account for all
thinks, reasons, hopes, and fears. What each person thinks different kinds of people. One major similarity people share is fear
about, hopes, and fears is different and individual, but these (everyone fears something), and Hobbes argues fear is a major
basic passions at least are shared. In governing a nation—a motivating force in everything humans do.
Leviathan—one must read not only their self, but all of
humankind, and doing so is more difficult than learning any
science or language.

CHAPTER 1: OF SENSE
Hobbes first considers the thoughts of humankind, both As Hobbes intends to describe the ideal common-wealth, he begins
individually and as a whole. Individually, thoughts are a with humans—the individual building blocks of a common-wealth.
“Representation” or “Apparence” of a body known as an “Object.” Of Hobbes’s explanation of humans, he begins with human
An object works on the eyes, ears, or other sense organs and thoughts, the foundation of the people that make up the building
produces different representations. The production of such blocks of the common-wealth. Hobbes wanted his philosophy to be
“apparences” are collectively known as the human senses, and indisputable, so he begins with the basics and makes one argument
every thought of humankind originates in some way from the before moving on to the next.
sense organs.

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Sense is caused by an “Externall Body, or Object,” pressing upon Hobbes refers to multiple philosophers in Leviathan and often
organs that taste, touch, see, hear, or smell. The object causes discounts their theories. Hobbes uses certain buzz words, such as
pressure on the nerves, which send messages to the brain and “fancy” or “representation,” which are often associated with specific
heart. Those messages in turn are experienced as sounds, lights philosophers he hopes to discount, like Aristotle and Plato. Aristotle
and colors, odors, or textures. Qualities such as these are in the argued that objects contain an essence and that essence can be
objects that cause them, and these objects—or matter—are in appreciated even in the absence of the object. Hobbes clearly
constant motion, repeatedly placing pressure on human sense disagrees, as he claims the “object is one thing,” and the “fancy [the
organs. One sees (or senses the object in some other way) an essence] is another.” Hobbes was a materialist, which is a
object and knows the object through one’s senses. “Yet still the philosophical school that assumes matter is the basic substance of
object is one thing,” Hobbes says, “the image or fancy is life and that everything, even one’s thoughts and conscience, is a
another.” result of the movement and interaction of matter.

The “Philosophy-schooles” of Aristotle consider the human Here, Hobbes explicitly mentions Aristotle and his understanding of
senses in a different way. For Aristotle, vision is caused by human senses. Aristotle’s view relies on an “apparition,” or ghost of
seeing an object, which sends a “visible species (in English) a an object, which is at odds with Hobbes’s materialist philosophy. For
visible shew, apparition, or aspect, or a being seen,” that is then Hobbes, the senses operate when they come into contact with
received by the eye. Hearing is much the same; an “Audible actual matter and substance, not the ghost or “species” of that
species” is sent to the ear. For something to be understood, matter. As Hobbes lays the groundwork for his philosophy, it is easy
Aristotle says an “intelligible species” makes one understand. to forget that his purpose is to describe the ideal common-wealth,
Hobbes disagrees, and he will amend this theory and all others and he often reminds the reader that he is working toward a greater
that are applicable to the Common-wealth. point, as he does here.

CHAPTER 2: OF IMAGINATION
Most people believe that objects at rest stay at rest until At the time, popular theories regarding objects at rest were in
something stirs them, but getting people to believe that an accordance with Aristotle’s theories of objects and motion, which
object in motion is eternally in motion unless something stops it Hobbes again contends are wrong. Hobbes believes objects are in
is another matter. According to Hobbes, all people measure constant motion unless otherwise stopped. Furthermore, Hobbes
things and people by themselves, and they have come to learn frequently points out that humans tend to act in their own self-
that if they themselves are in motion, they are subject to pain interest, a theory that is also contrary to Aristotle’s belief that
and exhaustion. The “Schooles” say that an object falls down people are naturally social and caring beings.
because it desires rest and is seeking a place that is most
agreeable; however, Hobbes sees motion in a different way.

According to Hobbes, when a body is in motion, it moves Hobbes’s explanation of imagination as “decaying sense” is in
eternally, and whatever stops a body in motion cannot do so keeping with his materialist views. The “Fancy,” or the essence of an
instantly. Movement is extinguished in degrees over time, as is object, is directly related to and dependent upon that object’s
seen in waves that continue to roll after the wind stops. The substance. The importance of this theory for Hobbes is that
same can be said for humankind’s thoughts; when an object is imagination—the most basic component of human
removed, an image—albeit an obscured one—is retained in the thought—cannot exist without first coming into direct contact with
mind. This retained image is called imagination, known to the some sort of matter or substance.
Greeks as “Fancy” that in turn signifies “apparence.” Imagination,
Hobbes argues, “is nothing but decaying sense,” and it is found in
all humans and other creatures, both sleeping and awake.

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The decaying of senses in humans is not a decay of motion as The decaying of senses cannot be the decaying of motion because
much as it is “an obscuring of it.” When the past is imagined, it is Hobbes argues that an object remains in motion until stopped; thus,
vague and weak, and the object perceived is made weaker and the object in question doesn’t slow down, it simply gets farther
more obscure as more time passes. The decay of imagination away, thereby becoming more obscure in one’s memory. Hobbes’s
(meaning when the sense of an object begins to fade and pass) understanding of human imagination is again founded on
is called memory. Memory and imagination are the same thing, materialism. Both forms of imagination, simple and compounded,
but they have different names and different considerations. are based on actual objects of substance that come into direct
Multiple memories of many things is called experience, contact with one’s sense organs. This distinction is important in
whereas imagination is only those things a person has Hobbes’s theory because it implies that imagination is not original
previously perceived through sense organs. Imagination can be and does not originate within a person. Instead, imagination begins
broken down into two types: simple imagination and with the object that is perceived.
compounded imagination. For example, simple imagination is
thinking about a person or a horse one has previously seen.
Compounded imagination, on the other hand, is joining that
same person and horse into a centaur.

Imagination during sleep are dreams, and dreams are Hobbes’s description of dreams implicitly refers to and dismisses
constituted by previous perceptions, either totally or in part. popular theories of the day related to dreams and reality, specifically
Dreams vary in the people, places, objects, and actions they those by French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), who
display, and they are often incomprehensible. As Hobbes often argued that one’s senses can never truly distinguish a dream from
recognizes the ridiculousness of his dreams while awake and reality (one usually doesn’t know they are dreaming as the dream
never dreams of how bizarre waking thoughts can be, he is itself is occurring); thus, any information one takes in by their senses
satisfied that he knows he is not dreaming while awake. Nor (i.e., everything) is unreliable since it can’t be known for sure at any
does he think himself awake while dreaming. Different moods given time that one is not dreaming. Hobbes implies this philosophy
cause different dreams. Fearful dreams come from fearful is absurd and believes he can reasonably distinguish between what
objects, and emotions felt in dreams can cause an actual is reality and what is a dream.
response in the human body, as do dreams of kindness or
desire.

Dreams can be difficult to discern if one is not aware they have Hobbes’s explanation of ghosts is a direct reference to the Catholic
slept, as can happen to someone who dozes off in a chair Church, and it mirrors the anti-Catholic sentiments of the time.
without going through the nighttime rituals of getting ready for While the Protestant Reformation began over 100 years earlier, the
bed. This inability to differentiate dreams from vision or other Inquisition of the Roman Catholic Church, which endeavored to
senses came from religions of the past that worshipped satyrs maintain Papal authority throughout Europe, was in full swing.
and nymphs and believed in fairies and witches. Witchcraft isn’t During the Inquisition, many Protestants were tortured and
true power, Hobbes claims, although witches are rightly executed for their religious beliefs. Hobbes considers Catholic
punished. A witch believes she has power and intends to do practices and rituals—exorcism, crosses, and holy water—ridiculous
harm; thus, she should be punished. As for ghosts, Hobbes inventions from ridiculous men that have no basis whatsoever in
maintains ghosts are taught to “keep in credit the use of God.
Exorcisme, of Crosses, of holy Water, and other such inventions
of Ghostly men.”

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There is no doubt, Hobbes argues, that God has the power to Hobbes frequently mentions the “Schooles,” by which he means
make an apparition appear, but to assume that God has done so certain philosophers, mostly those of ancient Greece and Rome, and
as often as humankind claims is silly. A wise person does not those who prescribe to their theories. Hobbes spends most of his
give credence to such absurdities, and if such superstitions book discounting the theories of the “Schooles,” as he does earlier
(which ambitious people often use to exploit others) were with Descartes, who was greatly influenced by Aristotle and Plato.
removed from society, humans “would be much more fitted Hobbes implies such philosophy is damaging to a civil society, and in
than they are for civill Obedience.” The “Schooles,” however, Hobbes’s ideal society, he sets right those philosophies he sees as
perpetuate such beliefs. Some philosophers say imagination wrong. Hobbes is often critical of the “Schooles,” calling them
rises without cause, and some think good thoughts are inspired “incomprehensible” and illogical.
by God and bad thoughts are inspired by the Devil. They argue
that “the Senses receive the Species of things,” which is
delivered to the senses, to the Fancy, and to the memory, but
there is very little understanding to be had in the convoluted
theories of the “Schooles.”

CHAPTER 3: OF THE CONSEQUENCE OR TRAYNE OF IMAGINATIONS

What one person thinks at any given time is not as casual and Hobbes’s explanation of mental thought is again grounded in the
arbitrary as it may seem. There is no imagination—that is to say philosophy of materialism, as he argues that all human thoughts are
no mental thought—that is not first perceived by the senses in in some way first perceived by the senses, which means the senses
some way. There are two kinds of mental discourse, or must first come into contact with an object before that object can
thoughts, and the first is “Unguided, without Designe, and become part of one’s imagination. Hobbes’s own unguided thoughts
inconstant.” For instance, if one thinks of civil war, they may reflect the political unrest of his time. His mention of civil war
also think of delivering a king onto his enemies, and therefore harkens to the English Civil War, during which King Charles I was
of delivering Christ as well. One may also think of 30 captured and executed by parliamentarians. Hobbes implies that
pence—the cost of such betrayal—and understand immediately those who captured Charles I did so for a payment of 30 pieces of
that “Thought is quick.” silver—the amount of silver Judas got for betraying Jesus—but he
also suggests that all thought, no matter how random, is connected
and rooted in experience.

The second kind of mental thought is constant and “regulated by In Hobbes’s definition of regulated mental thought, philosophy itself
some desire.” In regulated mental thought, one’s actions are is a form of such mental discourse, as philosophy endeavors to find
directed at obtaining said desire in some way. In other words, the cause of any given action or event. In the search for the cause of
one may desire something they have lost, and their mind will any given action or event, new memories and experiences gather to
run back again to a time or place in which they possessed the build the prudence, or wisdom, that is the end result of philosophy.
object of desire. This is called remembrance, and it can apply to In this vein, philosophy as an area of study and interest is at the very
any person, place, or object. At times, one “desires to know the foundation of human nature.
event of an action,” which means that since a particular action
caused a particular event in the past, it is reasonable to assume
that “like events will follow like actions.” This assumption is
called prudence or wisdom.

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Prudence can be false; however, those people with the most Hobbes’s reference to civil war again reflects the politics of the time.
experience are often the most prudent, and such expectations The English Civil War greatly changed, and in many cases
rarely fail. This is because those with the most experience have devastated, English society. The king was dead, and their
the “most Signes to guesse by.” A sign is a consequence of an government completely transformed from a monarchy to a
action that was previously observed, and those signs that are democracy led by Parliament. Hobbes implies that the Civil War will
less observed are less certain than signs that are observed all ultimately be the end of the England. This did not prove to be the
the time. In other words, prudence is the presumption of future case, but the Civil War did cause considerable upheaval for several
events based on past experience. An example again is civil war: years in English society.
when one has watched civil war ruin a thriving state, one can
presume that other states in civil war will suffer a similar fate.

One’s thoughts will always be limited, and no idea or concept God and, in certain circumstances, Christ, are the only exceptions to
can ever be infinite. No human being can conceive an idea of most of Hobbes’s theories. God’s power is infinite, and since people
“infinite magnitude” or claim “infinite power.” God, of course, are only able to grasp and understand what is finite, people cannot
has infinite power, but God’s power is inconceivable to fully understand God’s power. Hobbes was often accused of
humankind. Any thought, concept, or idea must first be atheism and blasphemy because of his religious views; however, he
perceived by some sense organ and therefore cannot be appears to at least believe in the existence of God.
infinite. Claims to the contrary, Hobbes contends, are “absurd
speeches” from “deceived Philosophers, and deceived, or
deceiving Schoolmen.”

CHAPTER 4: OF SPEECH
The purpose of speech is to transfer thoughts into something From Hobbes’s perspective, abusing speech is not necessarily a bad
verbal. God first used speech to talk to and instruct Adam, and thing. Furthermore, one can express their thoughts incorrectly
there are four ways in which a person can abuse speech. First, through ignorance and no fault of their own. While the abuse of
one may express their thoughts incorrectly, thereby lying to speech includes those who lie or insult others with words, it also
themselves and others. A second abuse is the use of metaphor, includes the use of rhetoric and persuasion through speech.
which uses words in ways other than what they are intended
for. Third is the telling of a lie, and the fourth abuse of language
is using words to harm or insult someone else.

Speech is remembered due to the naming of things and the For Hobbes, the naming of things and the connections formed
connections formed between them. Names can be proper—like between them is the very foundation of philosophy, or at least it
Peter or John—or they can be common, like human, tree, or should be. This opinion is why Hobbes spends so much time laying
bird. Two names can be joined together in speech, and that the groundwork for his philosophy—he must name everything and
speech is ether true or false. Hobbes points out that speech, explain the connections between them.
not things, is true or false; therefore, where there is no speech,
there can be neither truth nor falsehood.

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Truth consists of the right signification of things, which is called Hobbes later contends that most philosophy does not contain truth,
a definition, and the differences between names and definitions as most philosophy does not consist of the right signification of
can be reduced to four general areas. First, a thing can be given things. Definitions used in philosophy are either incorrect, vague, or,
a name or definition for its “Matter,” meaning, for instance, in Hobbes’s opinion, complete nonsense. If a particular philosophy is
something is alive or not. Secondly, an object can be named and grounded in false definitions, or no definitions, then the entire
defined based on its quality, that being, among other things, philosophy is false. Hobbes defines each word he uses in his
that an object is moving, or long, or hot. Third, objects are philosophy in an attempt to make his argument infallible and
considered and named in relation to people’s own bodies based beyond dispute.
on whether that thing is part of the self. Lastly, names and
definitions are given to words in general, such as an affirmation,
a narration, or a sermon, and such names are either negative or
positive.

Names that do not fall under these four general categories are Hobbes’s reference to an “incorporeal body” is another allusion to
“insignificant sounds,” which are sounds that have not yet been Catholicism. Incorporeal bodies, or spiritual bodies, are central to
defined. A type of “insignificant sound” is when two Catholic belief, as God is often referred to as the Holy Ghost, part of
contradictory words are joined, such as in the phrase the Trinity. Such a phrase is contradictory because something that is
“incorporeal body.” When hearing speech, a human makes “incorporeal” is without matter; a body, by definition, has mass and
connections in their thoughts based on previous sense takes up space. Putting these words together creates an
perceptions and accepted definitions in a process known as “insignificant sound,” and to Hobbes, such phrases are nonsense.
understanding; however, Hobbes warns that one must “take
heed of words.” One person’s wisdom can be another’s fear, and
one person’s idea of justice may be cruel to another.

CHAPTER 5: OF REASON, AND SCIENCE

When a human reasons, they conceive a sum based on the Although it is easily lost in his lengthy explanation of humans in
addition or subtraction of one thing to another. The same nature, Hobbes’s main objective in Leviathan is political philosophy.
process can be applied to thoughts and words. Thoughts are Here, Hobbes compares philosophy, particularly political
nothing more than the consequences of a name, either in whole philosophy, to mathematics and geometry, and in doing so he
or in part, to another name, itself either in whole or in part. elevates the credibility and logical soundness of his own philosophy
Numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided; to that of arithmetic. In mathematics there are established
however, so can thoughts and words. Mathematicians work definitions and factual answers to questions, and Hobbes attempts
with numbers, geometricians work with lines and figures, and to extend this infallibility to his own philosophy.
philosophers work with words and thoughts. Philosophers
concerned with politics work with laws and duties that are
either right or wrong in relation to private humans. Wherever
there is addition and subtraction of one thing to another, there
is also reason.

Reason, Hobbes says, “is nothing but Reck

Reckoning
oning (that is, Adding Hobbes argues that words and thoughts can never be made certain
and Subtracting) of the Consequences of generall names in the way numbers can. Ironically, though he presents his own
agreed upon, for the marking and signifying of our thoughts.” words and reason as if they are certain. Other philosophers have
Just as in mathematics, those inexperienced in the reasoning of made false conclusions, but Hobbes offers truth. Hobbes believes
words and thoughts are bound to make false conclusions, and his own reasoning definite, which he later notes is a common
even the most practiced people can fall prey to errors. Reason problem among human beings—they often think that their own
in words and thoughts is not always correct, as it is in reasoning is the only sound reasoning.
mathematics, and one person’s reason cannot be made certain.
When people think themselves wiser than others in general
and consider their own reason definite, this makes for an
unbearable society for others.

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The purpose of reason in words and language is not to find one Hobbes again alludes to the Catholic Church: the phrase
total sum or absolute truth; instead, reason should begin with a “Immaterial Substances” is another reference to the existence of
myriad of sums and truths and go from there. Thus, there can incorporeal substances taught in Catholicism, and “accidents of
be no certainty in any conclusion, as there is no certainty in any Bread” alludes to the Catholic practice of transubstantiation (the
of the reason in which a conclusion is grounded. When one transformation of bread and wine into the body and blood of
reckons without words, it is known as an error, and an error can Christ), both of which Hobbes considers to be errors, or in other
be either false or absurd. A simple deception in thought is an words, absurd.
error, but an error that is inconceivable is an absurdity. For
instance, when one talks to Hobbes about “accidents of Bread in
Cheese; or Immateriall Substances,” he considers such thoughts
and words absurd.

No living creature other than human beings are subject to Hobbes claims that geometry is the only sound philosophy because
absurdity, and no one is subject to absurdity more than it begins with established definitions and terms, and he attempts to
philosophers. The reason for this absurdity is that philosophers ground his own philosophy in the same practice. Hobbes’s quote
do not begin with established definitions and names. Only the here is another veiled reference to Catholicism, which often claims
philosophy of geometry begins with established definitions and faith or piety is “powred [poured], or breathed into” people from
names, and the conclusions within geometry are therefore Heaven via the Holy Spirit. Hobbes again says such belief is absurd
certain and irrefutable. The first cause of absurdity is beginning and not grounded in any reason whatsoever. Only objects made of
philosophy without established definitions or values, and the matter can truly exist; thus, one’s faith cannot be “inspired” into
second is the “giving of names of bodies, to accidents; or of them.
accidents, to bodies.” In other words, to say that faith is “infused,
or inspired; when nothing can be powred, or breathed into any
thing,” is absurd.

The third cause of absurdity is the naming of “accidents” This passage, too, is a reference to Catholicism. Transubstantiation
outside the body based on what occurs inside the body. For is the conversion of bread and wine into the body and blood of
example, saying “the sound is in the ayre” is absurd. The fourth Christ during the Eucharist, and consubstantiation is the Protestant
cause is the giving of universal names, such as claiming “that a belief that the bread and wine coexist with the body and blood of
living creature is Genus, or a general thing.” The next cause of Christ. In Catholicism, Holy Communion (the body and blood of
absurdity is the naming of “accidents” in general, such as is Christ) is that unifying substance. The idea is that in consuming the
done in claims that “the nature of a thing is its definition,” and body and blood of Christ, Catholics become one under Christ, which
the sixth cause is the use of metaphors and rhetoric when Hobbes argues is ridiculous. A substance cannot change into
proper words will do. In other words, do not say “The Proverb another substance through incantation, he argues, and multiple
says this or that” when simple speech can be used. The seventh bodies cannot be made one through ingesting a shared substance.
and last cause of absurdity is naming that which signifies
nothing, as in the words “transubstantiate” and
“consubstantiate.”

The ability to reason is not born within each person as is the Signs of prudence are always uncertain because prudence is only an
ability to sense objects and create memory, nor is reason assumption of what will happen based on the consequences of past
accumulated through experience like prudence. Reason is events and experiences. An assumption can never be for certain,
obtained through the naming of things, established definitions, and many signs within science are based on assumptions. Thus,
and the connections made from one name to the next. The Hobbes argues that even science is not infallible in the way that
knowledge of the consequences of one name in relation to geometry and mathematics are.
another is known as science. Sense and memory are the
knowledge of facts; however, science “is the knowledge of
Consequences.” Some signs within science are certain, others
are not; however, all the signs of prudence are uncertain.

CHAPTER 6: OF THE INTERIOUR BEGINNINGS OF VOLUNTARY MOTIONS; COMMONLY CALLED

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THE PASSIONS. AND THE SPEECHES BY WHICH THEY ARE EXPRESSED.

There are two kinds of motion inside animals. One kind For Hobbes, imagination underpins all human acts, which is why he
includes motions that are vital, like the course of blood and spends so much time explaining it. Without first understanding the
breathing, which are not dependent upon imagination. The thoughts that bring humans to civil societies and common-wealths,
other kind includes motions that are voluntary and involve the one can’t possibly understand such civil societies.
use of limbs and the desire of minds. As all voluntary motions
rely on one of the senses identified in the previous chapters,
the foundation of all voluntary motions is imagination.

While it is simple for uneducated people to assume there is no According to Hobbes’s theory, one can’t desire what they don’t know
movement where none is visible, that is not to say that motion from experience, other than a desire to try something new. This
is not present. “These small beginnings of Motion,” Hobbes argument is also based in Hobbes’s materialist beliefs, which
says, before a person speaks or moves, are called an endeavor. assume one must come into contact with an object through one of
When such an endeavor is applied to something, it is known as the sense organs in order to have experience and thoughts based on
appetite, like an appetite for food or water; and when such an said object. In this vein, Hobbes implies that one cannot desire what
endeavor is applied away from something, it is known as they have never had, but they can fear it.
aversion. What people have an appetite for, they are said to
love. Similarly, what people have an aversion to, they are said to
hate. One cannot have an appetite for something they do not
already know from experience, other than to have an appetite
to try something new and unknown. On the other hand, people
can have an aversion based on what they know and what they
do not know.

Things that people neither love nor hate are held in contempt, For Hobbes, many words—like good and evil, moral and immoral,
which is a sort of immobility. As it is in the nature of all humans and just and unjust—can never be adequately defined because
to be in constant motion, it is impossible to say that all the same different people consider different things evil, immoral, and unjust.
sorts of things are always loved or hated. Thus, whatever sort This argument becomes important later in the book when Hobbes
of thing causes appetite is said to be good, and whatever sort of describes the nature of common-wealths. Evil, immorality, and
thing causes aversion is said to be evil. However, there is no injustice must be defined within a common-wealth, and it is up to
absolute or “common Rule of Good and Evill.” In Latin, there are the sovereign power to define these terms for subjects to follow.
two words similar to good and evil, but not exact, and those
words are “Pulchrum” (the promise of good) and “Turpe” (the
promise of evil). Therefore, pleasure is similar to the promise of
good, whereas displeasure is the promise of evil.

Hobbes goes on to define several other passions, including joy, “Passions” are similar to emotions, and these emotions, according to
pain, grief, anger, confidence, and kindness. He also defines Hobbes, drive a person’s actions. Hobbes’s distinction between
curiosity, which is the desire to know something, and fear, religion and superstition is subtle (one is authorized, the other is
which is like aversion, only it involves the distress of being hurt not) and thus makes religion seem like little more than superstition,
or harmed by something. Fear of an invisible power that is which would have been a very controversial opinion in Hobbes’s
allowed publically is known as religion, and fear of an invisible time.
power that is not allowed is superstition.

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Success in obtaining that which one desires is known as Hobbes’s contention that life is in constant motion dismisses
“felicity”; however, there is no such thing as constant happiness. accepted philosophies related to objects and motion, which makes
As life is in constant motion, one can never expect to be without Hobbes’s philosophy appear quite radical. Hobbes maintains there
appetite or aversion. Lastly, the kind of speech that signifies is no such thing as constant happiness; however, he later argues
something as good is known as praise, and that is all Hobbes that the creation of a common-wealth is the closet one can get to
has to say about passions and how they are expressed. true happiness.

CHAPTER 7: OF THE ENDS, OR RESOLUTIONS OF DISCOURSE

Discourse ends when one has either obtained (or not obtained) For Hobbes, true knowledge is the product of discourse and
an object of appetite (or aversion) or given up all together. experience and cannot be had in merely one or the other. This
Regardless of the outcome, however, discourse cannot end “in argument further discredits many forms of philosophy, as several
absolute knowledge of fact,” because no one can know by philosophies (except for mathematics) are grounded in
discourse alone “that this, or that, is, has been, or will be.” discourse—that is thought and conversation—not practice.
According to Hobbes, knowledge from discourse is conditional,
which is to know “that if This be, That is; if This has been, That
has been; if This shall be, That shall be.”

Verbal discourse begins with defined words, builds on This passage is the crux of Hobbes’s religious argument. Although
connections between definitions, and ends with a conclusion. Hobbes believes in the existence of God, he does not believe in
Science is the conditional knowledge drawn from such much of the Holy Scripture held to be the Word of God and
discourse, but if the discourse is not grounded in accepted therefore supreme truth in Christianity. For Hobbes, Holy Scripture,
definitions and the connections are not made in appropriate which was written by different people at different times in history, is
ways, the conclusion is merely opinion. Discourse not grounded conditional knowledge at best and cannot be reasonably accepted
in definitions is more about the person than the topic of the as fact or truth.
discourse. The resolution of ungrounded discourse, then, is
belief and faith. Belief is vital in Christianity; yet, to believe is to
believe the entire doctrine, not to trust in a single person. It is
not only Christians, Hobbes says, but all sorts of people who
believe in God. These people have belief and faith, too, they just
don’t believe in the doctrine.

CHAPTER 8: OF THE VERTUES COMMONLY CALLED INTELLECTUAL: AND THEIR CONTRARY

DEFECTS
Virtue is generally valued and used to compare people to one According to Hobbes’s philosophy, a person who has a slow
another, and virtues that are considered of the mind are imagination (i.e., those who are “stupid[]”) are simply not motivated
commonly called intellectual virtues. These can be either by the right passions. Thus, Hobbes’s theory doesn’t have much to
natural or acquired. Natural wit comes about through do with innate ability or aptitude. This reflects Hobbes’s belief in
experience without structured education. When imagination is human equality—under the same conditions and passions, people
slow, it is known as “stupidity,” and these discrepancies in wit are more or less capable of the same things.
are caused by individual passions.

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People who notice similarities and connections where others Hobbes ultimately argues that a philosopher must have “Good Wit”
do not are said to have “Good Wit,” or “Good Fancy,” and their and “good Judgement,” as they must have the proper eloquence
ability to discern differences and similarities is said to be “good needed to get people to listen and trust them. In this way, Hobbes is
Judgement.” Someone who exercises such judgment has the making philosophy a genre of writing, like poetry and history, and he
virtue known as discretion. A good poem—be it an epic, drama, is defining exactly what is needed to compose reasonable and
sonnet, or epigram—has both fancy and judgement; however, in eloquent philosophy.
a good history, judgement is more important. Orations of praise
and invectives, which aim to honor or dishonor a certain
person, rely almost completely on fancy.

People’s personal and individual thoughts vary. Personal Craft is an abuse frequently seen in common-wealths, and Hobbes
thoughts are both clean and indecent, holy and blasphemous, draws attention to this. Royalists in Hobbes’s day would have
and serious and light. When one’s thoughts have a specific viewed many parliamentarian acts as craft.
purpose and contain much experience and memory, this is
known as prudence, and prudence applied to unjust ends is
called craft.

Unlike natural wit, acquired wit is obtained by instruction and Hobbes’s entire philosophy and explanation of nature and society is
method. Acquired wit is grounded in the correct use of speech based on power—getting power and keeping power. This power is
and definitions and produces science. Different wits are caused individual (as in one person subduing another and imposing power
by different passions, and from different passions come over them), or power is more collective (like multiple people
different bodies and different levels of education. These combining their individual power into one larger power, as is done
different passions are caused mainly by a desire for power, within a common-wealth).
wealth, knowledge, and honor; however, this list can be
condensed to simply power, since wealth, knowledge, and
honor are merely specific types of power.

As Hobbes has defined different virtues of the mind, he also Hobbes outright calls Christian doctrine, especially that which relies
defines certain defects of the mind, including giddiness, on transubstantiation, incomprehensible “madnesse,” which was an
madness, rage, and melancholy. Madness is too much passion incredibly controversial statement in Hobbes’s time. Even
that can be brought about by too much alcohol, and, according Protestants take Communion, although they do not believe that the
to some, madness and the passions that cause it can come from bread and wine become Jesus's body and blood. Generally speaking,
demons and spirits, both good and bad. Christian doctrine however, Christians, whether Catholic or Protestant, believe that
espouses inspiration from the Holy Spirit and likewise believes Jesus is present in the sacrament in some sense. Hobbes considers
in evil possession. Hobbes challenges any academic to make this practice nonsense and lacking reason.
the Holy Trinity or transubstantiation comprehensible. “So this
kind of Absurdity,” Hobbes says, “may rightly be numbered
amongst the many sorts of Madnesse.”

CHAPTER 9: OF THE SEVERALL SUBJECTS OF KNOWLEDGE

According to Hobbes, there are two types of knowledge. The Again, Hobbes does not consider science to be hard facts; rather,
first kind is “Knowledge of Fact,” which is absolute and nothing science is more a collection of probabilities and likelihoods. As
but sense and memory. In the case of knowledge of fact (the Hobbes’s own philosophy is rooted in fact (accepted and
kind of knowledge expected in a witness), one sees something established definitions), he elevates his political philosophy above
(a fact) and remembers it. The second type of knowledge is even that of science, which he claims can never be absolutely
“Knowledge of the Consequence of one Affirmation to another,” and certain.
this knowledge is conditional and includes science.

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This collection of “Knowledge of Fact” is known as history, which Hobbes’s reference table of the many forms and branches of
can be further broken down into two types. Natural history is philosophy is comprehensive and includes every individual
the recording of history that has no connection to humans, discipline from metaphysics to astronomy. However, only those
such as the history of animals, plants, and metals. Civil history is philosophies based on mathematics and geometry are, in Hobbes’s
the recording of the history of human beings and their actions opinion, based on fact. Therefore, Hobbes considers very few
in common-wealths. This collection of science, which includes philosophies “true philosophy.” Again, as Hobbes attempts to
books that contain “Demonstrations of Consequences of one elevate his own philosophy to “fact,” he implies that other
Affirmation, to another” are known as books of philosophy. The philosophies are nothing but opinion.
types of philosophy vary—such as natural philosophy, civil
philosophy, and poetry—so Hobbes includes a table for visual
reference.

CHAPTER 10: OF POWER, WORTH, DIGNITY, HONOUR, AND WORTHINESSE

Power is the means one has to “obtain some future apparent Power is the main idea behind the invention of the common-wealth.
Good,” and power can be either natural or instrumental. By joining together and combining their individual power, a
Natural power is that which comes from the mind or body, like common-wealth is better situated to defend itself from other larger
strength or prudence. Instrumental powers are those powers powers that one might not be able to fight off individually. As any
acquired by natural power or by fortune, such as wealth, one person’s power will always be limited, the combining of power is
friends, or “the secret working of God, which men call Good the only way to grow.
Luck.” The greatest power is the compounded power of several
people united as one civil power, as it is in a common-wealth.

To have friends, servants, and family is power, as there is The sciences are “small Power” because the sciences are not rooted
strength and power in united people of any number. Wealth in fact and are therefore uncertain. Mathematics are the “true
combined with freedom is power, because wealth and freedom Mother” of the arts because it is based on irrefutable numbers that
lead to friends and servants; however, wealth without freedom do not change and does not rely on assumptions. Science, according
is not power, as it exposes people to envy and jealousy. One’s to Hobbes, is only as good as the philosopher who studies it because
reputation is power, and so is love for one’s country, but the science is brought to light “by the hand of the Artificer.”
sciences are “small Power.” Arts for public use and defense,
such as the production of engines and war instruments, are
power. Science is the “true Mother” of the arts (mostly
mathematics), but since science is brought to light “by the hand
of the Artificer,” its power is small.

The value of a person is equivalent to the worth of their power, To dishonor someone or something in the form of disobeying them is
which is dependent on the judgement of other people and is central to Hobbes’s argument, which explores power and authority
not absolute. One’s value manifests in either honor or dishonor, figures in both religion and civil society. According to Hobbes, God
and one’s public worth—that being their value in the eyes of the commanded the people to obey their “Earthly Masters,” which
common-wealth—is known as dignity. To pray for someone is to means disobeying one’s sovereign power is tantamount to
honor them and so is to obey them. Conversely, to disobey disobeying, and therefore dishonoring, God.
another is to dishonor them. To praise another, speak to them
considerately, or trust them is to honor them, and to refuse
such things is a dishonor.

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Agreeing with another’s opinion is to honor them, and to The common-wealth decides what is honorable or not through the
disagree is to dishonor them. Honor and dishonor occur within passing of laws. If something is against the law, it is considered
a common-wealth just as they do outside a common-wealth; immoral and therefore bad, and to break such a law is a dishonor. In
however, the common-wealth has the authority to decide what nature, there is no centralized power to make such determinations.
is honorable or not. A sovereign can honor a citizen with a
specific title or office, and dominion and victory over others is
considered honorable. Lasting good fortune is also considered
honorable and is thought to be a sign of God’s favor.

Actions coming from experience, discretion, wit, and science In the absence of a centralized power, as there is in nature, honor is
are honorable, as each of these are a form of power. Actions based on power and equality. In Hobbes’s theory, it is not
that come from a desire for equity are honorable, whereas dishonorable to be a pirate, for example, and steal and pillage for
opposite actions, like disregard of equality, are dishonorable. wealth, as long as such behavior is not against some established law
Greed for wealth and ambition for honor is in itself honorable, and the wealth is thought to be obtainable.
as long as one has the power to obtain them. Greed and
ambition with no means for gain is dishonorable.

Coats of Arms and one’s hereditary connections are also Hobbes is a royalist, and he supports a monarch’s right to rule
power, as such connections imply wealth and privilege. This absolutely. He also supports the line of royal succession, which
honor, bestowed upon one by a common-wealth, is known as establishes an eternal line of worthiness for the crown. One does
Gentry, and it includes the titles of Duke, Count, Marquis, and not have a right to be a monarch simply because they are honorable
Baron. One’s worthiness is different from their value or worth and wealthy—they must also merit that power through royal
and consists of their abilities, which are known as one’s succession and blood lines.
aptitude or fitness. According to Hobbes, one can be worthy of
wealth or a certain honorable office but lack the merit to
deserve said wealth or office. “For Merit,” Hobbes says,
“præsupposeth a right,” which he will discuss more in the
chapter on contracts.

CHAPTER 11: OF THE DIFFERENCE OF MANNERS

Next, Hobbes discusses manners, by which he does not mean Again, Hobbes’s understanding of human behavior is grounded in
behaving in an appropriate way, like saluting others or self-interest. People ultimately do what they believe will make them
practicing good hygiene. Instead, manners are the qualities happy, not what is best for people as a whole. This assumption
people possess that allow them to live in peace and unity with again dismisses Aristotle’s understanding of human nature, which
others in a continual search of happiness. Happiness, or felicity, argues that people are generally social and helpful in relation to
is progress to some desired end; thus, people’s voluntary others. Hobbes disagrees. To Hobbes, people are generally
actions tend to be focused on obtaining that which will make interested only in their own needs.
their life content. These actions differ only in the passions they
arise from and the knowledge and opinions that produce each
passion.

According to Hobbes, each person has a desire for power that This passage is the crux of Hobbes’s argument concerning the
ceases only in death, and wealth and honor through the killing creation of civil society and common-wealths. People ultimately
or subduing of another is one way to obtain such power. transitioned out of nature into common-wealths, Hobbes says, due
However, Hobbes argues, “Desire of Ease, and sensual Delight” to fear and a desire to live a life outside of that fear. By banding
lead people to obey a common power in the form of civil together in a common-wealth, people no longer have a reason to
obedience. Fear of death and wounds also lead people to civil fear each other, as their power is combined and can now protect
obedience, as does a desire for knowledge and peace. them from larger powers.

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Those with a strong opinion of their wisdom who impose that Hobbes repeatedly claims that being eloquent and articulate is
wisdom on the government of a common-wealth are said to essential in philosophy. Without the ability to command attention,
have ambition, and articulate people have a tendency to have one’s philosophy cannot be heard and valued. Hobbes implies here
ambition. Timidity disposes one to indecision, but eloquence that it is basically ignorance that allows people to believe in Holy
implies wisdom and kindness. An ignorance of science and the Scripture. While Hobbes does not explicitly mention religion or
causes of events can lead one to rely too much on other scripture here (or in other places), religion was a major aspect of
people’s perspectives, because such people lack their own 17th-century English society, and the implication is always present.
opinions. Ignorance, or a complete lack of understanding, can
cause one to put trust in nonsense.

Ignorance of the causes and structure of rights and laws Hobbes implies that those who buy into Holy Scripture and religious
disposes a person to accepting custom and example as the rule, doctrine are gullible compared to those who are educated and
and they tend to think an act is unjust just because it is aware of the causes of things. This perspective also implies that
customary to punish such actions. Likewise, those who are those who seek religion are actually seeking an understanding of
ignorant of the cause and structure of rights and laws tend to natural causes. For Hobbes, there are no definite examples of right
believe an action is just simply because lawyers think so. “Right and wrong (except for those outlined by God), which is why right
and Wrong is perpetually disputed,” Hobbes says, “both by the and wrong are “perpetually disputed” by writers (“the Pen”) and
Pen and the Sword.” Those who are ignorant of distant causes nations and soldiers (“the Sword”).
believe all events are “instrumental,” as such causes are the only
causes they perceive. Living in ignorance of natural causes
makes a person gullible, and they are apt to believe any number
of impossibilities.

Anxiety over future events can give a person the desire to This passage can be understood using the example of an eclipse. A
know about the natural causes of things, as can curiosity and a solar eclipse to an uneducated person may seem like an act of God.
love of knowledge. Still, Hobbes argues that few people This assumption causes fear and keeps one from truly discovering
question the causes of things because of the fear that comes the natural cause of a solar eclipse, which, according to Hobbes, has
from ignorance itself and the “severall kinds of Powers nothing to do with God. In this way, a fear of “Powers Invisible”
Invisible” that have created numerous gods to fear. This fear of (God) keeps people in ignorance and easier to control through laws.
invisible things is called religion, and those who observe
religion have formed it into laws. Such laws are infused with
personal opinion and are used to govern others and obtain
power.

CHAPTER 12: OF RELIGION

Since there is no “fruit of Religion” that is not also in human In addition to religion, Hobbes claims that human beings are also
beings, the “seed of Religion” is also found in human beings, the only creatures capable of being absurd, a similarity that makes
which is an odd quality not found in any other living thing. It is religion appear absurd by extension. Hobbes’s explanation of
natural for humans to wonder about the causes of events and curiosity and the causes of events suggests that humans created
to be curious as to their own fortune, and it is natural for religion, and therefore God, as a way to explain the unexplainable.
people to think that which has a beginning also has a cause and This argument complicates Hobbes’s opinion as to the existence of
reason for beginning when it did. Whenever a person cannot God. To believe in God is to believe that God created humans, not
convince themselves of the causes of things, they create a that humans created God. However, Hobbes does make a
cause, either from their own opinion or from those thought to distinction between religion and God, which suggests that humans
be wiser. created religion but not necessarily God himself.

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Wondering about the cause of certain events and one’s fortune According to Hobbes, visualizing a ghost or someone’s soul is
leads to anxiety, as does considering the beginnings of things, impossible because neither one is made up of matter; thus, there is
because it is impossible to discern the cause and beginning of no object to come into direct contact with the human sense organs.
all things. This anxiety leads to constant fear, and since one is In this way, God in the traditional sense—composed of “the Soule of
“in the Dark” concerning the cause of events, they attribute the man—cannot exist. This does not necessarily mean that God does
cause to “some Power, or Agent Invisible,” like God. The not exist—it simply means that God does not exist in the exact way
substance or matter making up the invisible agent is the same Holy Scripture claims.
as “the Soule of man,” which appears in dreams and is like an
apparition. Such apparitions are “nothing else but creatures of
the Fancy” thought to be real, and some people honor them like
they would a visible body.

People who are apt to believe in an invisible agent are likely to In short, the “Naturall seed of Religion” relies on ignorance and fear,
believe prophecy from others, especially those they believe to which people often exploit through craft. Hobbes clearly does not
be wise. The “Naturall seed of Religion,” according to Hobbes, make a distinction between different types of religion (such as
consists of four things: belief in ghosts, the ignorance of causes, Protestantism or Catholicism, two branches of Christianity). To
devotion to what is also feared, and the confusing of opinion for Hobbes, all religions are rooted in ignorance and fear and by
prophecy. All religions contain these four elements; however, definition must be imaginary.
beyond this “Naturall seed,” foreign religions can seem
ridiculous to even the most religious person.

These seeds of religion are received by two kinds of people: The “Gentiles” Hobbes refers to here are the ancient Greeks and
those who obey religion of their own accord, and those who Romans who worshiped numerous deities. Through the lens of
obey religion based on God’s commandment. The initial Hobbes’s theory, people invented these gods and religions to explain
purpose of religion was to make others more inclined to the natural world and keep social order. Hobbes later uses the word
obedience and civil society, and it consists of invisible powers “Gentiles” to describe non-Christians more broadly. A Christian
and the possession of all things by one spirit or another. The believes in only one god, whereas a “Gentile” believes in many gods.
Gentiles of long ago explained the world this way. Unformed
matter was the god named Chaos; and the heavens, earth,
wind, and fire were also known by gods. People and animals
were deified, and spirits and demons—like satyrs, nymphs,
furies, and fairies—were abundant.

The Gentiles of long ago attributed everything to gods and Nostradamus (1503-1566) was a French astrologer and supposed
religion. Fertility was because of Venus, the arts due to Apollo, prophet capable of precognition. He published Les Prophéties, a
and all craft was the fault of Mercury. Prophecy was natural, book of prophetic poetry, in 1555. Nostradamus’s book has been in
and it was believed fortunes could be revealed though vague publication almost since its first printing and, according to some,
and senseless riddles that priests gave at Delphi. Other has predicted major world events like WWII and the 9/11 terror
prophecies, like those from Nostradamus, have been respected attacks. Hobbes, however, implies Nostradamus’s book is the
throughout history. At times, the “insignificant Speeches of “insignificant speech” of a “mad-man.”
Mad-men” are “supposed to be possessed with a divine Spirit,”
and this possession is known as enthusiasm. Such enthusiasm
has led to horoscopy, astrology, necromancy, and witchcraft.

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Gentiles took earthquakes, meteors, and eclipses to foretell Here, Hobbes is setting up an argument that he will make later in
great disaster, which again illustrates how easily people can the book, in which he claims the people of Israel had a special
believe anything when guided by fear and ignorance. Thus, covenant with God that made them subjects of God above and
when the Gentiles began the first common-wealth to keep beyond the power God naturally has over the Earth and everyone
people obedient and safe, they did so under the laws and on it. This passage also explains why religion is such a major part of
dictates of gods and religion because such laws were easily Hobbes’s argument, especially since he considers it a silly human
understood by the people. Through religion, God himself gives invention. Regardless of how Hobbes feels about religion, his
laws not only concerning his own worship, but the treatment of audience is overwhelmingly religious, and he, too, must put his book
people and the kingdom as well. “God is King of all the Earth,” into terms they can understand.
Hobbes says, yet God is also the king of specific nations as well.
Hobbes’s discussion of the “Kingdome of God” occurs later in
the book.

Religion is founded on faith in a single person, who is also In Hobbes’s opinion, most religion is scandalous, as he implies
believed to be a wise and holy figure; however, those people religion is largely practiced for self-love and self-interest (which is a
who require others to believe in a certain religion or religious natural human inclination according to Hobbes). Again, this would
law and do not believe in it themselves are called scandalous. have been a very controversial comment in Hobbes’s time, and it
Scandals cause misstep on the way to religious belief, as occurs likely contributed to his reputation as an atheist.
with injustice, cruelty, or greed. Religion must be executed and
practiced for the love of others, not for self-love or self-
interest.

For something to be religious, it must also include a miracle. Hobbes is particularly critical of the clergy, especially the Pope, and
Wise people of sound judgement require signs to believe in any Hobbes later argues that the clergy largely uses religion for their
one argument, and in religion, that required sign is a miracle. own personal gain. His description of the “Church of Rome,” or the
Additionally, for a religion to be recognized by the “Church of Catholic Church, appears as the supreme power over all Christians.
Rome,” it is subject to the authority of the Pope. A king does not In this way, the Pope has power even over the sovereign kings and
have the authority of God until crowned by a Bishop, and any queens of nations (if they’re Christian), which Hobbes ultimately
king who is also a priest is not permitted to marry. Any born argues diminishes the power of the sovereign and makes them a
prince is judged by a Roman authority, and a king may be subject of the Pope.
unseated by the Pope for any reason, or no reason at all. Thus,
Hobbes says, all the changes in religion are caused by
“unpleasing Priests,” in both Catholicism and Protestantism.

CHAPTER 13: OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND, AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY,

AND MISERY
All people are made equal in nature. Hobbes admits that some Hobbes argues that people are all essentially the same, which is
people are stronger or quicker than others, but when why, in nature at least, no one can claim any power over another
considered collectively, such differences are insignificant and unless they take it by force. This belief is why only the sovereign
not enough for one person to claim superiority over another. power of a nation can be considered the supreme power, as the
Hobbes also admits that some people have more prudence and sovereign power is made up of the collective power of the people in
experience than others; however, this, too, suggests people are a commonwealth.
more equal than not, since with equal time and experience,
people can claim equal prudence.

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A definite difference in people is that one person usually finds Hobbes’s idea of human beings in nature is an “everyone for
their own wisdom greater than the next person’s, but since all themselves” mentality. Each individual person represents a distinct
people generally think this way, Hobbes considers it yet and separate threat to one’s existence, since everyone is vying for
another point of similarity. An equal hope of obtaining some the same thing—security and sustenance. This mentality generally
end arises from this equal ability. When two people desire the makes people disagreeable and violent, which also contradicts
same object and only one can have it, those two people are Aristotle’s philosophy that people are naturally social and helpful.
enemies, and the destruction of the other is included in their
desired end. In this way, the only way one can secure their own
conservation is to master as many people as possible to
eliminate any power that may endanger them.

In nature, people have no desire to keep company where there In short, Hobbes contends that a state of nature and a state of war
is no power to control them. Thus, it is in human nature to fight are the exact same thing. As a state of war is anything that includes
for three general reasons. First, people fight for competition. even the intention or desire for battle, and there is always the
They invade others and use violence to master other people intention or desire for battle in nature, nature is in a continuous
and animals. Secondly, people fight because of a need to defend state of war. This point of argument is important in context with the
their safety. Thirdly, people fight for glory and reputation, English Civil War and the state of England as a common-wealth. By
which includes small slights, like minor insults and affronts. entering into a civil war, the common-wealth of England was
People living outside an established and common power are in dissolved and has reverted back to a state of nature.
a state of war, and this state of war includes every person
against every person. War, according to Hobbes, does not
include only battle, but also the intention or desire for battle.
Every other state is known as peace.

In nature, there is no industry, no certainty, and no culture. Hobbes’s contention that people in nature are “solitary, poore, nasty,
There is no knowledge of science, letters, or arts, and there is brutish, and short” is the most quoted line in all of Leviathan. The
no accounting of time. In nature, there is only constant fear and question of the state of humans in nature has always been a hot
the danger of violence, which makes people “solitary, poore, topic in philosophy, and Hobbes believes people are naturally
nasty, brutish, and short.” It may seem strange to some that unpleasant and violent. This opinion is contrary to other
nature renders all people savage, but one must only look to philosophers, like Aristotle (384-322 BCE), John Locke
their own actions in society for confirmation of such savagery. (1632-1704), and Jean-Jacque Rousseau (1712-1788), who all
Before one travels, they arm themselves and make sure they argue humans are naturally social and helpful.
are accompanied, and when they go to bed at night, they lock
the doors of their homes. People take such precautions even
with rules, laws, and officers tasked specifically with their
physical safety and that of their property.

The desires and passions that produce such savagery in people This passage is the core of Hobbes’s argument concerning the cause
is in itself no sin, nor are the actions that come from such of humankind’s transition from nature to civil society. The violence
passions. Actions are only considered a sin when they go and war that plagues nature will never cease and can’t be escaped
against some established law, and such laws cannot be because there is no common power to stop it. In short, people
established without first electing someone to make and enact moved out of nature and into civil society precisely to create this
them. Thus, nothing in nature is unjust, as the notions of right power and stop the violence and endless fear that is nature.
and wrong and justice and injustice do not exist in nature.
Where there is no common power, there can be no common
law; and where there is no common law, there can be no
injustice.

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Passions that predispose people to peace include the fear of The Laws of Nature are not naturally existing laws that are
death, the desire for things that are necessary for life (like food automatically followed by all. Rather, the Laws of Nature are rules
and shelter), and the hope to obtain such vital necessities. that naturally exist in nature and must be followed to make nature a
People are drawn to agreements or contracts that ensure peaceful place. Of course, as nature does not have a central power,
peace, which Hobbes refers to as the Laws of Nature. these laws are generally ignored.

CHAPTER 14: OF THE FIRST AND SECOND NATURALL LAWES, AND OF CONTRACTS
It is the right of every human being in nature to use one’s own This general rule within the Laws of Nature gives people certain
power as they see fit to preserve one’s life. Everyone is at rights, but it is not in itself a right. Under the Laws of Nature, one is
liberty, which is to say their movements are not obstructed. obligated to protect and preserve their life. This is not simply a
The Laws of Nature, according to Hobbes, include a “generall “right” one has, meaning they are allowed to defend their life if they
Rule, found out by Reason,” under which a human being is want under certain circumstances; it is a duty that must be
forbidden to do anything that is destructive to one’s own life. It observed at all times. While this law is naturally occurring, it is not
is important not to confuse “Right” with “Law”: a right means naturally known and must be “found out by Reason.” Hobbes offers
that one is at liberty to do something, while a law means that that reason in Leviathan.
one is obligated to do something.

Humans’ natural condition is one in which everyone is at war Again, just because it is in the Laws of Nature to always seek peace
with everyone else. Everyone is guided by the same reason—an does not mean that people always follow it, hence the need for a
obligation to preserve their life by any means necessary, as well centralized power. In nature, humans are in constant competition
as a right to anything and anyone that makes self-preservation with one another for the very same resources, and since there is no
possible or more likely. These natural rights mean there can one to enforce laws, peace cannot be reasonably expected. This
never be any real security for human beings in nature; thus, it is again comes full circle and reinforces war—if peace is not
a central Law of Nature that everyone must seek peace as long reasonable, war is.
as peace is reasonable. If peace is deemed unreasonable, one
may use every advantage possible to defend their life in a state
of war.

To ensure peace, one must “lay down” their right to violently When one “lays down” their right to violently defend their life to
defend their life, and others must do the same. To “lay down” a another, they do so with the understanding that whomever they
right is to deny one’s self the benefit of the right being give that right to will exercise it on their behalf. The underlying idea
forfeited. A right can be forfeited either by renouncing it or again is this: if one is not strong enough on their own to ensure
transferring it to someone else. If a right is renounced, said peace, they join forces with others and pool their power, thereby
right is given to no one in particular; however, if a right is increasing their strength, power, and ability to protect themselves.
transferred, it is given to certain person or group of people.
After a right is forfeited, the one who forfeited the right is
obligated not to interfere with whoever is granted the right.
The interference of a voluntary act after the fact is an
injustice.

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Whenever a right is transferred from one person to another, it The right to harm or kill someone can never be transferred to
is a voluntary act in which the purpose is some perceived good another power because it goes against the Laws of Nature, which
for the preservation of one’s life. As such, there are some rights obligate everyone to defend their life with violence if necessary. If
that can never be transferred to another, like the right to harm one is obligated to protect their life, they cannot possibly give
or kill another. The same can be said for imprisonment, as there another the power to end it. In this way, imprisonment, too, violates
is no benefit for the one who is imprisoned. Whenever a right is the Laws of Nature. Imprisonment is not entered through a
mutually passed from one to another, it is called a contract. In a voluntary covenant, and it hinders one’s ability to protect their life.
contract is a pact, or covenant, that must be respected by both
parties. When the transfer is not mutual, such as the forfeiture
of a right in hopes of receiving friendship or favor in return, it is
a free gift given with grace.

Covenants are made either verbally (“I Give, I Grant”) or Hobbes argues later that only the people of Israel entered into a
through inference, which can include the presence or absence covenant with God, and they did it through Moses, God’s first
of gestures and actions and even silence. As the state of nature Lieutenant. Hobbes maintains that God’s power, including his voice,
is a state of war, it is not reasonable to expect a covenant to be is infinite and cannot be understood by earthly ears, even if God’s
honored in nature. There must be some common power over voice could somehow be heard on Earth. God and his power are
those who enter into a contract to compel them not to void the incomprehensible to earthly humans; thus, they cannot possibly
contract, as there is in civil society. To enter into a contract with enter into a contract with him.
savages is not possible, as there is no foundational
understanding of speech and language. Nor is it possible to
enter into a contract with God, as it is impossible to know if the
terms are accepted.

A person is released from a covenant in one of two ways: either According to Hobbes, people are always in some state of fear—fear
they perform the terms of the contract to its end, or they are of violence and death, fear of God, or fear of one’s government or
forgiven the obligation by the one who transferred the right. A sovereign power—thus, fear does not void a contract. If fear did void
contract that is enter into in a state of fear is still valid, but a a contract, no contract would ever be valid.
contract that begins under a state of torture is not, as one will
do or say anything to preserve their life.

Words alone are too weak to bind people in a covenant, but this This too speaks to Hobbes’s own belief in God, as he argues that all
weakness is strengthened by fear of the consequences of contracts and covenants are sealed before the eyes of God. The fear
breaking a contract. Fear of consequences comes in the form of of God (the fear of “The Power of Spirits Invisible”) can be enough to
fear of “The Power of Spirits Invisible” and of the power of make some people honor a contract, while others require the fear of
those who will be offended if the contract is broken. In the a centralized power to keep them honest. Either way, Hobbes
absence of a common power and civil society, the only way a contends that it is largely fear that keeps contracts valid—one of the
contract can be ensured is to swear an oath to God, but who or few passions he considers common to all people.
what one considers a god varies. An oath sworn where there is
no belief in a god is not an oath. In general, the swearing of an
oath does nothing to strengthen a contract, as a covenant is
bound before God regardless of an oath.

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CHAPTER 15: OF OTHER LAWES OF NATURE

The third Law of Nature is that everyone must perform Hobbes does not mean to imply that people in nature do not mingle
whatever covenants they enter into. Where there is no or enter into covenants and agreements. On the contrary, he
covenant and no one has transferred any rights, everyone has suggests that they do, but they simply don’t honor their contracts
the same rights; thus, no action can ever be considered unjust. without a central power to keep them honest. As definitions of good
An injustice can only result when a covenant is made and or bad can’t exist without a central power to deem them so through
broken. For a covenant to be honored, there must be some laws, the violence that occurs in nature cannot be considered
central power that compels people to perform said covenant, unjust.
and the fear of punishment must be greater than the perceived
reward for breaking the covenant. Therefore, if there is no
common-wealth and no sovereign power, nothing is unjust.

It is impossible to deny that covenants are made and broken all Hobbes also does not mean to imply that covenants are always
the time, and such violations are an injustice; however, honored in common-wealths. Hobbes’s comment about “successful
“Succesfull wickednesse hath obtained the name of Vertue,” wickedness” being considered a virtue harkens to England’s political
Hobbes says, especially when it is in favor of a kingdom. unrest in his day. The parliamentarians were winning the English
Obtaining a kingdom by rebellion is a violation of reason, as it is Civil War by rebelling against Charles I and the royalists. Hobbes
a Law of Nature never to do anything that is destructive to considers rebellion a violation of the Laws of Nature because a
one’s life. rebellion is an attack on a sovereign power—the same power in
which the people of a common-wealth endowed their own rights to
self-preservation. Thus, rebelling against one’s sovereign power with
the intention of killing that sovereign is in effect killing one’s self.

The fourth Law of Nature states that one must have gratitude Revenge that is cruel is against the Laws of Nature because the very
when receiving benefit from another, and the fifth law states same laws maintain that people must always be working toward
one must endeavor to accommodate all of humankind. Those peace and the greater good. Cruel revenge is neither peaceful nor in
who accommodate others are said to be “sociable,” and those the collective interest, which is why cruelty is a violation of the Laws
who refuse are “Stubborn” or “Intractable.” The sixth Law of of Nature. Hobbes’s use of the word “sociable” reinforces his opinion
Nature is that one must pardon those who repent after an that people in nature are not naturally social and agreeable, but
offense, and the seventh law is that revenge should be about instead are “stubborn” and “intractable.” The Laws of Nature
the greater good and not the evil of the deed to be punished. maintain that people must be agreeable, but since there is no
Revenge should never be cruel, which violates the Law of central power in nature, these laws cannot be enforced.
Nature.

The eighth Law of Nature is that one should never declare Aristotle’ Politics is an early work of political theory (around 330
contempt for another by deed or word, and the ninth law BCE), which outlines the politics of ancient Greek society. Hobbes,
emphasizes the equality of all people. In Politiques, Aristotle as usual, does not agree with Aristotle’s breakdown of the social
argues that some people are more worthy than others. For hierarchy. To Hobbes, there is no difference between a servant and a
example, wise people, like philosophers, are more worthy than philosopher since, under the very same conditions, passions, and
servants who do not make a living from their wit. Hobbes experience, a servant can reach the same conclusions as a
argues that such a belief violates reason, and he further argues philosopher.
that to profess such inequality is evidence of egotism and
superiority.

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The tenth Law of Nature states that no one person can reserve In Hobbes’s understanding, the possession of a royal crown is
a right that is not reserved for the rest. Those who observe this decided by “lot,” which is the line of royal succession that is usually
law are called “Modest,” and those who do not are called followed beginning with the first born child of a sovereign power. Of
“Arrogant.” The eleventh law states that any judge must course, succession also considers whether a child is illegitimate or
acknowledge the equality of people, and the twelfth law legitimate, which Hobbes returns to later in the book.
ensures that all things that can be divided are so divided and
equally distributed. The thirteenth law addresses those things
that cannot be reasonably divided, in which case ownership is
either granted to whoever is in first possession of the thing, or
it is determined “by lot.” The fourteenth law defines “lot” as
something arbitrary that is also agreed upon or as something
natural, like the natural order of birth.

The fifteenth Law of Nature ensures that all who facilitate Hobbes returns to the nineteenth Law of Nature later in the book
peace are allowed to do so safely, and the sixteenth law is that when he argues that the hearing of witnesses ensures innocent
everyone must submit to the judgement of an arbitrator. The people are not punished, since in biblical times it was the witnesses
seventeenth law states that no one can sit in judgement over who casted the first stone of punishment.
their own cause, the eighteenth ensures that all judges are
impartial, and the nineteenth law deals with witnesses. It is the
Law of Nature that all witnesses to an offense are heard and
considered by the arbitrator.

There are several Laws of Nature, Hobbes says, but they can be Hobbes implies here that his own philosophy, which studies the
reduced to one simple rule: “Do not that to another, which thou good and evil in civil society, is the only true “Moral Philosophy.” In
wouldest not have done thy selfe.” These laws are absolute and this vein, all other philosophies, except those Hobbes specifically
interminable. Injustice in its many forms can never be lawful, mentions (like mathematics and geometry), are actually dangerous
and “it can never be that Warre (war) shall preserve life, and to a common-wealth and threaten the balance of power and peace.
peace destroy it.” The science of these laws and the study of Hobbes’s quote here again points to the English Civil War, which
what is good and evil in civil society is the only true “Moral many felt was necessary for peace. Hobbes disagrees and claims
Philosophy.” war can never be consistent with peace.

CHAPTER 16: OF PERSONS, AUTHORS, AND THINGS PERSONATED

A person is someone, either real or imagined, who has words The word “author” is derived from the word “authority,” which
and actions that are either of their own will or through some implies power. Hobbes frequently discusses authors, especially
contracted representative. In Greek, the word for “person” is those who author commands from a position of power that must be
the same for “actor,” and it is the job of a person to “personate,” followed. Minors and those considered insane cannot be the
both on stage and in real life. Whoever owns the actions of a authors of commands, nor can they be expected to always follow
person or actor is the author, but inanimate things cannot be commands due to their inability to exercise sound reason.
authors, as they cannot assume any authority over actors. Nor
can “Children, Fooles, or Mad-men” be authors, since they lack
reason.

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Many people can become one when they are represented by a An author that owns one’s actions provisionally is someone who
single author, but that unity is found in the author, not those works on behalf of another. A modern day example would be a
who are represented. If there are multiple authors, the lawyer or some authorized person who holds another’s power of
representative of the greatest number must be considered the attorney and makes said person’s decisions in the event they are
only voice. There are two kinds of authors—those who own the unable to make them independently. A sovereign power, however,
action or actions of another and those who own the action or simply owns the actions of its subjects and is their subjects’ author
actions of another provisionally and vow to complete a certain at all times.
action for another at a certain time or under certain
circumstances. These authors are known as “sponsors,” and
they are particularly useful when one must go before a judge.

CHAPTER 17: OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A COMMON-WEALTH

As people “naturally love Liberty, and Dominion over others,” it Again, this is the essence of Hobbes’s argument concerning people’s
is natural for people to restrain this love to preserve life and movement from nature to civil society. People created common-
escape the state of war in nature. Since the Laws of Nature wealths to establish a central power and halt the state of war that is
cannot be followed without the creation of some central power nature. However, the natural love humans have for freedom and
to compel people to honor covenants, people have joined power means that even in a common-wealth, covenants are not
together to live in common-wealths. always honored.

A common-wealth is the joining of a large number of people, as In short, the power of a common-wealth cannot be provisional or
only the joining of a multitude can bring security. The people of good only in certain circumstances. The sovereign power of a
a joined multitude must be of similar appetites and similar common-wealth must have absolute power over the people at all
needs to defend against a common enemy. If appetites and times, otherwise that power is weakened and not fit to secure and
enemies are different, competing ideals will hinder security protect the multitude.
rather than ensure it. The security obtained from a common-
wealth must be unlimited and not be restricted to any one
battle or war.

Hobbes admits that there are creatures, like bees and ants, Again, Hobbes outright disagrees with Aristotle’s political
who live sociably with each other, and Aristotle considered philosophy, which assumes people are naturally social and tolerant
such creatures political creatures. As such creatures live of each other like bees. Hobbes argues that people are not naturally
sociably with each other, Aristotle assumed that humans can do social, which is exactly why they need a central power to keep them
the same; however, Hobbes disagrees. People are in constant in check.
competition with each other for either honor or dignity, and
envy and hatred are natural components of such competition.
Furthermore, the agreement between bees and ants is natural,
but a covenant entered into by humans is artificial, and to make
that contract last, a central power is needed to compel
adherence.

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A common-wealth is created to defend people from foreign Hobbes calls the ideal common-wealth the Leviathan, which is
invaders and ensure safety from injury and death. In other symbolic of the power of the people united under one sovereign
words, a multitude of people give their power to defend their power. In a common-wealth, the elected sovereign power is the
lives to a single person or group of people, which in turn author of all its subjects’ actions, as every action is either allowed or
reduces the multitude to a voice of one and elects a single disallowed though the establishment of laws. Everyone owes their
author to act in the collective best interest of the multitude. peace and defense in a common-wealth to God because a common-
“This is the Generation of that great LEVIATHAN,” Hobbes wealth operates according to the God-given Laws of Nature.
says, under which everyone owes their peace and defense to
the “Immortall God.”

The author within a common-wealth is the sovereign, and those In Hobbes’s view, a common-wealth by institution is a common-
whom the sovereign has power over are called subjects. wealth that people voluntarily institute via a covenant. Thus, when
Sovereign power is obtained either by natural force (common- a common-wealth is conquered by another more powerful
wealth by acquisition), such as one who is born under a certain common-wealth, it is not a common-wealth by institution—unless,
government by order of their parents or guardian and is of course, one willingly submits to the invading power and consents
obligated to submit, or through voluntary force (common- to hand over their power and become a subject.
wealth by institution), as is done when a group of people
voluntarily place power in a specific person or group of people.
Hobbes will first discuss common-wealth by institution.

CHAPTER 18: OF THE RIGHTS OF SOVERAIGNES BY INSTITUTION

A common-wealth is created when an assembly of people agree Here, Hobbes implicitly calls out the English Civil War as an
to a covenant in which a person (or persons) is to be their injustice. During the war, King Charles I, the rightful sovereign of
representative, and that representative, or sovereign power, is England, was overthrown and executed by the parliamentarians for
given all the rights and faculties of the assembly. First, since this tyranny. In Hobbes’s view, the parliamentarians did not have the
power is contrived from a covenant, the people are not obliged right to usurp the King’s power, nor did they have the right to
to any former contracts, nor can they enter into a new contract execute him for tyranny. Only the sovereign power can declare what
that gives sovereign power to another person or persons. For is justice and what is tyranny, and since the parliamentarians were
subjects of a monarchy, a monarch cannot be dethroned or not the sovereign power, they did not have the authority to make
power transferred to another person or assembly. To dispose that call.
of a monarch is an injustice, and to kill a monarch is to assume a
right no one person can ever have.

The power of a sovereign cannot be forfeited, either by the In a common-wealth, the sovereign is supreme power and can never
sovereign power itself or by the people, and anyone who break the law, which means that nothing a sovereign ever does can
disagrees with the sovereign’s right to power must agree to be considered illegal or unjust. This, of course, gives a sovereign free
that right once it is decided by the majority. A sovereign can do reign to do whatever they want to subjects. According to Hobbes,
no injury onto subjects, and subjects are not permitted to the sovereign is bound by the Laws of Nature to do what is in their
accuse a sovereign of injustice or attempt to kill or punish the subjects’ best interest; however, since there is no power above the
sovereign in any way for any perceived offense. The sovereign sovereign, there is no power to enforce this law.
alone is judge of what is necessary for the peace and defense of
a common-wealth, and the sovereign also has the power to
decide which doctrines are appropriate to be taught to subjects
to avoid dissention and civil war.

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The sovereign power has the right to make the rules of a Once a covenant is entered, one is released from responsibility
common-wealth, whereby every subject and their property is under two conditions: the terms of the covenant are fulfilled, or the
protected from injustice, and the sovereign power also has the one who entered into the covenant releases the other from
right to sit in judgement over controversies. A sovereign power obligation. The terms of a common-wealth are never considered
is responsible for doing what they see best in times of peace fulfilled, as the purpose of the common-wealth is to offer continuous
and war, and they are also responsible for selecting any needed protection. If the assembly wished to release the sovereign from its
counselors or ministers. The sovereign power is responsible for obligation, the entire assembly would have to be in agreement to
rewarding and punishing subjects and for keeping honor and void the contract.
order in the common-wealth. Lastly, the rights of a sovereign
power cannot be taken away, and the power and honor of
individual subjects does not exist in the presence of the
sovereign power.

CHAPTER 19: OF THE SEVERALL KINDS OF COMMON-WEALTH BY INSTITUTION, AND OF

SUCCESSION TO THE SOVERAIGNE POWER
There are three different forms of common-wealths. When a Government is often broken down into other forms as well, such as
multitude of people are represented by one person, the an oligarchy or sovereigns thought to practice tyranny. Hobbes
common-wealth is a monarchy; a multitude of people argues, however, that these other forms of government fall into
represented by an assembly of people is known as a these three basic categories, too, since an oligarchy is technically an
democracy; and when only part of a multitude is represented aristocracy and any form of government can practice tyranny.
by any one power, this is called an aristocracy. There are no
other common-wealths apart from these, as a sovereign power
can be only one person, a group of people, or all the people of a
common-wealth.

In common-wealths where a sovereign power has already been Hobbes more directly calls out the English Civil War here. The
determined, the subjects can elect no other power, as that parliamentarians claimed they dethroned King Charles I to save the
power would be contrary to the first power and reduce the common-wealth of England, but Hobbes argues they only
people to a state of war, which is counterproductive to the succeeded in destroying it.
common-wealth. Such an absurdity has recently been seen in
England, were a monarch succeeding from 600 years of
sovereign power was dethroned.

It is difficult to compare the different sovereign powers, as they While Hobbes does not say it explicitly, the implication here is that a
differ not in power but in how they wield that power. A monarchy is the superior form of government compared to an
monarch’s private interests are largely those of the public; aristocracy or a democracy. Hobbes suggests that individual
however, this is not always the case in in a democracy or an subjects have a better chance of being heard when their sovereign is
aristocracy. Also, a monarch receives counsel from many one person compared to common-wealths that are ruled collectively
different people, but the only people permitted to join a by a group of people. Hobbes doesn’t deny that any one government
sovereign assembly are heard in an aristocracy or a democracy. can be terrible at any given time; his argument is that a monarchy is
Furthermore, a monarch’s actions and decisions are subject less likely to act against its subjects’ best interests.
only to the fickleness of the monarch’s own human nature,
whereas a democracy or aristocracy must endure fickleness
from any number of people.

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It is also impossible for a monarch to disagree with themselves Hobbes does not pretend that a monarchy is perfect, and he
out of jealousy or self-interest, but the same cannot be said of a contends that many things can go wrong in a monarchy, like a boy
democracy or an aristocracy, in which disagreements to can king who hasn’t yet reached the age of reason; however, he
reach the height of civil war. Of course, a monarch does have ultimately maintains a monarchy is the best option. Any terrible act
the power to deprive any one subject of all their possessions, that a monarch is capable of can be committed in a democracy and
which Hobbes admits is problematic; however, the same an aristocracy as well. Since all forms of government have the exact
authority resides in any sovereign power, not just with the same power, a monarch does not represent a unique danger to a
monarchy. Hobbes also admits it is troublesome that an infant common-wealth.
may come into sovereign power within a monarchy, and in such
cases that power must reside with another until the monarch
reaches the age of reason.

If a monarch does not have the right to pick a successor, or if Hobbes is careful to call the line of royal succession “Artificiall
the monarch dies before that successor is selected, the Eternity,” as he argues earlier that people are not able to
common-wealth dissolves and reverts back to a state of war. comprehend that which does not have a definite beginning and end.
Therefore, the power of a monarch must exist in a line of In order to elect a new monarch after the death of an old one (in the
“Artificiall Eternity” known as succession, which, in Hobbes’s event a successor has not been selected), the people would have to
opinion, is the greatest difficulty monarchies face. If a monarch enter into a whole new covenant and begin an entirely new
dies without a successor, the people, who are now in a state of common-wealth, which would void the previous covenant.
war, are incapable of electing a new monarch.

Succession is passed in a monarchy through words, and in the While it is not possible for a sovereign to simply give power away,
absence of words, succession is controlled by custom. For many that power can be transferred to another sovereign power in the
monarchies, it is customary for succession to fall to the next of form of a new covenant or through the line of succession. Hobbes
kin, preferably a child, followed by a sibling. It is lawful for a suggests here that the combining of England and Scotland is in the
monarch to transfer their power to someone else, Hobbes says, best interest of both common-wealths. In 1603, King James of
as was the case with King James, the “most wise King” who Scotland inherited the crown of England and ruled both Scotland
tried to unite England and Scotland. Many objected to King and England (along with both nations’ parliaments) until his death
James’s endeavor, although it likely would have prevented the in 1625. After King James’s death, power went to Charles I, also of
civil war that is presently making both countries miserable. A Scotland, who was ultimately overthrown during the English Civil
foreigner can also become a sovereign power if a monarch War.
marries a foreigner and allows the line of succession to
naturally unfold, but no one argues this attempt as unlawful.

CHAPTER 20: OF DOMINION PATERNALL, AND DESPOTICALL

In a common-wealth of acquisition, a sovereign power is According to Hobbes, fear drives people to make covenants and
instituted by the multitudes, who fear death or injury without common-wealths—fear of each other and fear of the violence of
the establishment of a central power. This power is established nature. A subject’s fear of the sovereign power comes after the
because the multitudes fear each other, not the person or covenant is made, not before. Thus, a subject fears a sovereign’s
persons whom they elect to power. Dominion, or territories power, which is the collective power of the people.
and people, can be acquired in one of two ways: either by
generation or by conquest.

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Dominion by generation is also known as paternal dominion, Hobbes’s understanding of paternal power places power with the
and it is passed down from parents to their children. If one’s mother, which dismisses traditional opinions of familial power that
parents are part of a common-wealth, so is their child, and that are often patriarchal. Hobbes is not the only philosopher to see
child’s children, and so on. If there is no covenant, the power of women as the supreme paternal power, as the same view is
dominion is with the mother, as the father of a child can only be expressed in John Locke’s Second T Treatise
reatise of Go
Govvernment
known by a mother’s word. If the mother is herself the subject (1689).
of a man who also fathers her children, the power of dominion
is with the father, as he has power over the mother.

Dominion by conquest, which is through victory in a war, is Hobbes argues that any subject of one common-wealth held
known as “despoticall,” and it signifies a master with dominion prisoner by another common-wealth is not a subject of their captor
over subjects. Dominion of the victor over the vanquished is until the subject willingly agrees to submit to that power. Thus, one
obtained when the vanquished enter into a covenant, either who is captured is not necessarily conquered, as it is expected they
through words or actions, and submit to the sovereign power would escape to save their life if given the chance.
of the victor. This is not to say that the vanquished are held
captive as prisoners. On the contrary, the vanquished are
allowed the same rights and liberties afforded to all subjects.

Thus, Hobbes argues, it is not victory in war that gives the According to Hobbes, it is not the type of power that differentiates
victor power over the vanquished—it is the covenant that paternal power from despotic power; it is the size of the assembly
transfers this power. Therefore, dominion, whether it be that contributes to the power of the sovereign. In a common-wealth,
“Paternall” or “Desposticall,” is precisely the same. A family that is a minor child is subject to the sovereign power by way of their
not part of a common-wealth is not unlike “a little Monarchy”; parents, mainly their mother. As the sovereign power of a minor
however, a family is not a proper common-wealth unless that child is their mother, they are held by proxy by the same sovereign
family is of significant size. When any number of people are too power that has power over their mother.
weak together to defend themselves as a group, they have the
right to defend themselves on their own, or flee if that is the
better option.

Now, Hobbes considers what Holy Scripture says concerning Hobbes frequently cites the Bible to prove his points and support his
the rights of a monarch and sovereign power. The children of arguments, as he does here through Exodus 20:19 and 1 Samuel
Israel said to Moses: “Speak thou to us, and we will heare thee; but 8:11 and 12, both of the Old Testament. As Hobbes’s audience was
let not God speak to us, lest we dye.” The children of Israel were overwhelmingly Christian, he appeals to what they know: the Bible.
completely obedient to Moses, not God. According to Samuel, Through the Bible, Hobbes makes it known that the people of Israel
God said: “This shall be the Right of the King you will have reign were completely obedient to Moses as God’s representation on
over you. He shall take your sons, and set them to drive his Chariots, Earth, thus lending authority to his argument that the sovereign
[…] and shall take your daughters to make perfumes, to be his must have complete power over subjects.
Cookes, and Bakers. […] He shall take your fields, […] and you shall
be his servants.” This passage, too, reflects the absolute power of
the sovereign.

It is Hobbes’s understanding from reason and scripture that Again, Hobbes is attempting to elevate his political philosophy to
the sovereign power—whether that power is placed in a that of mathematics and geometry—meaning Hobbes believes his
monarch, a democratic body, or an aristocratic body—is as philosophy to be infallible. If Hobbes’s theory is followed, he implies
great as can be conceived by any one person. Life will never be a successful common-wealth will be the product every time. Of
without inconveniences, Hobbes admits, and a common-wealth course, this success includes certain inconveniences and can never
is no different. The making and keeping of a common-wealth be perfect.
involves “certain Rules,” just as in arithmetic and geometry.

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CHAPTER 21: OF THE LIBERTY OF SUBJECTS

Liberty, or freedom, signifies “the absence of Opposition.” In Hobbes’s theory, just because one is compelled to do something
Therefore, one who is free is able to do what is in their own out of fear does not mean they are not free. There is nothing that
strength and ability to do without interference. Hobbes hinders a free individual from breaking the law; it is usually the fear
explains that Fear and Liberty can exist together, giving the of punishment by the sovereign power that deters such actions.
example of someone who throws their possessions overboard Therefore, a person is at perfect liberty to break the law in a
when they fear the ship is sinking. In this scenario, there is a common-wealth—meaning no one is holding them down—but they
willingness to throw one’s possessions overboard; thus, the will be subjected to the sovereign’s power if caught.
action is not hindered or interfered with in some way and is
therefore free. The same can be said for someone who pays a
debt for fear of imprisonment. It is fear that compels one to
willingly do something, and this is generally the case within a
common-wealth. Subjects fear the established laws, even
though they are technically at liberty to break them.

Liberty and necessity are also consistent, much like the water Again, Hobbes argues that all of life is motion, and that each motion
of a river that has both the ability (liberty) and the need is connected to the next in a “continuall chaine” of motion that never
(necessity) to flow in a certain direction. The same is seen in stops, unless something hinders it. In a common-wealth, it is fear of
people’s voluntary actions, which arise from one’s own liberty the sovereign power that hinders this constant chain of motion.
and will; however, since every action is connected to every
other action in a “continuall chaine,” voluntary actions also
come from necessity.

The sovereign power can never be abolished or limited, as Subjects are the author of everything a sovereign does because a
nothing the sovereign does to a subject can ever be considered sovereign gathers its power from the people. If a sovereign uses its
an injury or injustice. This is because the subject is author of power against its subjects, it is tantamount to the subjects using
everything the sovereign does. In this vein, a sovereign can power unto themselves, so such treatment cannot be considered
even put a subject to death, and such an action is not unjust. Hobbes says earlier that the sovereign is the author of the
considered wrong or immoral. people, but that power comes from the people and is therefore
theirs as well. In this way, power between a sovereign and its
subjects is a symbiotic relationship.

The liberty that writers praise in past common-wealths is This passage harkens back to Hobbes’s argument that a monarchy
praise for the liberty of the sovereign power, not the liberty of is the best form of government. Hobbes demonstrates here that
individual people. The people of Athens and Rome were free, one’s liberty is exactly the same in all forms of government (meaning
Hobbes explains. Still, no one had the liberty to resist the freedom is always dependent on the sovereign power), so no one
sovereign power, and this holds true in all common-wealths, be form of government offers any more freedom than the next. People
it a monarchy, a democracy, or an aristocracy. In each type of often assume subjects have more liberty in a democracy because
common-wealth, the freedom is the same. they are ruled by the people, but Hobbes argues this isn’t actually
the case.

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It is easy for people to be confused by the word “liberty” and to This passage is an example of Hobbes’s agreement that philosophy
conflate their private liberties with those of the public. In the is based on opinion, not fact, and that such opinions can be biased
Western world, opinions of common-wealths come from and damaging to common-wealths. Because of the opinions of
Aristotle and Cicero, and such men assumed that subjects of a Aristotle and Cicero, who believed only in democracies, Hobbes
sovereign assembly are free and that subjects of a monarchy claims monarchies have been given a bad reputation so to speak.
are slaves. In Aristotle’s Politiques, he says: “In democracy, Liberty Just because Aristotle and Cicero believed democracies are best,
is to be supposed; for ‘tis commonly held, that no man is Free in any Hobbes implies, doesn’t mean they actually are.
other Government.” Thus, the West has been taught to hate
monarchies from such writers.

True liberty means that a subject can refuse to do certain The subject of a common-wealth has the freedom to defend their
things, even if those things are commanded by the sovereign body and the right not to self-incriminate during questioning of a
power; however, one’s submission to a common-wealth crime because these things go against the Laws of Nature. The Laws
includes both obligation and liberty. In other words, while one of Nature guarantee one’s right to preserve their life under any
may be obligated to perform a certain action, they still have the circumstances, and, depending on the crime, self-incrimination
liberty not to do it. Subjects of a common-wealth have freedom could put one’s life in jeopardy if it is a capital offense.
to defend their own bodies, even if the act against them is
lawful, and subjects can never be obliged to hurt or kill
themselves. Furthermore, when subjects are questioned by the
sovereign power regarding a crime they may have committed,
said subjects cannot be obliged to accuse and incriminate
themselves.

A subject has a right to refuse the sovereign power’s If one’s sovereign power invades another common-wealth with the
commands if the refusal does not affect the reasons why the intention of waging war and conquering it, a subject may refuse to
common-wealth was created in the first place. If a certain fight, even if it is against the law; however, if one’s common-wealth
refusal affects the purpose of the common-wealth, a subject is is invaded by another sovereign power, a subject is not at liberty to
not free to refuse. For instance, a subject may refuse to fight in refuse to fight, as the common-wealth and the covenant is in danger.
a war, even if the sovereign has the power to punish said refusal Since the covenant of a common-wealth is entered into willingly, it
with death. However, no one is at liberty to refuse to fight for can be reasonably assumed that a subject does not want that power
the common-wealth in defense of another power. To refuse the destroyed.
common-wealth in the service of another diminishes the power
of the common-wealth and destroys the very reason for
government.

In instances where there are no established laws, a subject is at Again, since the sovereign draws its power from its subjects,
liberty to behave as he or she pleases. If there is controversy sovereign and subject are considered one and the same, and the
between a subject and the sovereign power, the subject has a sovereign cannot act against the subject. However, Hobbes implies
right to sue the sovereign, just as if the sovereign is any other the sovereign power can act either as an individual or as the
subject. However, if the sovereign demands anything by way of sovereign power. For example, if a monarch is acting as an individual
their power, there can be no action of law, as everything the without claiming the power of the people, there is recourse for
sovereign does is derived of the power and authority of misdeeds; however, anything done under the sovereign power of the
subjects. In short, if an action is brought against the sovereign, people is always just.
it is brought against the subject, too.

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A subject’s obligation to the sovereign power lasts as long as The key to Hobbes’s understanding of covenants and common-
the common-wealth, and the right to protect one’s self in wealths is consent. No one can become a subject of a common-
nature is a right that can never be taken away. Thus, the end of wealth without submitting freely and willingly handing their innate
protection of a sovereign power signals the end of obedience. If rights over to the sovereign power.
a subject is taken prisoner by another power during war, they
are at liberty to become a subject of the power who takes them;
however, if one is imprisoned and not given the choice, they are
not bound by any covenant and can escape by any means
necessary.

If a sovereign power is captured in war and gives up power for A common-wealth is only considered conquered at the point the
themselves and their heirs, their subjects are released from sovereign power transfers power willingly to the invading common-
obligation to the former sovereign power and are obligated to wealth. As the sovereign willingly passes power over in such an
the new, invading power. However, if a sovereign power is held instance, the transfer is lawful and subjects are held in the power of
prisoner and does not give up power freely, a subject is likewise the invading sovereign.
not obligated to obey the invading power.

CHAPTER 22: OF SYSTEMES SUBJECT, POLITICALL, AND PRIVATE

Systems within a common-wealth are either political or private. A sovereign can appoint a representative to a specific group of
Political systems are made by authority of the common- people—such as a state, city, or province within a larger common-
wealth’s sovereign power. Private systems, on the other hand, wealth—but that representative’s power is limited to that group
are those made by subjects themselves. Private systems that within the greater common-wealth. Such a system is considered
are allowed by the sovereign power are lawful, but all other lawful and political. A private system that is not sanctioned by the
private systems are unlawful. In lawful political systems, the common-wealth is not political, but this does not mean said system
power of the representative of a system is limited and only is illegal. An organized sports team, for instance, is a system. A
exists under the power of the sovereign. The limits of the sports team is usually not illegal, but it does not wield any political
power given to the representative are noted by the sovereign power over subjects.
and in common laws.

If the representative of a political body is one person, whatever The acts of a representative are not the acts of the entire body
that person does to violate the laws of a sovereign power is not politic because a representative only represents a certain number of
the act of all subjects in the body politic. If the representative of the body politic and therefore cannot be representative of the
a political body is an assembly, whatever that assembly does to common-wealth as a whole. Only the sovereign power can
violate the laws or letters of the sovereign is the act of the body represent the common-wealth as a whole and act on behalf of the
politic—but only those subjects who voted on said violation. If entire common-wealth because the sovereign is imbued with the
the representative of a political body is a single person and power and individual rights of every subject in the common-wealth.
borrows money through a covenant, that person alone is
responsible for repayment. Conversely, when the
representative is an assembly, and the assembly owes a debt,
the debt is only owed by those who voted in favor of it. If a debt
is owed by the entire assembly, the assembly must pay from its
available common funds.

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In certain circumstances, protesting against the body politic is It is lawful to protest against the body politic if that body politic only
lawful, but it is never lawful to protest against the sovereign represents part of the common-wealth. For instance, it is lawful to
power. There are many kinds of political bodies, and they differ protest against the representative of a city or province of common-
by their stated business and their limitations. In a province, wealth, because that representative stands for only part of the
colony, or town, the body politic is an assembly of people and all common-wealth. The sovereign power, on the other hand,
resolutions come from a majority vote; however, that power is represents that entire common-wealth. As one cannot protest
still limited by the sovereign power. If a member of a body against their self, they cannot protest the sovereign.
politic feels they have been injured by the body politic itself,
decision in such a case belongs to the sovereign and any judge
they ordain.

Political bodies made to govern people and trade goods can be Power given to the representatives of common-wealths must be
made indefinite or for a short time, but they are still limited by subordinate to the sovereign power so the sovereign power always
the sovereign power. If any political body is given absolute has supreme power at any given time. If a representative is given
power over the people, there are two sovereign powers, which more power than a sovereign, it would make subjects of the
cannot happen within a common-wealth. An example of a common-wealth loyal to the representative, not the sovereign, and
private body that is both regular and lawful is a family, in which the common-wealth would automatically dissolve and revert to a
the father or mother is the master of the family. Still, a father or state of nature and subsequently war.
mother only rules their family within the confines of the
sovereign power. A private body that is regular but unlawful is
one in which people unite themselves into one body without
the authority to so, such as a group of thieves or beggars who
unite to ease their stealing and begging.

If the sovereign power is part of an assembly, and any number In England, the sovereign power (the monarch) is part of an
of that assembly attempts to persuade the rest without assembly (Parliament). In the case of the English Civil War, in which
authority of the sovereign, it is an unlawful conspiracy because parliamentarians overthrew King Charles I, Hobbes implies such an
the assembly is being manipulated for the private interests of a action was not lawful. Thus, Hobbes considers the government
select few. If the private interests of one member of the instituted by parliamentarians in England after the war illegitimate.
assembly are debated by the assembly as a whole, this is not
unlawful, as it involves the entire assembly.

If a private member of a common-wealth has more servants Here, Hobbes compares religion, especially Catholicism, to an
than the common-wealth has subjects, this is considered an unlawful faction and implies that it is unlawful for the Catholic Pope
unlawful faction. Since the common-wealth is responsible for to claim authority over other Christian sovereigns in the name of
protecting all members, a single member does not require a religion.
force of their own. This also applies to factions within religion,
be they Catholic or Protestant, as it is contrary to the
establishment of the common-wealth to take power away from
the sovereign.

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CHAPTER 23: OF THE PUBLIQUE MINISTERS OF SOVERAIGN POWER

In the previous chapters, Hobbes discussed the similarities of After the English Civil War and the execution of King Charles I,
Common-wealths, and he will now discuss the “parts Parliament elected Oliver Cromwell, a parliamentarian soldier and
Organicall, which are Publique Ministers.” A public minister is a member of Parliament, to Lord Protector, England’s Regent, in
person who is employed by the sovereign power to conduct 1653. Cromwell served as Regent until his death in 1658, at which
some business on behalf of the common-wealth. A public time his son was appointed the next Lord Protector of England.
minister may be given administration of the entire common- Under the reign of Cromwell’s son, Charles II (the son of Charles I)
wealth or of part of it. A public minister that is given was brought out of exile and restored to the throne as England’s
administration of an entire common-wealth is known as Regent sovereign power.
or Protector, and such a minister may be employed by an
“Infant King, during his minority.” In such cases, a Regent or
Protector rules on behalf of the sovereign power.

When a public minister is given administration of a part or The power given to any public minister is always at the discretion of
province of a common-wealth, that minister is known as a the sovereign and cannot exceed or match the power of the
governor or viceroy, and the power they have is dependent sovereign. This way, all public ministers are held to the power of the
upon the will of the sovereign. Other public ministers are given sovereign and cannot act independent of the sovereign. For
administration of specific business at home or abroad, such as instance, if a minister is given charge of the “Oeconomy” (the
administration of a common-wealth’s “Oeconomy” (their rents, economy) their power is limited to economics and does not extend
fines, and revenues) or militia (the soldiers, forts, armies, arms, to other areas, like education or foreign policy.
and all things related). Other public ministers are given
administration of the education and instruction of the
common-wealth, and others are employed to serve as judges
and represent the sovereign power.

In cases in which a member of a common-wealth is tried by a The sovereign power’s decisions are final because there is not a
judge and a controversy arises, their disagreement may be higher power to appeal to. If a subject disagrees with a judge’s
heard by another judge, as both the judge and judged are decision, they can appeal to the power above the judge—the
members of the common-wealth and subjects of the sovereign sovereign. As there is no power above a sovereign, there is no appeal
power. In such instances, the sovereign power may hear the to be made.
case or appoint a second judge. If the sovereign power hears
the case, their decision is final.

Public ministers employed by the sovereign power have The actions of a public minister are only considered the actions of a
authority to apprehend, judge, punish, and imprison subjects of common-wealth if said minister represents the whole common-
a common-wealth. Public ministers who work abroad on behalf wealth at the behest of a sovereign. The authority a public minister
of the common-wealth are known as ambassadors. Anyone claims is endowed in them by the sovereign power. If the sovereign
sent abroad by the authority of a private political body power rescinds that power, a public minister has no right to
belonging to a troubled common-wealth is not a public or represent the people, either within the common-wealth or abroad.
private minister of the common-wealth, as the author of their
actions is not the common-wealth as a whole. Similarly, if an
ambassador is sent aboard by a monarch for reasons personal
to that monarch, the common-wealth is not the author of that
action either.

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CHAPTER 24: OF THE NUTRITION, AND PROCREATION OF A COMMON-WEALTH

The nutrition of a common-wealth consists of the distribution As nature is a state of equity, the common-wealth must also be state
of materials necessary for life coming from both land and sea, of equity—with the exception of the sovereign power, of course. The
and such materials must be distributed in accordance with distribution of land in accordance with “propriety” ensures that no
“propriety.” The first law of distribution is the division of land, one person is given more land than the next, as this would give the
and the sovereign power is to assign each subject a portion of larger landowner more power than smaller landowners.
land that is “agreeable to Equity, and the Common Good.” A
subject may exclude any other subject from the rights of their
personal land, but they cannot exclude the sovereign power.

Hobbes admits that a sovereign power may distribute Again, since the sovereign is imbued with the power of the subjects
materials in pursuit of private passions and rather than in the it represents, anything the sovereign does is technically the actions
best interest of the common-wealth, which is technically a of its subjects. Thus, it is against the Law of Nature for the sovereign
breach of the Law of Nature; however, this breech does not to act in any way that is not in the best interest of the common-
authorize a subject to make war on the sovereign power, wealth.
accuse the sovereign of injustice, or insult the sovereign in any
way, as every action of the sovereign is but the action of the
subjects

In the distribution of materials, the common-wealth may retain Hobbes implies that it is not in a human’s nature to share or work
a portion of land for the public use of the common-wealth. But well with others, which is why retaining land for public use can be
to do so, Hobbes says, is in “vaine,” as “the nature of men being detrimental to the common-wealth. Subjects of a common-wealth
as it is” often leads to the destruction of the common-wealth. have the right to make profits from the land allotted to them by the
All distribution of land inside the common-wealth belongs to common-wealth by selling either their land or the resources that
the sovereign, but giving each subject a portion of land is not come from that land.
enough to sustain the common-wealth. Thus, subjects may
redistribute whatever they can spare through exchange or
mutual covenant.

Money is the blood of the common-wealth, and the public can As Hobbes draws a parallel between a common-wealth and an
use money in two ways. First, the common-wealth can use “artificiall man,” the money of a common-wealth is analogous to
money by placing it into public coffers. Secondly, the common- blood in a human body. In this way, money keeps a common-wealth
wealth can use money by removing it from the public coffers viable and alive, just as blood does in a human body.
and applying it as public payment.

The “children” or “procreation” of a common-wealth are known While Hobbes doesn’t explicitly state it, he is referring here to
as colonies, in which any number of subjects are sent by the English colonization. In 1607, England sent the first settlers to
sovereign under the authority of a governor to a foreign America and since then has colonized over 90% of the world’s
country. Said country may be void of people, or it can be countries.
populated by inhabitants that are then subdued by war. A
colony’s rights after it is established are authorized exclusively
by the sovereign power.

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CHAPTER 25: OF COUNSELL

A command is when one says to another: “Do this,” or “Do that.” A command is usually given by a sovereign power (or any public
A command benefits the one who makes the command, and it is minster with power over a subject) and cannot be refused. Counsel,
given for no other reason than the will of the commander. however, is similar to the advice given by a sponsor or lawyer. In the
Counsel, on the other hand, is when one says to anther: “Do event of counsel, a subject is not required to follow the advice given.
this,” or “Do that,” but they say it for the benefit of the one they A command given by a sovereign is never counsel and must always
counsel. Another difference between commands and counsel is be followed.
that one who is commanded is obligated to do something,
whereas one who receives counsel is not obligated to follow
said counsel.

“EXHORTATION, and DEHORTATION,” Hobbes explains, is Here, Hobbes implies that counsel via exhortation is not lawful, as
“Counsell vehemently pressed.” Counsel under exhortation and such counsel is not in the best interest of the subject being
dehortation is for the benefit of the counselor, not the one counselled. On the other hand, a command that is given using fear
seeking counsel. Such behavior is a contradiction to a or exhortation by a sovereign power is lawful and must still be
counselor’s duties, as, by definition, a counselor has a duty to followed.
regard the benefit of the one who seeks their counsel.

The difference between command and counsel can also be Again, as Hobbes’s audience is overwhelmingly Christian, the
seen in Holy Scripture. “Sell all though hast; give it to the poore; inclusion of Holy Scripture in Leviathan puts Hobbes’s argument
and follow me” is an example of counsel, since the reason to give into terms his audience is familiar with and can easily understand.
said counsel is the benefit of the people. “Go into the Village over Here, Hobbes cites Matthew 19:21 and 21:2 to illustrate his
against you, and you shall find an Asse tyed, and her Colt; loose her, argument.
and bring her to me” is a command, since it benefits the one who
makes the command.

There is also a difference to be found between “apt, and inept As there is not one accepted definition of “good” (what is considered
Counsellours,” Hobbes says. The virtues and defects of a single good in any given common-wealth is up to the sovereign power),
counselor are the same as the virtues and defects of the Hobbes specifically defines what a “good” counsellor does in relation
intellectual that Hobbes outlines earlier in the book; however, a to the common-wealth. A good counselor must be well-versed in
“good Counsellour” is one whose ends and interests are the their field, meaning they must have plenty of experience and
same as those whom they counsel. A good counselor also prudence with which to advise another.
makes their advice known in clear and understandable speech
that does not rely on inference or assumption. Yet a counselor
can only be deemed “good” if they give advice in business they
are well-versed and studied in.

If there are fail-safe procedures in the doing of any one thing, Experience does not necessarily mean one has learned all the rules
as there are “in Engines, and Edifices, [and] the rules of of any given field, which is why Hobbes argues that philosophers, or
Geometry,” Hobbes says, “all the experience in the world anyone else claiming to have knowledge over others, must have
cannot equall his Counsell, that has learnt, or found out the both practical experience and knowledge from books and study.
Rule.” Additionally, If a counselor wishes to give counsel to a Either books or experience alone are insufficient. A sound counselor,
common-wealth, it is necessary that the counselor speak the like a sound philosopher, must have both knowledge through
same language as the common-wealth. And lastly, if any one education and experience.
person or entity such as a common-wealth has more than one
counselor, it is best to hear them separately, so they do not
influence or encourage each other. In short, one who does
business with the help of many informed and experienced
counselors does it better than those who do not seek counsel.

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CHAPTER 26: OF CIVILL LAWES

By civil laws, Hobbes means those laws one is obligated to Hobbes does not wish to talk about the subtle nuances of law,
follow as a subject of a common-wealth. To be clear, Hobbes which are convoluted and complex. Rather, Hobbes is concerned
does not mean the laws of a specific common-wealth, but of any with the general laws expected of a subject by a sovereign power,
common-wealth. He does not wish to talk about laws imposed which are similar to and consistent with the Laws of Nature, which
here or there; rather, he wishes to speak of civil laws in the endow each living person with certain rights. Hobbes is concerned
same way Aristotle, Cicero, and Plato did, without the with those rights and laws universal to all people and common-
professional study of law. Law in general is command, not wealths, not the individual laws of a certain common-wealths.
counsel, and Hobbes defines civil law as “those Rules, which the
Common-wealth hath commanded him, by Word, Writing, or other
sufficient Sign of the Will, to make use of, for the Distinction of
Right, and Wrong; that is to say, of what is contrary, and what is not
contrary to the Rule.”

The legislator in a common-wealth is the sovereign power, and The Laws of Nature outline certain rights that every person is
that power makes the laws. Furthermore, the sovereign endowed with by the power of God, which, if followed, will ensure
power—be that power a single monarch or a democratic peace, either in nature or a common-wealth. The Laws of Nature
assembly—is not subject to civil law. The Laws of Nature are maintain that everyone is equal and no one person is held above the
equally contained within civil laws. The laws of nature, which next, unless that person is the sovereign power of a common-wealth
consist of “Equity, Justice, Gratitude, and other morall Vertues” and imbued with the collective power of the people.
are not laws but qualities that promote peace and obedience. It
is only after a common-wealth is established that such qualities
become civil law.

If the sovereign power of one common-wealth takes over the Hobbes says earlier that the Laws of Nature are discovered by
subjects of another common-wealth and then governs by the reason; however, the laws enforced by a sovereign must be made
same laws as the defeated sovereign, the authority of law does publically known or said laws are not enforceable, as people cannot
not rest with the power of the one who first made the law, but be expected to follow a law that they are not aware of. If a sovereign
with the authority of the sovereign who commands it now. Any power makes every effort to make a law known and a subject still
law that is made by a sovereign power must also be written and breaks the law in ignorance, that subject is guilty.
made known; otherwise, it is not a law. This rule does not apply
to the unwritten Laws of Nature (which can be condensed into
the following: “Do not that to another, which thou thinkest
unreasonable to be done by another to thy selfe”) that should be
known and followed by all.

However, it is not enough that a law is written and If one knows that a certain act is against the law, it is likely they will
known—there must also be some sign that said law comes not commit said act. On the other hand, if they think something
directly from the sovereign power. A law must be “verified,” legal, they will likely go ahead and do it. Thus, if a law is not
Hobbes says, not merely “authorized.” Verification is the sufficiently known, it cannot be enforced. A law must also be
“Testimony and Record” of the law, not the authority, because “verified” so that a subject knows beyond a shadow of a doubt that
authority can be in the sovereign’s command only. Laws are the sovereign, and not some other entity, is the author of said law.
verified by judges appointed by the sovereign power, and said Verification becomes a larger part of Hobbes’s argument in the
judges tell others what is law when they hear their section of Leviathan that deals with Holy Scripture and authority.
controversies. However, in the case of crimes against written
laws, everyone must be adequately educated beforehand, since
one may behave differently if a certain act or behavior is
unlawful.

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Subjects of a common-wealth are obligated to do their best to Hobbes returns to the idea of knots and the untying of knots at the
educate themselves of any written law that may be applicable end of Leviathan, which can be both beneficial and detrimental to a
to their behavior and actions, but the interpretation of the law common-wealth. The untying of a knot here is a bad thing. In writing
depends on the sovereign power. According to Hobbes, all laws a law, a sovereign must be sure there can be no alternative
must be interpreted. Laws are vague, and even short, written interpretations of a law. If a law is interpreted other than the way in
laws can be misinterpreted. Thus, there can’t “be any knot in which it was intended, the knot is untied, and the sovereign loses
the Law […] to undoe it by.” The interpretation of the law is not power because of it.
left to writers and philosophers. Instead, the law is interpreted
by judges during the sentencing of each individual case. Any
given sentence does not bind that judge or any other judge to
similar sentences under similar circumstances.

When one speaks of the “letter of the law,” they mean the Just as a “good” counselor or philosopher is rooted in both practice
actual words that make up the written law. Words, however, and study, a “good” judge must also have education and experience;
are ambiguous and can be interpreted in different ways, which however, they must have the “right understanding” of equity in
is where the “sentence of the law” and judges come in. A “good” accordance with the Laws of Nature and the common-wealth. A
judge is not merely someone who is well versed in laws; a judge must adhere to the rules of equality within the Laws of
“good” judge must also know the laws of nature and have the Nature, but a judge must also be well-versed in what is considered
“right understanding” of equity. This knowledge does not come “good” or “moral” in any given common-wealth as defined by the
from reading books and philosophers—this knowledge comes sovereign power.
from reason. A “good” judge must have “Contempt of
unnecessary Riches,” and they must be free of passions (no fear,
hate, love, anger). A “good” judge has patience to listen, interest
to hear, and memory to retain facts.

Laws can be divided many different ways by many different Natural laws are those included in the Laws of Nature and are
people and political bodies. For example, laws can be either bestowed upon all of humankind by God. Upon the creation of a
natural or positive. Natural laws have been laws since the common-wealth, the Laws of Nature become civil law and those
beginning of time, and they are also known as moral laws positive laws imposed by the sovereign are added to these new civil
because they involve moral virtues, like justice and equity. laws. Whether a law is natural or positive, if it is enforced by a
Positive laws are those imposed by the sovereign power. Laws sovereign power, a subject is obligated to follow it.
can also be either fundamental or not fundamental. A
fundamental law is one that will destroy a common-wealth if it
is taken away or not followed, whereas a law that is not a
fundamental law will not destroy a common-wealth if taken
away or not followed.

CHAPTER 27: OF CRIMES, EXCUSES, AND EXTENUATIONS

To sin is not merely to break a law; to break a law is also to hold A crime is always a sin because the presence of a law indicates that
a legislator (the sovereign power) in contempt. A crime is a sin a specific action is wrong and immoral. A sin that is not against the
that consists of breaking any law of the common-wealth. A law—for example, neglecting to honor one’s mother or father—is not
crime is always a sin, Hobbes says, but a sin is not always a illegal, but it is still a sin. Sins that are not against the law do not
crime. Where there is no civil law forbidding a certain behavior count against one’s morality, as only the sovereign power, not God,
or action, there can be no crime. Pleading ignorance of any is authorized within a common-wealth to determine what is good or
given law is not sufficient excuse for committing a crime, unless bad.
said law has not been adequately professed and made known.
Likewise, ignorance of the sovereign power is not an acceptable
excuse for breaking the law, since everyone should know the
power under which they live.

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Most people violate the law due to a “defect in Reason” in one According to Hobbes, fear keeps people in line and prevents them
of three ways: they assume “false Principles” and believe an from breaking laws; it does not cause them to break laws. Thus, fear
unjust act is just, they misinterpret the law of nature because of is rarely an acceptable reason for breaking a law. Crime is not
a “false teacher,” or they make the wrong inferences from always committed maliciously, but regardless of the reason, subjects
principles taught to them by true teachers. Crime is also caused are still responsible when they break the law, except in few
by passions—lust, ambition, love, and hate—but rarely by fear. circumstances.

Not all crimes are equal, and some crimes have extenuating An impoverished person who breaks the law in order to survive is
circumstances that can be excused. However, to be wholly excused of their crime because of the Law of Nature, which
excused from a law, one must prove they were not obligated to obligates people to do whatever is necessary to sustain life. In the
follow it in the first place. For example, when one is completely case of an impoverished person stealing to survive, their crime is
impoverished and cannot sustain their life in any way other excused because it was done in an effort to sustain life. Crimes
than to steal, such a crime is excused. A crime that comes from against the common-wealth are never tolerated, as crimes against
a sudden and unexpected rise in passions is not as great as a the common-wealth are akin to crimes committed against one’s self,
crime that is premediated, and crimes against the common- which is technically a violation of the Laws of Nature.
wealth are always thought greater than crimes committed
against a private subject. Crimes involving bribery or the giving
of false testimony are considered greater than other crimes, as
are crimes that involve defrauding the common-wealth.

CHAPTER 28: OF PUNISHMENTS, AND REWARDS

Hobbes defines punishment as “an Evill inflicted by publique As all punishment must be issued for the good of the common-
Authority” on someone who has broken the law and gone wealth, cruel and unusual punishment is not lawful because cruelty
before a judge. The right to punish subjects comes from the does not benefit the common-wealth in any way. Punishment
covenant of the common-wealth, which imbues the sovereign afflicted in privacy (like the secret torture of a subject or an enemy
with the power to punish those who do not conform to the law of the common-wealth) is also unlawful. Punishment is meant to
and the right to appoint judges to issue that punishment. deter others from breaking the law through fear; if that punishment
Private revenge done onto a subject by another subject is not is not done publicly, it cannot be considered a deterrent
punishment, nor is punishment inflicted by the authority that is
not made public. Any pain that is inflicted by the authority in
the name of punishment must be in respect to the good of the
common-wealth, not the evil of the crime that was committed.

If punishment is inflicted directly on the body, as in wounds or a Harm and injury are expected in a state of war, and one is able to
deprivation of some kind (like food or air), it is known as defend their life with any force necessary; thus, it is not against the
corporal punishment. Capital punishment is punishment by Law of Nature when an innocent subject is killed or harmed during a
death, which may include torture, and pecuniary punishment state of war. In a state of war, the sovereign power is dissolved, and
deprives one of money, land, and any other valuable assets. the subject automatically takes back the power they forfeited to the
There is also imprisonment, which deprives one of their liberty sovereign. Hobbes’s definition of corporal punishment includes the
for a time, and exile, which is punishment by forced relocation. physical harm of another, but it also includes harm done to the body
It is against the Law of Nature, Hobbes argues, to punish an through other means, like starvation or waterboarding.
innocent subject; however, it is not against the Law of Nature if
innocents are harmed during a state of war, since it is within
the Law of Nature to make war in the first place.

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Just as there is punishment for breaking laws, there is also According to Hobbes, certain jobs and titles within a common-
reward for adhering to the laws of a common-wealth. A reward wealth are forms of reward, such as honoring a subject as a judge or
can be either a gift or some additional covenant, such as salary a governor. However, if that position is accepted through fear (such
or wages for some service performed. Any benefit that is given as a subject who is coerced into accepting a position as a judge to
by the sovereign by way of fear is not a reward and should not benefit the sovereign or certain subjects within a common-wealth),
be practiced by sovereign power. Salaries are either certain and it is not a reward and should not be practiced. Hobbes does not
come from the public coffers (as in a subject who is paid a mean to say such practices do not occur in common-wealths; he
certain wage for doing a certain job for the common-wealth), or only claims such practices are not advisable.
salary is casual and comes from the execution of some office.
Casual salaries can cause trouble for the common-wealth,
especially in government, where salaries can be made to
benefit a certain judge or minister.

Hobbes has thus far explained the nature of humans and the In the Book of Job, Leviathan is a giant sea monster that is usually
power of the common-wealth, which he has compared to depicted as a large crocodile. Leviathan is often used within
Leviathan from the Book of Job. God, having made the “great Christianity as a metaphor for the shared power of people unified as
power of Leviathan,” named him “King of the Proud” and said: one. This is exactly how Hobbes sees the ideal common-wealth,
“There is nothing on earth, to be compared with him. He is made so hence the name “the great Leviathan.” There are also implications of
as not to be afraid. Hee seeth every high thing below him; and is fear in Hobbes’s included Bible verse (Job 41:34). Leviathan is
King of all the children of pride.” In the following chapters, never afraid, which is an important distinction since fear drives
Hobbes will discuss the “diseases” and “mortality” of Leviathan, people to common-wealths in the first place.
as well as the Laws of Nature that Leviathan must obey.

CHAPTER 29: OF THOSE THINGS THAT WEAKEN, OR TEND TO THE DISSOLUTION OF A

COMMON-WEALTH
The dissolution of a common-wealth is usually due to the Again, Hobbes draws a parallel between a living body and a
“Imperfect Institution” from which it comes, and these common-wealth, which suggests that a common-wealth vulnerable
“infirmities” or “diseases” resemble those of the human body. to all the things a body is. A common-wealth is an “Imperfect
One such infirmary is when a sovereign power is content with Institution” because it is made up of people, who are imperfect by
less power than what they actually possess to defend and nature. According to Hobbes, humans are by nature self-centered
protect a common-wealth. Power can be denied by ignorance, and violent, which are two of the “diseases” that can bring down a
or it can be denied intentionally for some benefit to the common-wealth. For instance, if a sovereign power acts only in their
sovereign power. Disease in the common-wealth is also caused own best interest (as people are wont to do) and ignores its subjects’
by the belief that individual subjects can determine good needs, a common-wealth cannot stand.
actions from bad actions. As a common-wealth is not a state of
nature, only the sovereign power and civil laws can determine
good actions from bad. Similarly, assuming that what is against
one’s conscience must be a sin is also damaging to the common-
wealth. It is up to the common-wealth, not a subject’s
conscience, to determine what actions are sinful.

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The belief that faith is obtained by “supernaturall Inspiration” With Hobbes’s reference to “supernaturall Inspiration,” he implies
and not “Study and Reason” is also damaging to a common- that religion can be damaging to a common-wealth if one’s faith is
wealth, and so is holding a sovereign power subject to civil laws. not a product of “Study and Reason.” Hobbes argues one should not
A sovereign power is not a subject of the common-wealth; thus, blindly submit to the faith of another, but should instead acquire
a sovereign power cannot be held to the same laws as a subject. faith independently through the study of scripture and one’s own
Furthermore, if every subject is given absolute right to their ability to reason. According to Hobbes, one who blindly follows the
own goods and property that exclude the rights of the faith of another will believe anything, which is not in the best
sovereign, it is also detrimental to a common-wealth’s health. interest of the common-wealth.
Exclusion of the sovereign confuses the sovereign’s position of
power over subjects and begins to slowly dissolve the balance
of power.

The dividing of a sovereign power is also harmful to the The Greeks and Romans lived in democracies, not monarchies, and
common-wealth and is fundamentally against the purpose of they believed democracies to be the height of freedom. As a royalist,
the common-wealth. To divide a power is to destroy the unity Hobbes does not believe in regicide (the killing of king) regardless of
of the common-wealth and the covenant that binds them the reason; thus, it is not advisable to look to a democratic
together as one. The imitation of other common-wealths, such common-wealth for guidance in maintaining a monarchy.
as those belonging to the Greeks and the Romans, is also
harmful to the health and maintenance of a common-wealth, as
such societies believed the killing of a king lawful if said king
was deemed a tyrant.

Just as some doctors claim every person has three souls, some According to Plato’s theory of the human soul, a single person has
people argue that a common-wealth, too, has more than one three souls: the logos, which is the logical part of the human mind;
soul. In some cases, there are two common-wealths inhabited the thymos, which deals with emotion; and eros, which is one’s
by the same subjects. But, Hobbes says, “a Kingdome divided in desires. Plato considered each of these souls to be an essence,
it selfe” cannot stand. The distinction between a “Temporall” which, as a materialist, Hobbes again disagrees with. The self
common-wealth and a “Ghostly” common-wealth gives every cannot be divided into the three parts, just as the power of a
subject two masters, and one cannot follow two masters at one sovereign cannot be reduced or divided. The two kingdoms Hobbes
time without contradicting one or the other. In this “disease,” speaks of here are the common-wealth and the Kingdome of God.
there is an “unnaturall spirit” that acts on the nerves of the soul As one cannot inhabit both kingdoms at once, one’s loyalty must
and brain of the common-wealth that is bound to result in remain with an earthly sovereign power.
oppression and war.

A common-wealth that is too large can also be harmful, as large Hobbes again refers to a common-wealth as a human body and
common-wealths require large armies and corporations, which claims a large army or too many corporations can clog “the bowels”
are like “many lesser Common-wealths in the bowels of a of a common-wealth. A large army or corporation can rise up and
greater, like wormes in the entrayles of a natural man.” In war, if seize power from the sovereign, which voids the covenant and
the common-wealth is not the victor, the common-wealth is reverts the common-wealth back to a state of nature.
automatically dissolved.

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CHAPTER 30: OF THE OFFICE OF THE SOVERAIGN REPRESENTATIVE

The sovereign exists for the safety of the subjects of the As the sovereign’s power is the collective power of the people (the
common-wealth, and the sovereign is obligated by the Laws of people willingly hand their power of self-preservation to the
Nature to serve the common-wealth to the absolute best of sovereign), the sovereign is obligated by the Law of Nature to
their ability. This care is not given on an individual level, but in exercise that right on behalf of the people who gave up said power.
general, through example and the execution of sound laws. If a This power can only go back to the people if the common-wealth is
sovereign’s rights are taken away, the common-wealth dissolved.
dissolves; thus, it is the duty of the office of the sovereign to
ensure and maintain these rights.

Subjects of a common-wealth should be taught not to envy the This passage motions back to Hobbes’s warning about ancient
government of neighboring nations. What flourishes in one Greek and Roman society, in which people lived in democracies and
kind of common-wealth, for example, an aristocracy, is not what generally disapproved of monarchies. The favored political
is best for a monarchy or a democracy. Furthermore, subjects philosophy of Hobbes’s time was that of Aristotle and Plato (both
should also be taught not to envy their fellow subjects, so they Greeks), and Hobbes argues that the Greek model of society cannot
will not give honor to another that is reserved only for the be used to inform monarchies, as the two societies do not compute.
sovereign. Subjects must also be taught not to dispute the In a common-wealth, no one should be held above the sovereign,
sovereign power, and there should be days set aside, as there is not even God; thus, Hobbes implies the Sabbath would be better
with the Sabbath, to spend time learning one’s duty to the spent learning about the sovereign.
common-wealth and sovereign power.

It is necessary for the safety of the people of a common-wealth Justice must be administered by the sovereign equally to all people
that justice is administered by the sovereign equally to all because the Laws of Nature maintain that all people are equal. A
subjects. Breaking a law is always a crime against the common- crime done unto the common-wealth is done unto the entire
wealth, and at times, a crime can also be against an individual common-wealth; therefore, to pardon a crime done unto everyone
subject. When a crime is done onto the common-wealth, it can does not show favoritism. However, to pardon a crime done unto an
be pardoned without worry of equity; however, when a crime is individual person implies favoritism of the subject who committed
committed onto a single subject, that crime cannot be the crime.
pardoned without the permission of the injured party.

Inequality between people of a common-wealth comes from If a sovereign does not treat its subjects equally, it cannot be
acts of the sovereign, which is why equal taxes are important expected that subjects will treat each other equally, since the
for equality of subjects. If a subject is not able to support sovereign sets the example for behavior in a common-wealth.
themselves by their own labor, they should be provided for by Providing for those unable to provide for themselves is also in
the common-wealth and not left to rely on the charity of accordance with the Laws of Nature, which maintain that people
others. An able-bodied subject, however, is not permitted to be must always work toward the common and shared good of people.
idle and must work toward the common good of the common-
wealth.

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A good sovereign makes good laws, but a good law is more than A sovereign’s actions can never be considered unjust, as the
a just law, since no law can ever be unjust. A law is good if it is sovereign is the sole judge of what is just or unjust in any given
warranted and in the best interest of the common-wealth. The common-wealth. A law should keep a subject in line, as they should
purpose of laws is not to keep people from making voluntary fear the punishment of committing any given crime. If a subject
actions but to keep them from hurting themselves or others does not fear a sovereign’s punishment, a sovereign’s power is
through poor decisions and sudden desires. An articulate and ineffective.
eloquent sovereign is most helpful in the declaration of laws
and legislation, and in punishment and the rewarding of
subjects as well.

It is also the sovereign’s duty to appoint good counselors for A sovereign’s choice of counselors must be equitable (come from
the betterment of the common-wealth and to seek their every class of people), just as the common-wealth itself must be
counsel when necessary. Good council does not come from lot equitable in accordance with the Laws of Nature. Again, Hobbes
or birth, and good council does not come only from the rich. implies that political philosophy should be elevated to the level of
There must be a method to the study of politics, as there is in geometry, because, in Hobbes’s opinion, politics are grounded in
the study of geometry, so the education that future counselors facts, like mathematics, that must be learned and followed by any
have is sound and grounded in reason. Just as it is best to given political counselor.
receive counsel by a single counselor rather than an assembly,
it is likewise best for a counselor to give counsel apart from an
assembly.

The sovereign must also appoint a commander of the Army, and According to Hobbes, there is a fine line between an Army
if said commander is not popular among subjects, the commander who is loved too much and one who is not loved
commander cannot be loved or feared as they should to be an enough. Obviously, a commander who is not respected will not be
effective leader. But a commander’s popularity can be followed as well as one who is. On the other hand, subjects should
dangerous to the sovereign if the sovereign is not also popular, never respect another power more than the sovereign, as this could
Hobbes warns. The sovereign’s popularity is of no threat to a lead a subject to obey their commander over their sovereign.
popular commander, whose soldiers are not likely to side
against the sovereign no matter how much they love a
commander.

CHAPTER 31: OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD BY NATURE

Hobbes begins this chapter with a short recap of the main Hobbes argues that geometry is an infallible philosophy because it
points he has made thus far. The condition of nature is one of establishes the terms and definitions of one step before moving onto
war, and the Laws of Nature function to avoid this war. Without the next. As each step is grounded in fact, each argument the
a sovereign power, a common-wealth cannot stand, and the philosophy makes is therefore absolute. Hobbes follows the very
subjects of a common-wealth must be obedient to the same structure in Leviathan and frequently recaps his points for
sovereign in all ways, provided that obedience does not violate good measure. As Hobbes grounds each argument in definitions, he
the “Lawes of God.” Thus, it is necessary to also know the laws reasons that his philosophy, like geometry, is infallible.
of God, so one does not offend God with too much obedience
to the sovereign or offend the common-wealth with too much
obedience to God.

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All people are subjects of “Divine Power,” even if they deny the Hobbes implies that God has supreme power over people, even if
existence of God. “[M]en may shake off their Ease,” Hobbes they don’t believe in God or practice religion. In this sense, God is
says, “but not their Yoke.” For scripture says: “God is King though the metaphorical “Yoke” that binds everyone, even if a person casts
the Nations be angry; and he that sitteth on the Cherubins, though it off. To prove his point, Hobbes quotes Psalms 96:1 and 98:1,
the earth be moved.” Those who believe in God’s power and which gives his argument authority in the eyes of his religious
reign are said to be his subjects, while all others are enemies. audience.

Laws must be sufficiently made known to subjects, and God’s According to Hobbes, the Laws of Nature and the laws of God are
laws are no different. God declares his laws in three ways: one and the same because the Laws of Nature entail the rights that
through “Naturall Reason,” by “Revelation,” and by the voice of God gave to humans. The Laws of Nature are not naturally known
another through the manifestation of a miracle. In other words, but are learned through reason. Reason is God’s gift to humankind,
Hobbes explains, God’s laws are declared through “Right and everything one discovers with said reason is thereby God’s gift.
Reason, Sense Supernaturall, and Faith.” Furthermore, there is Hobbes’s argument is focused on nature and humans (God’s natural
what Hobbes’s calls a “two-fold Kingdome” of God. One kingdom), not Heaven (God’s prophetic kingdom).
kingdom is natural, and the other is prophetic. God’s natural
kingdom is ruled by the “natural Dictate of Right Reason,”
whereas the prophetic kingdom is ruled by holy prophets.
Hobbes will speak only of God’s natural kingdom.

God gathers his sovereign power from his omnipotence, or Hobbes says earlier in the book that the Laws of Nature can be
“Irresistible Power.” Punishment is generally understood to come boiled down to what basically amounts to the Golden Rule, which is
from sin; however, the right to afflict punishment comes from to treat everyone as one would want to be treated. This belief in
God’s power, not the sin. This distinction explains why sinners turn aligns with the moral virtues of “Equity, Justice, Mercy, [and]
sometimes prosper and good people suffer. God’s “Divine Humility.” God doesn’t actually communicate these laws through
Lawes, or Dictates of Natural Reason,” outline the duties of his words and commands; instead, God gives humans the ability to
subjects, to each other and to God, and these laws include the reason so they can figure such laws out by themselves.
Laws of Nature defined earlier in the book and the moral
virtues of “Equity, Justice, Mercy, [and] Humility.” These laws
are dictated to God’s subjects via their own natural ability to
reason and do not require the actual words of God.

Honor consists of one’s opinion of a higher power or the Hobbes implies that worship ordered by institution and custom, as
goodness of another, and it is the duty of all God’s subjects to worship is in organized religions like Catholicism and Protestantism,
honor God, which means they must hold the highest possible is arbitrary and has nothing to do with God, other than being done
opinion of him. Furthermore, this honor must be expressed in his name. Thus, worship that is spontaneous, independent, and
through outward signs known as worship. Honor comes from not affiliated with any one church or institution is closer to God.
passions such as love, hope, and fear, and worship comes in the
form of praise and blessing. Worship can be either natural
(meaning it is spontaneous, like saying a prayer or giving
thanks), or it is arbitrary and ordered by institution and
custom.

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Subjects of God are to honor God’s existence, as it is impossible Again, fear is central to one’s obedience to God, just as fear is
to honor that which does not exist. God must be understood as central to one’s obedience to a sovereign power. As fear keeps one
the cause of the world and all things in it. To deny the creation obedient, it is often encouraged and utilized within religion and Holy
of the world and claim the world has existed eternally is also to Scripture, which illustrates how ubiquitous and motivating fear can
deny God. Similarly, to ease one’s fear and love of God is to be. As God is omnipotent and has infinite power, he can never be
dishonor God, as fear and love are central to honor. It is also a described and understood in finite terms. Thus, human beings, who
dishonor to claim God is “Finite” in any way. If it is possible to can only understand that which is finite, can never fully understand
attribute more to God, it should always be done, and “Finite” God’s power.
implies more can be attributed.

Refusing to swear by God is likewise a sign of honor, and so is Obedience to the Laws of Nature is the greatest from of worship
speaking of God with consideration. Prayers and offerings of because the Laws of Nature are rooted in morality, equality, and
thanks that are well composed impart more honor than prayers humility, which are also God’s laws. Prayers that are “Plebian” are
that are “light” or “Plebeian.” God can be worshiped and those written by non-Christians. A plebian is generally considered to
honored in secret, but he must also be worshipped and be uncultured, and here, a plebian is also unversed in God.
honored in public and in full view of others. However,
obedience to the Laws of Nature is the greatest possible form
of worship and honor there is.

CHAPTER 32: OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CHRISTIAN POLITTIQUES

Next, Hobbes will discuss the Christian common-wealth, which According to Hobbes, the revelations of the will of God are always
is a common-wealth that depends on the “Supernaturall supernatural, unless something is revealed to someone through
Revelations of the Will of God.” Believing in the supernatural their natural reason. God himself is supernatural; thus, his
power of God does not mean to abandon one’s senses or revelations are as well. According to Hobbes, God has only spoken
rational experience, as those, too, are gifts from God. In a to Adam and Moses using direct words. Otherwise, God always
Christian common-wealth, when something cannot be speaks through another person, like Moses or an Angel, because
understood by reason and natural science, it is thought to be human beings are not able to hear and understand the voice of
due to the mystery of God. When God speaks to a subject, it is God.
done immediately or through another person. God speaking
immediately can only be understood by those God has actually
spoken to. God has spoken through others in the form of Holy
Scripture as told by the Apostles and Prophets.

For one to say God spoke to them in a dream is only to say that Hobbes implies that God can speak to people in dreams and visions.
they dreamed God spoke—it does not mean God has actually Since God is omnipotent, he can do whatever he wants; however,
spoken. Similarly, one who claims to have a vision of God may Hobbes implies that he doesn’t believe that God often—or
just mistake their dreams for a vision. God has the ability to ever—speaks to subjects through dreams or visions.
speak through dreams, visions, and voice, but no one is obliged
to believe others who say God has spoken to them, since
people often lie.

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For those who have never heard the voice of God, either In saying that a “true Prophet” must perform a miracle and teach
through visions, dreams, or voice, can turn to Holy Scripture to the established religion, Hobbes effectively implies that there has
know what they are supposed to obey. However, it is common never been a “true Prophet” that is not already indicated in the
for one prophet to deceive another, so Hobbes offers two Bible. In this vein, Hobbes calls into question all the modern
marks that together indicate a “true Prophet.” One mark is the Christian figures who are said to have performed miracles by the
performing of a miracle, and the other is the teaching of only Catholic Church.
the established religion and no other. Both of these marks must
be present together for a prophet to be considered true. For
example, if a prophet performs a miracle and then entices
subjects to follow a strange god, they are not a true prophet.

CHAPTER 33: OF THE NUMBER, ANTIQUITY, SCOPE, AUTHORITY, AND INTERPRETERS OF THE
BOOKS OF HOLY SCRIPTURE
Books of Holy Scripture include those that contain “Rules of In saying that he only acknowledges the Old Testament as Holy
Christian life,” and since these rules are also laws, it is Scripture, Hobbes suggests that the New Testament is not the
necessary to determine which laws must be followed in a official Word of God. As so much time has passed since biblical
common-wealth. Scripture does not determine which laws a times, no one can say with any certainty what exactly happened,
Christian ruler must follow, but scripture does indicate those unless the Holy Scripture is verified as coming from God. As the
laws that should not be followed. God is the “Soveraign Church of England verifies the Old Testament as such, it has more
[Sovereign] of all Soveraigns” and therefore should be obeyed; authority, according to Hobbes.
however, a subject must also know when and what God
commanded, which cannot be known without “supernaturall
revelation.” Thus, Hobbes acknowledges only the Old
Testament as Holy Scripture, as it has been acknowledged as
such by the Church of England.

The original writers of many books of Holy Scripture are not For Hobbes, many books of Holy Scripture are lacking authority.
sufficiently known. The Pentateuch (the first five books of the Hobbes implies that anyone could have written the Old Testament,
bible) were supposedly written by Moses, but Hobbes and exactly who wrote it can never be known for certain. In such
disagrees. In chapter six of Deuteronomy, it is noted “that no circumstances, one must find authority within the scripture itself,
man knoweth of [Moses’s] sepulcher to this day,” which indicates which Hobbes spends most of this chapter doing.
the day in which the words were written were not Moses’s.
Thus, Moses was not alive at the time and could not be the
author of the words.

The Book of Joshua, too, was written after Joshua’s time. The According to Hobbes, since the authorship of the Bible can never be
Book of Joshua speaks of the 12 stones Joshua set in Jordan known, its authority will always be in question and should be
and says, “They are there unto this day,” which suggests approached with caution. One must use their reason to find
considerable time has passed between Joshua’s placing of the authority within Holy Scripture and find proof of God’s existence
stones and the writing of the Book of Joshua. Similarly, the instead of taking someone’s word for it.
Book of Judges and the Book of Ruth were written after their
time, as were the Books of Samuel, which claim Samuel made
an edict to Israel “to this day.” These words again imply that the
words were written long after Samuel’s time.

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Those who wrote the New Testament lived in the age of Christ, While Hobbes disputes the authorship of the Old Testament, he
and each of them knew Christ and served as his disciple, except emphasizes that it is thought to have been written during the
for St. Paul and St. Luke. The Books of the New Testament, correct time period, which is more than can be said for the New
however, were acknowledged by the Church long after the Testament. The New Testament was compiled hundreds of years
time of the Apostles. The Old Testament, on the other hand, after Christ. St. Paul, who is thought to be the author of the Epistles,
comes from no later than the time of Esdras, who retrieved lost lived some 50 years after Christ.
scripture under God’s direction. When the New Testament was
collected and approved by the Church, there could not have
been any real way of definitively knowing who each book was
written by.

Even though the books of Holy Scripture were written by The Bible generally preaches the same things required by the Laws
different people at different times, they are still thought to be of Nature: equality, morality, and humility. Thus, both the Bible and
imbued with the “same Spirit” and work to the same end: to set the Laws of Nature carry the same authority because they are both
forth the laws of God. The question of where Holy Scripture imbued with the “same Spirit” of God.
gets its authority is much disputed by different branches of
Christianity, but since scripture does not differ all that much
from the Laws of Nature, it is considered the law of God and
carries his authority.

CHAPTER 34: OF THE SIGNIFICATION OF SPIRIT, ANGEL, AND INSPIRATION IN THE BOOKS OF
HOLY SCRIPTURE
As the basis for all reason is the accepted and known Hobbes applies the same model to his religious argument as his
definitions of words, words common to Holy Scripture must political argument, so he is positioning his religious argument as
also be defined if they are to be understood, which Hobbes will infallible as well. The distinction between a “body” and a “spirit” is
try to do now. He begins with the words “body” and “spirit,” an important one for Hobbes because a body is made up of a
which in scripture are known as “Substances, Corporeall, and tangible substance, whereas a spirit is composed of something akin
Incorporeall.” to air.

“Body” is generally accepted to indicate that which takes up The phrase “incorporeall body” is a contradiction in terms because
space and is not imagined. A body is something that exists and the word “body” denotes substance and matter, whereas the word
is real, and it is made up of a substance that is subject to change “incorporeall” denotes that which has no substance. To Hobbes,
and can be hot, cold, a certain color, or a certain smell. As such a phrase is “incomprehensible speech” and has no real
“substance” and “body” indicate roughly the same thing, to say a meaning.
substance or body is “incorporeall” is to destroy both words
and render them nonsense. In common language, aerial
substances, such as “Spirits,” are not the same as bodies;
although, a spirit is present inside a body and gives it life.

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In common language, a “Spirit” is often a ghost, or “invisible God’s spirit is beyond human understanding because God himself is
Body,” and it can also indicate the wisdom or madness of a beyond human understanding. Hobbes repeatedly claims that God
person. Spirit can also indicate the “Spirit of God,” but Hobbes is infinite and humans are only able to understand that which has a
argues that such a spirit is beyond human understanding. The definite beginning and end. Thus, God can never be fully
“Spirit of God” is God himself, and since God himself is understood. While Hobbes does not claim to completely
inconceivable to human beings, so is his spirit. In Holy understand God, Hobbes does imply that God cannot exist as an
Scripture, God is sometimes described as the wind or like “incorporeall substance.”
breath, as in the Book of Genesis: “The Spirit of God moved upon
the face of the Waters.” God’s spirt produces motion, which is not
possible of an incorporeal substance.

God’s spirit is also described in Holy Scripture as living inside Since Hobbes does not believe God exists as an incorporeal
others, as Joseph says in the Book of Genesis: “Can we find such substance, he does not believe that God can enter into the body of
a man as this, in whom is the Spirit of God?” And the spirit of God another. To Hobbes, the scripture he cites here is metaphor only and
is also said in scripture to affect passions, as it does to Saul in does not represent the true physical qualities of God.
the Book of Judges. “The Spirit of God came upon Saul, and his
Anger […] was kindled greatly.”

God’s spirit is also said to give life in scripture. “God made man Just as Christ was not a ghost when he was witnessed walking on
of the dust of the Earth, and breathed into his nosrills the breath of water, Hobbes implies that God is not a ghost either. Hobbes again
life, and man was made a living soul.” Or, God’s spirit can give cites Genesis 2:7 (which he does earlier as well) and implies that it is
authority. “I will take of the Spirit, which is upon thee, and will put it impossible to breathe life into another as it is described here, just as
upon them, and they shall bear the burthen of the people with thee.” it is impossible to give authority to another by dividing God’s spirit,
When Christ’s disciples saw him walking on water, they which is the same as his body. For Hobbes, a body must be made of
assumed he was a spirit or ghost, but Christ had a body that matter, anything less is nonsense, or “nothing.”
took up space. A ghost, or spirit, is “no where,” which is to say it is
“nothing.”

An angel is generally a “Messenger

Messenger,” and most often is a Hobbes argues earlier that those who encounter God or angels
“Messenger of God,” who usually manifests in a dream or a through dreams have simply dreamt about God or angels and have
vision. While it is not stated in scripture, it is generally thought not necessarily encountered them. Hobbes’s mention of the Old
that angels are spirits (either good or evil), and God raises them Testament (in which he finds the most authority of any biblical text)
supernaturally to indicate his will. However, angels are suggests that he does believe God has the power to appear as an
mentioned in the Old Testament, and they can only be angel in dreams; however, this does not mean that God has actually
understood as something raised by God to signify his presence. done it.
This is seen in the Book of Genesis, when Jacob says: “The Angel
of the Lord appeared to mee in my sleep,” and the Angel said: “I am
the God of Bethel.”

In the Book of Exodus, the angel appears as a “pillar of cloud” Hobbes’s admission that the angels in the Old Testament are
and a “pillar of fire.” The angel is no less a sign of God if it appears neither permanent nor incorporeal is an important one. Hobbes
as a cloud or a person. Thus, it is an angel’s use, not its shape, does not argue that angels do not exist (they must exist if they are
which is important. There are many angels in the Old mentioned in the Old Testament); he simply implies it is impossible
Testament, and nowhere is it stated that an angel is permanent for something to exist as intangible matter.
or incorporeal. To those who truly understand the words
“Substance” and “Incorporeall” know that such words are
contradictions and cannot exist within each other.

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The word “INSPRIRATION” requires some explanation as well, Hobbes again returns to the idea of faith and the Holy Spirit being
since it says in the Book of Genesis that “God inspired into man inspired into someone by God, which Hobbes claims is a physical
the breath of life,” but this is surely meant as a metaphor and impossibility. For Hobbes, Holy Scripture is not meant to be taken
not that the lungs are actually filled with the breath of God. literally. Instead, Holy Scripture is only metaphor and should be
According to scripture, the “inspiration” of God is God’s power read as such.
working in a way human beings are incapable of understanding,
not actual air or breath.

CHAPTER 35: OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF KINGDOME OF GOD, OF HOLY,

SACRED, AND SACRAMENT
Most writings about the Kingdome of God, especially sermons This passage reflects one of Hobbes’s primary arguments regarding
and other homilies, assume that the Kingdome of God is one of God and religion, which is that God’s Kingdome is not of the present
eternal happiness in Heaven, but Hobbes disagrees. In world. For Hobbes, God’s Kingdome is created through a covenant,
Hobbes’s interpretation of the very same scripture, the just like any other common-wealth, and a covenant cannot be
Kingdome of God is any kingdom so named and created by the created unless the terms are willingly accepted by both parties.
votes of the Israelites, in which they enter into a direct Thus, to enter into a covenant with God, there must be direct
covenant with God, wherein he promises them eternal communication with God.
salvation. However, Hobbes points out, this covenant is not
usually metaphorical.

Beginning with creation, God has reigned “naturally,” which is to God reigns “naturally,” which is to say he rules by his power through
say “by his might,” or by command through his own voice. God the Laws of Nature, and since all humans are subject to the Laws of
spoke to Adam when he commanded Adam to stay away from Nature, all humans are God’s subjects. Hobbes has already stated
the Tree of Knowledge, and in the Book of Genesis, God speaks that the Laws of Nature are communicated through natural reason,
to Abraham: “I will establish my Covenant between me, and thee, not words; however, God did speak to some people, like Abraham,
and thy seed after thee in their generations, for an everlasting more directly and institute an additional covenant above and
Covenant, to be a God to thee, and thy seed after thee.” beyond the Laws of Nature.

This covenant is again seen in the Book of Exodus with Moses Here, Hobbes cites Exodus 19:5, in which God enters into a
at the Foot of Mount Sinai, in which God commands Moses to covenant with the people of Israel through Moses. In this covenant,
say to the people of Israel: “If you will obey my voice indeed, and the Israelites become unified as one in God’s Kingdome (a common-
keep my Covenant, then yee shall be a peculiar people to me, for all wealth); however, this covenant extends only to the people of Israel,
the Earth is mine; And yee shall be unto me a Sacerdotall Kingdome, not the world at large. The whole world already belongs to
and an holy Nation.” Hobbes’s interpretation of the word God—meaning the whole world is subject to the Laws of
“peculiar” assumes that the people are special in their covenant Nature—but the Israelites are God’s subjects in addition to this
with God. Since the whole world belongs to God, only those universal power.
who also share a pact with him are out of the ordinary.

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Hobbes also considers the title “holy Nation” to signify a nation This passage further explains the special pact the Jews have with
that is especially God’s, above and beyond those God holds by God above and beyond those instituted through the Laws of Nature.
natural right. All the earth belongs to God, but every nation is Popular opinion assumes that God’s Kingdome is the present-day
not holy. The “Nation of Jews” is holy, however, which means Christian Church, but Hobbes argues here that God’s Kingdome is a
the Kingdome of God is a common-wealth, in which God’s law common-wealth in which God’s law (the Laws of Nature) are civil
is instituted as civil law and God is the sovereign power. law and God is the sovereign power, like the covenant the Israelites
entered into in Exodus 19:5.

God as King is reflected in many places in Holy Scripture. In the Hobbes ultimately argues that God, or Christ through God’s power
Book of Samuel, God says to Samuel after the people of Israel as his son, is the sovereign power of God’s Kingdome. However, God,
ask for a king: “Hearken unto the voice of the People, for they have or Christ, is only the sovereign power of the common-wealth that
not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should not reign was created by his covenant with the Israelites. Thus, Hobbes
over them.” It is clear that God is King of the people, not Samuel. argues, God is not the sovereign power of every other Christian
God as King is also seen in the New Testament, when the angel person on earth.
Gabriel says of Christ: “He shall be great, and be called the Son of
the most High, and the Lord shall give him the throne of his father
David; and he shall reign over the house of Jacob for ever; and of his
Kingdome there shall be no end.”

For Hobbes, God’s Kingdome is a “Civill Kingdome” that is Hobbes argues that a sacrament, like circumcision or baptism, is
based on a covenant between God and the people. The king of only an oath one swears to God, and he further implies that such an
any given nation is the public king, and that king represents his oath alone does not make a person one of God’s “peculiar people.” In
subjects; however, God was the Holy King of Israel, and the swearing an oath to God, one has no way of knowing if God has
Jews were his subjects. It is understood that which is Holy accepted the terms of their oath; therefore, there can be no
belongs to God—like a “Holy day,” a “Holy house,” or a “Holy agreement and no covenant. Again, to truly be part of God’s
man”—and the same goes for a “Holy nation.” There are degrees Kingdome and to accept God as one’s sovereign power, there must
of holiness, and some things are nearer to God than others. A be direct communication with God, either with God himself or
sacrament is something consecrated for God’s service that is through a representative, like Moses. This argument is crucial in
used to signify one’s admission into the Kingdome of God to Leviathan, as it suggests that one is beholden to their earthly
become one of God’s “peculiar people.” That sign is sovereign before God.
circumcision in the Old Testament and baptism in the New
Testament, but both represent one’s loyalty and “implies an
oath” to God.

CHAPTER 36: OF THE WORD OF GOD, AND OF PROPHETS

Any word that is spoken by God or about God is considered to This passage points back to Hobbes’s argument about authority
be the “Word of God” in scripture. In this way, the “Word of God” and authorship. As God’s Lieutenant, Moses has the authority to
must be all scripture, since all scripture is about God. For claim God’s words, therefore making those words the “Word of
instance, when God says to Moses: “I am the Lord thy God,” God.” However, words randomly attributed to God in the Bible or
these words are considered the “Word of God.” And, when it is elsewhere do not carry the same authority; thus, such words cannot
written: “God spake these words and said,” these words, too, are be the “Word of God” and instead are “holy History.”
the “Word of God.” Hobbes disagrees and argues that while
God’s words to Moses can be considered the “Word of God,”
some words in the Bible are only “holy History.”

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The “Word of God,” then, can be understood as either Again, Hobbes implies that Holy Scripture has largely been
metaphorical or proper. Proper words are those that are misinterpreted as literal when it is in fact metaphorical. In this vein,
spoken directly by God, whereas metaphorical words are those much of what Christians have accepted as the “Word of God” in
that refer to God’s wisdom and power in creating the world. Holy Scripture is only hearsay and cannot be verified as God’s
For example, in Hebrews 11:3, “The worlds were framed by the actual words. Such an assertion was highly controversial in
Word of God.” The “Word of God” is also used to produce a Hobbes’s day and was considered sacrilegious.
certain effect. God’s words have the power to affirm, command,
or promise, as they do in Matthew 24:35. “Heaven and earth shal
[sic] pass away, but my Words shall not pass away.”

God’s words are also used for their attention to reason and An Idolater is someone who worships a false god. Pharaoh Necho
equity; however, such words need not be spoken by God or his was an Egyptian King from the 6th century BCE and was not a
prophets. For instance, the words of Pharaoh Necho, an Christian, but God still spoke through him. Hobbes’s main point
Idolater, to King Josiah were said to come from the mouth of here is that God does not speak only through his prophets or those
God. Josiah did not heed the Pharaoh’s—or God’s—words, and thought to be “holy” in a Christian sense. Hobbes lists scripture that
Josiah later died in battle. Examples of equity in the holy canon proves his point because he knows that his audience is very familiar
are too many to name, Hobbes says, but they can be found in with the Bible and that the book carries weight and authority.
Psalm 36:31, Jeremiah 31:33, and Deuteronomy 30:11 and 14.

A prophet is someone who speaks God’s words, like Moses, For Hobbes, there is a difference between “the Prophets,” like Moses
Samuel, Isaiah, and Elijah. The Prophets made certain and Samuel, and those who claim to be prophets. In this way,
predictions as the name suggests, but they were also “Gods Hobbes implies that all prophets other than Moses, Samuel, and the
[sic] Spokesmen.” In terms of prophets in general, there are like, are imposters who are not “God’s Spokesmen.”
many fakes who claim to divine past or future events, and
Hobbes discusses such prophets in an earlier chapter. For
Hobbes’s purposes now, he is concerned only with those
prophets who actually spoke to God.

It is reasonable to ask exactly how God spoke to his Prophets. If Hobbes’s point here is that God is not a human in the traditional
it is assumed that God spoke using “voice and language,” is it sense, and God doesn’t necessarily communicate using words and
also assumed that God has “a tongue, or other organs, as a human speech organs. God is supernatural, Hobbes argues, and he
man?” The manner that God spoke to Adam and Eve is not communicates supernaturally. In most cases, God conjures an angel
known, but he appeared to Abraham as the ghost of three to communicate for him, which suggests that God’s voice perhaps
angels. “Jacob dreamed that he saw a ladder,” and Lot was visited cannot be understood by human ears.
by the ghost of two angels. Only Moses spoke more directly to
God, and even that was mediated by angels.

Of the prophets in the Old Testament, some are “supreme” and In claiming that God spoke to subordinate prophets “by the Spirit,”
others are “subordinate.” The supreme is Moses, and everyone Hobbes means that God spoke to lesser prophets metaphorically
else follows down a subordinate line. As the supreme, Moses is through Moses and their faith in God’s existence. God spoke to
the prophet who spoke to God most directly, and Hobbes finds Moses most directly (through “a cloud”), and Moses in turn spoke
no evidence that proves God spoke supernaturally to those words to “seventy Elders,” or subordinate prophets.
subordinate prophets. Thus, God spoke to subordinate
prophets “by the Spirit.” In fact, Moses was not the only prophet
in his time: “The Lord came down in a cloud, and spake unto Moses,
and took of the Spirit that was upon him, and gave it to the seventy
Elders.”

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Everyone should consider the probability of any given prophet, Hobbes implies it is probable that Moses was actually speaking the
which is exactly what God expects and what happens in the Old “Word of God,” and the words then spoken by the 70 lesser prophets
Testament. Everyone has the ability to use reason to decide if were sound, too. However, beyond this, Hobbes suggests that the
any given prophecy is true or false. In the absence of a miracle, probability of a true prophet is less likely, and at times even
each individual person must decide exactly who is a “Soveraign impossible. Moses was “Gods Viceregent on Earth” (Hobbes calls
Prophet”—that is, who is “Gods Viceregent on Earth”—based on Moses “God’s Lieutenant”), but Moses was the only one. Hobbes
reason alone. says there has not been a real miracle since the time of Christ, so it
is not reasonable to say there has been a true prophet since then
either.

CHAPTER 37: OF MIRACLES, AND THEIR USE

A miracle, also called a wonder, is some action prompted by In comparing a rainbow to a miracle, Hobbes implies that many
God that causes admiration in others. The general purpose of things people consider to be miracles aren’t really miracles—their
miracles is to signify God’s commandment, and in scripture, natural causes simply haven’t been identified yet. This isn’t to say
miracles are often called signs. A miracle is rare, and it has no that miracles don’t exist. Hobbes simply argues miracles are only
known natural cause. For instance, a horse or cow that begins true a small fraction of the time. When God spoke to Moses, it was a
to speak would be a miracle. A talking horse is odd, and miracle, as was Christ’s presence on Earth; however, Hobbes
therefore rare, and such a horse has no natural cause. The first questions the validity of more modern claims of miracles.
time a rainbow was witnessed, it was thought to be a miracle
and a sign from God. Now, rainbows are common and have a
known cause, so they no longer appear as miracles.

What one person considers a miracle is not always a miracle to An eclipse has a natural cause—the movement of the earth, moon,
the next person. Consider a solar or lunar eclipse, Hobbes says. and sun—so an eclipse cannot be a true miracle. Moses led the
Many people have taken such events as miracles; however, Israelites out of Egypt on God’s command and parted the Red Sea
there are others with special knowledge of the natural causes with the power of God; thus, the work God did in Egypt through
of eclipses. While a solar eclipse is decidedly not a miracle, Moses is an example of a true, or “proper,” miracle. As very few
God’s works in Egypt done by Moses’s hand “were properly instances fit Hobbes’s definition of a miracle, there have been very
Miracles.” By definition, a miracle “is a work of God, […] done for few proper miracles.
the making manifest to his elect, the mission of an extraordinary
Minister for their salvation.”

According to this definition, a miracle is not performed by way Hobbes further narrows the definition of a miracle, but he still
of the prophet’s virtue but by God through the prophet. It can observes God’s law of equity. A miracle is not something that
also be assumed from this definition that a miracle cannot be happens only to the holiest people. Consider Hobbes’s previous
performed by any angel, devil, or ghostly spirit. In Holy example of the Egyptian Pharaoh Necho, who spoke the words of
Scripture, there is magic that seems like miracles. For instance, God, which, by definition, is a miracle. This harkens back to the
when Moses’s rod hits the ground in the Book of Exodus, it Laws of Nature, which assume everyone is equal.
becomes a serpent. This seems like a miracle, but it isn’t.

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According to Hobbes, people are prone to deception when it This passage, too, speaks to the natural reason that God gave every
comes to miracles and are likely to believe in “false Miracles.” human. In giving everyone reason, God expects them to use it and
Hobbes again points out what God says to Moses in decide for themselves what is true or not. Only “God’s Lieutenant”
Deuteronomy. Through Moses, God warns the people not to has the authority to confirm a true miracle, as God’s Lieutenant
accept those prophets who teach religions other than that serves as God’s proxy on Earth. Hobbes implies that Moses, with the
professed by “Gods Lieutenant” (Moses), and he further warns exception of Christ, was the last true Lieutenant.
against any prediction that seems unlikely. One is always free
to believe or not believe any miracle they choose, as that is
their right. But, Hobbes says, at some point, one must submit to
“Gods Lieutenant” and “Head of the Church,” which he will
discuss more in the upcoming chapters.

CHAPTER 38: OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF ETERNALL LIFE, HELL, SALVATION, THE
WORLD TO COME, AND REDEMPTION
According to Hobbes, “Eternall life is greater reward, than the Hobbes argues that fear of punishment is what compels people to
life present; and Eternall torment a greater punishment than the follow rules, and the fear of that punishment must be greater than
death of Nature.” Adam was created by God in a similar state. In the benefit of breaking said rule. Adam, living only in Paradise, did
the Garden of Eden, Adam was to enjoy life everlasting—as not know what he would lose if he disobeyed God; thus, Adam easily
long as he ate from the Tree of Life, not the Tree of Knowledge. broke the covenant. Adam did not sufficiently fear God’s
Of course, Adam disobeyed God and ate from the Tree of punishment.
Knowledge and was promptly ejected from Paradise.

As for the physical place where humankind will enjoy eternal Hobbes again argues that scripture has largely been misinterpreted
life, Holy Scripture suggests this place is on Earth, not in and what is usually thought to be literal is actually metaphorical.
Heaven. This is implied in the Book of Revelations. “I John saw For Hobbes, “Heaven” is not a place that exists in the sky—it’s a
the Holy City, New Jerusalem, coming down from God out of metaphor for a specific place on Earth that exists due to a specific
heaven, prepared as a Bride adorned for her husband.” Hobbes covenant with God, much like the covenant shared between God
argues that after the Resurrection, humans will live forever in and the Israelites. Hobbes’s point is reflected in Revelations 21:2, in
“the Heavens,” but in this sense, “Heavens” is a remote place on which John sees “the Holy City, New Jerusalem.” The “Holy City” is
Earth. Strictly speaking, the “Kingdome of Heaven” means only on Earth, not in “Heaven.”
a Kingdome belonging to the King of Heaven—it does not
necessarily mean that place is in Heaven.

According to Holy Scripture, no one goes to Heaven. In John Hobbes’s claim that no one other than God or Christ has ever
3:13, it is stated that “no man hath ascended into Heaven, but he ascended to Heaven again contradicts traditional Christian
that came down from Heaven, even the Son of man, that is in doctrine that assumes all believers go to Heaven after death, as long
Heaven.” In short, only God and Jesus Christ have ascended as they repent their sins and are saved. Hobbes instead argues that
into Heaven. Furthermore, St. Peter says that after God’s Heaven will be at some future time a common-wealth on Earth.
coming, “we according to the promise look for new Heavens, and a
new Earth, wherein dwelleth righteousnesse.” It is clear, Hobbes
argues, that Heaven is meant to be on Earth.

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After God’s coming, even nonbelievers and those thought to be Just as Hobbes argues that Heaven in the traditional sense is largely
enemies of God will have a place on Earth. This place for God’s a metaphor, he argues the same for Hell. Hell is usually understood
enemies is usually understood as being “under ground,” like a as “under ground” or some “bottomelesse pit” of fire, but Hobbes
“bottomelesse pit” of fire and torture; however, Holy Scripture argues Hell is none of those things, and he uses the Bible and Holy
offers various descriptions of this place for God’s enemies. Scripture to prove his point. Hell cannot be a place of fire and
Hobbes cites Job 26:5 as an example: “Behold the Giants groan torture if it is described as “under water” in the Book of Job or as a
under water, and they that dwell with them.” He also references “Lake that burneth with Fire” in the Book of Revelations.
Revelation 21:8, in which the sinners and murderers “shall have
their Part 1n the Lake that burneth with Fire, and Brimstone; which
is the second Death.” Here, sinners are underwater, not
underground.

God’s enemies are also punished in scripture with eternal Again, Hobbes’s claim that Hell and the Devil do not exist
darkness. In Exodus 10:23, the Egyptians “saw not one another, contradicts widely accepted Christian doctrine and was considered
neither rose any man from his place for three days; but all the by many to be blasphemous. For many, if the Devil does not exist,
Children of Israel had light in their dwellings.” As there is not one God cannot exist either, and Hobbes’s claims were easily
accepted definition of Hell, it is clear, Hobbes maintains, that misinterpreted. For Hobbes, however, Hell is any place that includes
Hell is a metaphorical place, not one with any true existence eternal torture.
either on Earth or below. The Devil and all his demons are
likewise metaphorical.

Salvation is to be forgiven, saved, and protected against all evil, Holy scripture talks of three worlds, yet Hobbes only mentions two
sickness, and death, which, Hobbes says again, will be on Earth. (the Old World in the Old Testament and the Present World in the
In the Book of Isaiah, Jerusalem is a place where “the people that New Testament), which implies the “World to come” will only arrive
dwell therein shall be forgiven their iniquity.” In Holy Scripture, with God’s (or Christ’s) second coming. Thus, Heaven will be part of
there are three kinds of worlds mentioned: “the Old World, the this “World to come,” which must be on Earth.
Present World, and the World to come.” St. Peter speaks of the
Old World with Noah and the flood, and Christ speaks of the
present World in John 18:36, noting, “My Kingdome is not of this
World.”

Redemption is available for the guilty who seek forgiveness and Hobbes again deviates from accepted Christian doctrine when he
pay restitution. To pay restitution for some sin does not take implies it is not enough for salvation to simply repent one’s sins.
the away sin. A sin can only be taken away by God upon Sinners must also make some accepted sacrifice as restitution for
payment of a penalty, which, in the Old Testament, is usually a their sins, as Christ did when he died for the sins of humankind.
form of sacrifice. Christ sacrificed himself to redeem the sins of Hobbes implies that the second coming involves a new sacrifice and
humankind, and when God makes his next coming, all humans therefore a new agreement or covenant with God.
must repent; however, their redemption will come at a cost.

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CHAPTER 39: OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF THE WORD CHURCH

In Holy Scripture, the word “Church” means many things. It is Just as Heaven and Hell are not literal places, Hobbes extends to
sometimes a temple, or “Gods House,” in which any number of this same argument to churches in general. In Hobbes’s view, a
Christians gather to publicly perform holy rituals. In church is not only a physical structure in which people worship God;
Corinthians 14:34, it reads: “Let your women keep silence in the it is a metaphor used to describe those people who truly believe in
Churches.” But, Hobbes says, this, too, is most certainly a the power of God. Hobbes’s interpretation opens up the accepted
metaphor. The temple in this case is not a building but a way to definition of “church” to include people as well as structures.
distinguish between true Christians and those who worship
false gods. Church is sometimes meant as “Christs house” as
well, and the Greeks called it the “Lords house.”

A “Church” is citizens assembled, and when that assembly is Here, Hobbes makes the distinction that a church can only be
ordered by law by some authority, it is a “Lawfull Church.” In considered lawful if its assembly is ordered by some authority, like
some Holy Scripture, Christ is the “Head of the Church.” Yet in the sovereign power of a common-wealth. In a Christian church,
some Holy Scripture, a person is a church, like in Matthew God, Christ, or some appointed person like Moses, is believed to be
18:17: “Tell it to the Church, and if hee neglect to hear the Church, the sovereign power of the church, but Hobbes points out that the
let him be to thee as a Gentile, or Publican.” Hobbes defines a church exists as part of a greater common-wealth that itself has an
church as people gathered under the Christian faith and “united earthly sovereign power.
in the person of one Soveraign [Sovereign]; at whose command
they ought to assemble, and without whose authority they ought
not to assemble.”

In all common-wealths, any assembly that is not authorized by There are many different types of Christians (like Catholics and
the “Civil Soveraign [Sovereign]” is unlawful. Thus, any Protestants) and not one of them is bound to any one sovereign
unauthorized church assembled within in a common-wealth is power by covenant, other than the covenant that exists within their
“unlawfull Assembly.” Furthermore, there does not exist on respective common-wealths. In other words, every Christian cannot
Earth any “universall Church” to which every Christian is bound be made a subject of a central power—the Catholic Pope, for
by covenant, as there is no common power that all common- example—as each Christian has already accepted the civil sovereign
wealths are subject to. Every citizen of a common-wealth is of their common-wealth as supreme power. As the Laws of Nature
subject to the Sovereign Power of that common-wealth only maintain that the civil sovereign must be obeyed, people cannot be
and cannot be held by any other master. “Temporall and expected to follow the command of two sovereigns: one “Temporall,”
Spirituall Government,” Hobbes argues, “make men see double, or earthly, and the other “Spirituall,” or godly. Therefore, Hobbes
and mistake their Lawfull Soveraign.” Simply put, there can be argues one’s earthly sovereign must be obeyed over God or God’s
“no other Government in this life” but the sovereign power of a representative.
common-wealth.

CHAPTER 40: OF THE RIGHTS OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD, IN ABRAHAM, MOSES, THE HIGH
PRIESTS, AND THE KINGS OF JUDAH
Abraham was the first to make a covenant with God, and in this The distinction that Abraham only had dominion over “his own
contract, Abraham agreed to obey God in all things. Hobbes people” is an important one for Hobbes, a Protestant. Catholics
argues there are some important points to be taken from often view the Pope as God’s sovereign on Earth. Hobbes ultimately
Abraham’s covenant with God. For instance, God spoke to argues this isn’t true, but even if the Pope was God’s sovereign, that
Abraham only; thus, the covenant was with Abraham only. To would make the Pope sovereign only to “his own people” (i.e.,
correct this, God said: “All the Nations of the Earth shall be Catholics), not all Christians everywhere.
blessed in him, For I know him that he will command his children
and his houshold after him, and they shall keep the way of the Lord.”
Still, Abraham only had power to command “his own people.”

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This same covenant with God was later renewed, first with Here, Hobbes is tracing the line of succession of God’s Lieutenants
Isaac and later with Jacob; however, the covenant was not on Earth. Hobbes doesn’t begin with Moses, but Moses is the most
renewed again after that until the Israelites were freed. Then, important. The Catholic Church claims the Pope is God’s sovereign
the covenant was with Moses at the Foot of Mount Sinai. This on Earth through this very same line of succession, but Hobbes
contract between God and Moses marks the beginning of the ultimately argues that line, beyond Moses and a few others, can
“Peculiar Kingdome of God.” The first Lieutenant of this never be certain.
Kingdome was Moses, and then succession moved down the
line to Aaron and his heirs.

According to Hobbes, the people were not required to take Again, Hobbes is tracing the line of succession of God’s Lieutenant,
Moses as God’s Lieutenant. As God spoke to Moses, not the but God’s Lieutenant only has sovereign power over the people if
people, the people were not commanded by God to accept the people in turn accept and submit to that power. The Jews
Moses. In John 5:31, Christ says: “If I bear witnesse on my self, my accepted Moses and later Aaron, but not all Christians have
witnesse is not true.” If Christ says this of his own witness, accepted the Catholic Pope as this power in modernity.
Hobbes asks, then what of Moses’s? Under God’s command,
Moses was the sovereign power of the Jews, and after Moses’s
time, Aaron was sovereign.

In Moses’s time, there were no false prophets, as every prophet Just as there is no sovereign power in Israel in the Book of Judges,
was authorized by Moses and had the “Spirit of God.” Numbers Hobbes implies there is no spiritual sovereign power on Earth
11:25 explains, “God came down in a cloud, and took of the Spirit presently. As such, humans are beholden to their earthly, civil
that was upon Moses, and gave it to the Seventy Elders.” While sovereign before they can be subjects of any given spiritual power,
there were many prophets, they were all subordinate to Moses. like the Pope.
After the time of Moses and Aaron, sovereign Power went to
the High Priest, starting with Joshua. After Joshua, however,
there was no one until Saul. The Book of Judges says: “there was
in those dayes no King in Israel.”

The Kings of Israel had authority in all things religious and civil. Hobbes’s point here is that the authority of the High Priest is given
This sovereign power was divine, but it was also made by by God through a covenant. God has this authority by way of his
covenant. When the people of Israel say to Samuel, “make us a power, but also because he was the civil sovereign, as well as the
King to judge us,” Samuel is angry, but God says: “they have not spiritual sovereign, of the Israelites. Thus, God’s High Priest only has
rejected thee, but they have rejected mee, that I should not reign authority in any given common-wealth if the civil sovereign decrees
over them.” With this rejection, there is no authority in the High it.
Priest, except that which was allowed by the King.

During the Jews’ captivity, they did not belong to a common- This passage again speaks to the distinction between a civil
wealth. After the Jews were freed, they entered into a sovereign and a spiritual sovereign. For the Israelites, God’s
covenant with God; however, that contract made no promise of Lieutenant or High Priest was the civil and spiritual sovereign, but
obedience to any king. So, as far as the Old Testament is this was a unique case in this one “peculiar” common-wealth and
concerned, it can be concluded that whoever was the sovereign does not extend in a broader sense to all common-wealths in
power of the common-wealth of the Jews was also God’s general.
“Supreme Authority” on Earth.

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CHAPTER 41: OF THE OFFICE OF OUR BLESSED SAVIOUR

In Holy Scripture, Christ is said to hold three official offices. This passage, too, reflects Hobbes’s argument that, despite popular
Christ is a “Saviour,” “Counsellor,” and lastly, the “eternall King.” In opinion, the Kingdome of God is not the earthly Christian Church of
Christ’s office as Savior, he paid the ransom for humankind’s the present day. God’s Kingdome, which is also Christ’s Kingdome, is
sins when he sacrificed his life. As Christ paid the ransom, he “not of this world.” Therefore, Hobbes argues that God’s Kingdome
cannot be the King of the same people he saved. “My Kingdome cannot possibly be the current Christian Church or anyone in it.
is not of this world,” Christ says in John 18:36. And, perhaps even
more convincing, is John 12:47, in which Christ says: “I came
not to judge the world, but to save the world.”

The very purpose of Christ’s coming was to act as a counselor Caesar ruled the Roman Republic (a common-wealth) from 49 to
unto the people and convince them to follow God and renew 44 BCE, and he was the sovereign power of the people. Christ
the covenant. Up to this point, there was nothing unlawful in wanted the people to renew their covenant with God, but that
Christ’s plea to the people of Israel, whose common-wealth at covenant obligated the people to obey their civil sovereign in all
that time was under Caesar’s rule. At the time, the Jews things, not God. This argument is important for Hobbes, who
expected a Savior to come. If such an expectation was unlawful, dismisses claims that God is a Christian’s sovereign power over their
Hobbes says, the people would not have had it. Furthermore, earthly, civil sovereign.
Christ told the Jews his Kingdome was elsewhere and taught
them to obey their earthly king in the meantime, whomever
that may be.

In keeping with the third part of his office, Christ is to be King, Hobbes argues that Moses was God’s Lieutenant on Earth and
but his power will be second to God’s: “The Son of man shall served as spiritual and civil sovereign power to the Israelites, just as
come in the glory of his Father, with his Angels, and then he shall Christ will to all Christians upon his second coming and the
reward every man according to his works.” Thus, Hobbes argues, establishment of his Kingdome. Until then, Hobbes implies there is
Christ represents God to the people, just as Moses did, and no such Lieutenant on Earth.
every Lieutenant thereafter.

CHAPTER 42: OF POWER ECCLESIASTICALL

To understand what “POWER ECCLESIASTICALL” is and who Christianity was not allowed in Rome prior to 313 CE. Constantine,
has it, Hobbes says one must understand the time both before who ruled Rome from 306 to 337 CE, was the first Roman Emperor
and after the “Conversion of Kings,” before which Christianity to adhere to Christian teachings, and he converted to Christianity in
was not allowed. Before Christ’s Ascension and the later 337, the same year he died. By beginning with the “Conversion of
Conversion of Kings, the Apostles had ecclesiastical power, Kings” and Christ’s Ascension to Heaven, Hobbes is able to trace the
which means they were ordained to preach Christianity and line of succession of God’s ministers through time to establish
convert others. After the Apostles, ecclesiastical power was authority.
again given to “Ministers of God,” or those ordained with the
Holy Spirit and authorized to teach and preach God’s Word.

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According to popular Christian belief, the “Person of God” is The Holy Trinity is another sacred belief in Christianity that Hobbes
born three times. St. John says: “There be three that bear witness argues has been largely misinterpreted. Popular Christian belief
in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit; and these holds that God is three beings—the Father, the Son, and the Holy
Three are One.” These three are known in Holy Scripture as the Spirit—but Hobbes maintains it is impossible for one to be three.
“Trinity.” Hobbes, however, argues three can never be one, and Instead, Hobbes contends that the Holy Trinity is really three
in this case, the Trinity more rightly signifies “three Persons.” separate people (or groups of people, as is the case with the
God represented by Moses is one person, and God Apostles), who are authorized by God and have “Ecclesiastical,” or
represented by Christ is another. God represented by the spiritual, power.
Apostles is collectively a third, and in no way are any of these
individual men one, other than their shared love for God, which
can be said for many.

In short, ecclesiastical power is the power to teach God’s Hobbes contends that only certain people have ecclesiastical power
Word, and Hobbes uses Christ’s power as proof of his and are authorized to preach God’s Word, but even this power is
argument. As Christ’s Kingdome is not of this world, his limited, and, like all other forms of power, it exists only as allowed by
ministers can’t command obedience in Christ’s name, unless the civil sovereign of a common-wealth. Moses was the civil
that minister is also a sovereign king. Christ was sent to the sovereign of the Israelites, and Christ will be the civil sovereign of his
Jews to convince them to return to God and accept Christ as Kindgome after the second coming. Until then, however, Hobbes
King but not until Judgement day. The time between Christ’s argues that supreme power is one’s earthly sovereign, not God or
Ascension and the Resurrection is called a “Regeneration,” not a one of his Lieutenants.
reign. In Matthew 19:28, Christ says: “You that have followed me
in the Regeneration, when the Son of man shall sit in the throne of
his glory, you shall also sit upon twelve Thrones.” Clearly, Hobbes
explains, Christ was not King during this time.

The purpose of Christ’s ministers on this Earth is to convert Again, Hobbes draws a clear distinction between ecclesiastical
others to Christianity, but this conversion is not a command, power and sovereign power. Ecclesiastical power is not obligatory,
and it is not compulsory. In 2 Corinthians 1:24, St. Paul says: whereas sovereign power is. As such, no one person can command
“Wee have no Dominion over your Faith, but are Helpers of your anyone to believe or not believe in any god, even if that command is
Joy.” Hobbes questions what one is to do if their sovereign given by one’s sovereign power.
power, such as a king or a senate, forbids their subjects to
believe in Christ. To forbid one to believe or not believe in any
one thing is ineffective, Hobbes says, because one’s faith is a
gift from God, and it cannot be taken by any one person or
persons.

A sovereign king can tell his subjects what to do and forbid A sovereign power cannot order subjects to believe or disbelieve in
public gatherings and practices associated with Christianity, God, just as God himself could not order the Israelites to believe in
but a king cannot change what is in his subjects’ hearts. If one is him. The Israelites had to come to God via a covenant, and it is the
made to renounce Christ “on pain of death,” but Christ really same for any other Christian.
does live in their heart, one can lie without any affront to Christ
or the sovereign power, since the Law of Nature says a person
cannot be forced to confess something that endangers their
life. Plainly put, those who die as martyrs die needlessly.

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The true definition of a martyr, Hobbes says, is one who Hobbes’s definition of the word martyr again suggests that scripture
witnessed Christ’s Resurrection, not someone who dies rather has been largely misinterpreted, as a martyr is usually defined as
than cast away their love for Christ. In Acts 1:22, St. Peter asks: someone who is killed for their religious beliefs. In this way, Hobbes
“must one be ordained to be a Martyr (that is a Witnesse) with us implies that most Holy Scripture, and the terms and definitions
of his Resurrection.” In this definition of the word martyr, even if involved in it, have been misinterpreted.
one did witness Christ’s Resurrection, this does not obligate
them to die for the same cause.

The Apostles, like Christ, were sent to preach God’s Word, This passage again underscores the limitations of ecclesiastical
which makes them similar to a herald, or a crier, or another power. As messengers of God, Christ and the Apostles did not wield
such person who delivers messages for a king. In such the same power as God. In this vein, if God does have a Lieutenant
situations, a herald cannot command anyone to do anything on Earth now—the Catholic Pope, for instance—the power of that
and neither could the Apostles. The Apostles were also sent to messenger is also limited and cannot be compulsory.
teach. In the Book of Mark 16:15 it reads: “Goe into all the world,
and Preach the Gospel to every creature.”

Those accepting of God’s Word can be baptized “in the name of Again, Hobbes discounts the idea that God is three people (the
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,” which is a sign Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) as is assumed with the Holy Trinity.
that a subject will be loyal to God and those appointed by him. For Hobbes, one body can never be divided into three; however, the
Baptism is a type of covenant, but true authority is with an power of one body can be given to three different people.
“Earthly Soveraign [sovereign]” until Judgement Day.

Within ecclesiastical power is the power to give the “Keyes of Hobbes again underscores the limitations of ecclesiastical power.
the Kingdome of Heaven” to another and allow entrance into While one with ecclesiastical power can technically excommunicate
God’s Kingdome. On the flipside, one with ecclesiastical power a member of a church and deny their entrance into God’s
can deny the keys to one and excommunicate another. To Kingdome, that banishment is not really enforceable until God’s
excommunicate is to ban someone from their church, after second coming. In an earthly common-wealth, only the sovereign
which other Christians are instructed to avoid them. However, power has the authority to ban someone from an assembly.
a church has no power to keep anyone out of an assembly, since
all places are under dominion of the common-wealth and
sovereign power.

If an Apostate is excommunicated, it means nothing and has no In order to be excommunicated, one must first believe in God. An
effect. Excommunication only matters to those who believe in Apostate is someone who does not believe in religious doctrine. If
Christ, and it is practiced as punishment for some one does not believe that God’s Kingdome exists and does not wish
transgression. According to I Corinthians 5:11, “if any man that to enter into a covenant to become part of it, it is no punishment to
is called a Brother, be a Fornicator, or Covetous, or an Idolater, or a ban them from it.
Drunkard, or an Extortioner, with such a one yee are not to eat.” In
short, those who are found guilty of such sins are
excommunicated.

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For one to be excommunicated, they must first be a member of Hobbes implicitly argues here that the Pope does not have the
a Christian church. As all churches are equal in power, no one authority to excommunicate the sovereign power of another
church has authority to excommunicate the members of country. Henry VIII and Elizabeth I of England were both
another. Furthermore, Hobbes argues, if a sovereign excommunicated by the Pope, but Hobbes argues the Pope never
power—for instance, a Prince—is a member of a Christian had the ecclesiastical power to do such a thing in the first place. An
church, that Prince cannot be excommunicated. According to excommunicated Christian must be shunned by other Christians;
the Law of Nature, a Prince’s subjects are obligated to be in his however, it is not possible for subjects to shun their sovereign
presence when he commands it, and they can never refuse to power.
sit and eat with him.

To recap, the power of excommunication can only go as far as St. Paul’s ecclesiastical power over the Jews was limited, and
the power of Apostles, which is to teach God’s Word and to Hobbes argues that the ecclesiastical power of any religious entity
covert others to his way to ensure “Salvation in the world to or body is also limited. Christ ordered the Apostles to preach
come.” Before civil sovereigns became Christians, St Paul obedience to earthly, civil sovereigns, not to obey God above all
visited Jews at their synagogue. In Acts 17:2-3, St. Paul others. Thus, a Christian in England cannot possibly be expected to
“reasoned with them out of the Scriptures, […] and that this Jesus obey the ecclesiastical power of the Pope over their sovereign king
whom he preached was the Christ.” St. Paul had no authority or queen.
over the Jews other than to interpret Holy Scripture as he was
ordered to do by Christ.

When attempting to convert Gentiles, quoting Holy Scripture The reason the Apostles used and the Gentiles accepted is the very
was no use, as they did not believe in Christ. Thus, the Apostles same reason God has given to all of humankind. Through this
used “Reason to confute [the Gentiles’] Idolatry.” In short, the reason, the Gentiles abandoned their “Idolatry,” or false gods, and
Apostles persuaded the nonbelievers, and when they did, the accepted the true God. This belief, however, is more applicable to
Gentiles were converted to nothing but a belief in what the one’s “eternall life,” not their present earthly life. Thus, to accept God
Apostles taught. This belief is reflected in the Old Testament is not to reject one’s earthly, civil sovereign.
when Christ says to the Jews: “Search the Scriptures; for in them
yee thinke to have eternall life, and they are they that testifie of me.”

A piece of writing can be said to be “Canonicall” in two ways. “Canonicall” writings, or writings that are accepted into the canon
The word “Canon” signifies a “Rule” by which one guides their of Holy Scripture, are viewed as either “rules” or “laws.” A “rule” is a
actions. When these “Rules” are given by a teacher or recommendation made by a teacher to a student, like honoring
counselor to a student or friend, such words do not have the one’s mother and father. However, a “law” is Holy Scripture made
power to compel one to any given action or behavior. However, decree by a civil sovereign, like civil laws against murder.
when such “Rules” are given to someone who is compelled by
another to obey them, they become “Laws.”

The first piece of Holy Scripture to become law was the Ten As God’s Lieutenant on Earth, Moses was the sovereign power of
Commandments, which God gave to Moses on tablets of stone. the Israelites and therefore had the power to make the Ten
God delivered the Commandments to Moses, and Moses Commandments into law. However, this power only extended over
delivered them to the people. The laws that God dictated to the Israelites because they agreed to the covenant.
Israel’s magistrates are known as “Judicall Law,” and Moses also
delivered these laws. When Moses delivered God’s Word,
these words became laws by way of Moses’s covenant with the
people.

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Moses added different laws as the Israelites readied Again, Moses had the power to make God’s laws into civil laws
themselves for the land of Promise, and these are known as because he was the sovereign power of the Israelites. This
“Second Laws.” In Deuteronomy 29:1, it is written: “The words of distinction is important to Hobbes’s argument because it supports
a Covenant which the Lord commanded Moses to make with the his contention that God’s law is only civil law when it is decreed by
Children of Israel, besides the Covenant which he made with them an earthly, civil sovereign.
in Horeb.” Moses made each King of Israel keep a copy of the
laws, but, Hobbes says, Moses was also the “Civill Soveraign
[sovereign].”

There were no other laws instituted until after the captivity of Constantine was the first civil sovereign (other than Moses) to
the Jews, after which they entered into a covenant with Moses accept and follow Christianity. Constantine ruled the Roman
to accept the “Law of God.” The Old Testament was not law Empire from 306 to 337 and marks the “Conversion of Kings”
until this covenant, which in effect formed the common-wealth Hobbes refers to earlier in the chapter. As a Christian, Constantine
of the Jews. The New Testament, on the other hand, was not was the first to make Holy Scripture into law, in all other instances,
considered law until sovereign Christians deemed it so, scripture is merely “rule.”
beginning with Constantine.

But, for the New Testament to be law wherever a common- Again, Hobbes implies that a sovereign power can never compel a
wealth forbids it contradicts the very nature of a law. Thus, subject to disbelieve in God, even if a sovereign can make the public
whenever any “Rule” is offered that the sovereign has not worship or following of God’s laws illegal. God’s law states that
endorsed, such “Rule” can only be counsel, not compulsion. In everyone must obey their earthly sovereign in all ways, but a
common-wealths where God’s Word goes against the sovereign can never take away the gift of faith.
established laws, God’s Word cannot be followed. Of course,
Hobbes says, while God’s Word cannot be put into practice or
discussed with others in such instances, it may be secretly
honored.

Again, the purpose of Christ’s command to the Apostles was to This again illustrates the limitations of ecclesiastical power. Holy
spread word of his Kingdome, not in this world but the next. scripture can only be elevated from “Rule” to “Law” in those
The Apostles were to teach the people and baptize them as common-wealths where the civil sovereign has deemed it so, and
believers, but they did not have power to make Christ’s this power is limited to that specific common-wealth. For example,
command into law. Instead, they taught obedience to while the Pope is the civil sovereign of Vatican City, the Pope is not
established laws. As only a sovereign power in the civil sense the civil sovereign of England and cannot impose laws on Christians
can make any “Rule” into law, the Holy Scripture within the there.
New Testament can only be considered “Law” in those
common-wealths where a sovereign power has willed it so.

Therefore, ecclesiastical power is limited in many ways. In Acts The “necessary things” Hobbes lists here are the only things a
15:28, the Apostles say to the Elders: “It seemed good to the Christian must observe to gain entrance into God’s Kingdome, and
Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burthen then each of these things can be done while also obeying one’s civil,
these necessary things.” Those necessary things, according to earthly sovereign.
Hobbes, are to repent, be baptized, follow the Commandments,
and believe in God’s Word.

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Ecclesiastical officers during the time of the Apostles were Hobbes makes a distinction between two types of ecclesiastical
either “Magisteriall” or “Ministeriall.” “Magisteriall” officers officers—those who have the power to teach and those who don’t.
preached to nonbelievers and administered sacraments to The first ecclesiastical officers with the power to teach were given
those they already converted. “Ministeriall” officers included this power by a covenant with Christ, and afterward, they were
the deacons who saw to the operational needs of the church. selected by an assembly of people. The Church of Antioch was one
The first Magisterial officers were the Apostles, who were of the earliest Christian churches (located near present-day Turkey),
chosen by Christ to be martyrs—that is, to witness his and the assembly imbued Paul and Barnabas with the same power
Resurrection. The first non-martyr Apostle was Matthias, who through their own covenant.
was chosen by an assembly of 120 Christians, and then there
was Paul and Barnabas, who, by the Church of Antioch, were
made Apostles.

A bishop is an “overseer” of the church, and the first Christian In Hobbes’s view, bishops who were authorized directly by Christ or
bishops were the Apostles. After the Apostles instituted the God had more authority than those who were authorized after
Elders, they, too, were known as bishops, as was any pastor, Christ’s Resurrection by countless church assemblies. Thus, the
teacher, or doctor whose calling was Christ. As Apostles, Pope, having been authorized by the people, not God or Christ
Matthias, Paul, and Barnabas were authorized by the people, directly, does not have the same authority claimed by early
not Christ. Countless bishops were authorized in much the Apostles.
same way, as is reflected in Acts 14:23, which says “they
ordained Elders in every Church.” This remains common practice
even today, as new bishops are elected in Rome.

A minister is someone who voluntarily does business for Hobbes again makes a distinction between ministers and deacons.
another. Pastors within a church are known as “The Ministers of Ministers have the ecclesiastical power to teach and preach, but a
the Word,” and deacons are responsible for “Serving of Tables,” deacon does not. This distinction becomes increasingly important in
which means they serve the congregation. The very first Hobbes’s explanation of the public’s duty to financially support their
deacons were selected by the Disciples, not the Apostles, ministers. Hobbes implies it is not the public’s duty to support
which can be seen in Acts 6:3. “Brethren looke you out among you deacons in the same way.
seven men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost, and of Wisdome,
whom we may appoint over this business.”

According to Numbers 18:20, God said to Aaron: “Thou shalt Again, Hobbes is using scripture to illustrate his point that ministers
have no inheritance in their land, neither shalt thou have any part are supposed to be kept financially by the communities they serve.
amongst them.” Thus, the maintenance and support of ministers This point seems somewhat unimportant here, but Hobbes comes
must come from public revenue in the form of tithes and back to it at the end of Leviathan. Hobbes argues that this public
offerings. Judas Iscariot had a purse to maintain Christ, and support is motive for some clergy to exploit the people and the
many of the Apostles, who were also fishermen, worked in their church.
trade to earn money to keep them. Whenever the Apostles
went out to preach, Christ did not allow them to carry any
money.

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After the Ascension of Christ, Christians everywhere “lived in As no church assembly can ever have the power to make scripture
Common” with the money earned from their land and law, a church assembly cannot determine a minister’s salary, and
possessions, and they supported the Apostles with their the minister must rely on charity. If the sovereign power of a
offerings. 1 Corinthians 9:14 reads: “Even so hath the Lord common-wealth is also a Christian, that sovereign can deem any
appointed, that they which preach the Gospel should live of the given minister’s salary as a law. Again, Hobbes later comes back to
Gospel.” Thus, Hobbes argues, it can be concluded that a this fact and argues that Christian sovereigns can abuse this power
church’s ministers should be maintained by the people of that and command higher salaries for certain ministers, like the bishops
church. This maintenance can be determined by each church of Rome.
member individually or by the entire assembly; however, to
determine by entire assembly is impossible, as the assembly
lacks the power to make a law. So, in common-wealths where
the sovereign power does not make laws to determine a
minister’s maintenance, or salary, it relies on charity.

A sovereign power of a common-wealth who is also a Christian Hobbes implies that it makes very little sense for a sovereign power
has the right to appoint ministers. The sovereign power is the to allocate any part of its power to another power, like to the Pope in
“Supreme Pastor” of their subjects, and they have the power to Rome. In giving the Pope some of its power, a sovereign diminishes
teach and ordain as they please. Before the Conversion of its own power, which is counterproductive to the covenant that
Kings, ministers and other pastors were selected and creates it. The purpose of a common-wealth is to create a sovereign
appointed by an assembly. Suppose a Christian sovereign, such with as much power as possible. If the sovereign gives some of that
as a king, passes his authority to ordain ministers within his power away, it isn’t as powerful as it could be.
common-wealth to another sovereign power, like the Pope in
Rome. In doing so, the Christian sovereign robs himself of
power.

In a common-wealth, all ministers and pastors preach and teach A sovereign’s power to preach is “Jure Divino,” meaning it is divine
under the authority given to them by the sovereign power, and comes directly from God. A minister’s ecclesiastical power, on
meaning a minister’s authority is “Jure Civili.” The sovereign the other hand, comes from the sovereign power and is “Jure Civili,”
power, however, derives their own authority to teach and meaning their power is civil, not divine. This is an important
preach Christianity from God, which means a sovereign’s distinction because it again illustrates that a minister can never
authority is “Jure Divino.” As every sovereign power is also the have the ecclesiastical power to excommunicate a sovereign from
“Supreme Pastor,” they can preach, teach, baptize, and the Christian Church.
administer the sacraments. Just because a sovereign power has
the ability to do such things does mean they actually do them,
Hobbes says. A sovereign is much too busy with the common-
wealth; thus, they appoint others below them as ministers.
Christ never baptized anyone, Hobbes says, but sent his
Apostles and Disciples instead.

The “Imposition of Hands” is an ancient ceremony performed With Hobbes’s explanation of the “Imposition of Hands,” he implies
publicly by the Jews, in which it is made clear who, or what, is that to lay hands on another in a spiritual sense does not always
being blessed or condemned, as Jacob does when he blesses imply a miracle or the transfer of power, as is often assumed in
Joseph’s children. Jacob “laid his right Hand on Ephraim the popular Christian doctrine. Jacob lays his hands on the children to
younger, and his left Hand on Manasseh the first born.” In Leviticus bless them, and God orders nonbelievers to lay their own hands on
24:14, God orders all the blasphemers to “Lay their Hands on his their heads to identify themselves. Christ, too, lays his hands on
head, and that all the congregation should stone him.” Christ, too, others to pray, not necessarily to heal or ordain.
performs this ceremony in Matthew 19:13: “They brought unto
him little children, that hee should Put his Hands on them, and
Pray.”

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The Apostles, too, “Laid Hands” on those they ordained or According to Hobbes, a sovereign power does not require another
prayed with. In Acts 8:17, Peter and John go to the people of power—like the Pope, for instance—to lay hands on them and imbue
Samaria and “Laid their Hands on them, and they received the Holy them with the ecclesiastical power of a minister. A sovereign has
Ghost.” The purpose of such a ceremony, especially when already been given this power by God, so only God can take this
ordaining a minister, is to designate the one who is receiving power away.
the power. In the case of a sovereign power, they have always
had the power to teach and ordain others; thus, there is no
need for the “Imposition of Hands.”

A sovereign power may transfer the management of religious A cardinal is a high-ranking bishop of the Catholic Church (the Pope
matters to the Pope, or they can transfers the management of is selected from a conclave of cardinals), and Cardinal Bellarmine
religious matters to one minister or assembly within their own was a particularly important cardinal who served the Pope until
dominion. As the power of the Pope in Rome is universally Bellarmine’s death in 1621. Bellarmine wrote a treatise entitled De
accepted, Hobbes thinks it proper to discuss Cardinal Summo Pontifice, in which he argued that all sovereigns of the
Bellarmine and his books, De Summo Pontifice. The first of world should be held under the ecclesiastical power of the Catholic
Cardinal Bellarmine’s books discusses the best form of Pope.
government, which Bellarmine claims is a mix of monarchy,
aristocracy, and democracy. Bellarmine claims that the best
government for a church is also a mix of the three; however, he
says that mix should be mostly monarchical.

Hobbes says he has already discussed that a monarchy is the According to Hobbes, the Pope only has power over his own
best form of government, but he argues that a church’s form of common-wealth (Vatican City in Rome) and cannot claim power
government makes very little difference. It is not the purpose over any other sovereign or common-wealth. For instance, the Pope
of a church to govern by order and command. On the contrary, has no authority over the sovereign power of England or its subjects.
the purpose of a church is to guide others and persuade Thus, the Pope can only guide such subjects like a “Schoolmaster” or
through Holy Scripture. Furthermore, the Pope’s power in teacher and cannot command them like a “Master” to his servants.
common-wealths that are not his own is that of a
“Schoolmaster only,” not a “Master of Family.”

In his second book, Cardinal Bellarmine argues that St. Peter Other than Moses, Constantine was the first Christian sovereign in
was the first bishop in Rome and that all other Popes are his Rome; thus, Hobbes implies that the Pope comes from a succession
successors. Many people, Hobbes says, dispute this claim. If the that begins with Constantine, not St. Peter as Cardinal Bellarmine
first bishop in Rome was the “Supreme Pastor,” that first Roman and the Catholic Church maintain. In this light, Hobbes throws the
bishop was Constantine, Rome’s first Emperor, not St. Peter. entire succession and appointment of Popes and their authority into
Bellarmine’s third book argues whether the Pope is the question. During the 16th century, many Protestants claimed the
Antichrist. Hobbes, however, can find no evidence to support Pope was the Antichrist. Bellarmine’s third book, Antichrist, argues
this argument. The Jews expected a Messiah in the Old that the Pope is definitively not the Antichrist. In this case, Hobbes
Testament, which opened them up to imposters and false agrees with Bellarmine and finds no evidence to support such a
prophets. The word Antichrist is properly defined as someone claim.
who claims to be Christ but isn’t; or, as someone who denies
Jesus is himself the Christ. As the Pope in Rome has done
neither of these two things, he cannot be rightly called the
Antichrist.

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In Cardinal Bellarmine’s forth book, he argues that the Pope’s In Hobbes’s own interpretation of Holy Scripture, Christ only gives
“Judgements are Infallible” and that Christ gave ecclesiastical ecclesiastical power to his Apostles, anyone else—including the
power to the Pope in Rome. Bellarmine turns to Holy Scripture Pope in Rome—is given their ecclesiastical power by the assembly of
to prove his point. In Luke 22:31, Christ says to Simon: “Simon, people in which they serve. Hobbes does argue that the Pope’s
Simon, Satan hath desired you that hee may sift you as wheat; but I power to act as minister onto his own subjects is given to him by the
have prayed for thee, that thy faith faile not, and when thou art divine power of God; however, that power does not extend beyond
converted, strengthen thy Brethren.” In Bellarmine’s the subjects of the Pope’s own common-wealth.
interpretation, Christ promises that Simon’s faith will not fail as
long as that faith follows that as defined by the Pope. Hobbes
argues Bellarmine’s interpretation is wrong.

The sovereign power alone has complete authority to define As the Pope is only the sovereign power of his own common-wealth,
how Holy Scripture is interpreted, not the Pope. As for the he has no say in how Holy Scripture is interpreted in other common-
Pope’s infallibility of judgement, Cardinal Bellarmine again cites wealths. Hobbes does not mean to say that there is no truth in the
Holy Scripture and John 16:13. “When the Spirit of truth is come, Pope’s words and judgement. Hobbes simply argues that it’s
hee will lead you into all truth.” The implied “truth” here, Hobbes impossible for a person’s judgment to be “infallible.” Judgement and
argues, is truth as it relates to salvation, not all truth in general. reason can be certain in very few circumstances (geometry for one),
Thus, the Pope’s judgement concerning salvation is likely and no one person can claim to be right all the time.
sound, but his judgement can never be completely foolproof.
Even with this distinction, the Pope’s judgement concerning
salvation is no more infallible than the judgement of any other
devout Christian.

It has never been claimed by the church or the Pope that the In Hobbes’s view, no Christian living outside the common-wealth of
Pope is the sovereign power over all the world’s Christians. the Pope can be beholden to the Pope’s power. Thus, a Christian
Thus, all Christians are not obligated to obey the Pope. The living in England is beholden to England’s sovereign power, even if
sovereign power of a common-wealth has dominion over that Christian is a Catholic. Hobbes argues there is no covenant
everyone in their common-wealth, including the Christians. that obligates all Christians to a single power; thus, all Christians
Therefore, if the Pope claims to have jurisdiction over all the are obligated to follow their individual civil sovereigns.
Christians in the world, he teaches those Christians to disobey
their sovereign power, which directly contradicts the lessons
taught by the Apostles in Holy Scripture.

To prove the Pope has power to institute laws, Cardinal Hobbes does not dispute that the Pope has the power to institute
Bellarmine cites Deuteronomy 7:12: “The man that will doe laws; however, the Pope only has the power to institute laws within
presumptuously, and will not hearken unto the Priest, (that his own common-wealth. Hobbes argues that ecclesiastical power is
standeth to Minister there before the Lord thy God, or unto the given to every Christian sovereign, not just the Pope, by the divine
Judge,) even that man shall die, and thou shalt put away the evill power of God. As Hobbes points out earlier, a sovereign’s
from Israel.” Through numerous biblical passages, Bellarmine ecclesiastical power is “Jure Divino,” whereas as a minister’s
maintains that Christ gave ecclesiastical power to the Pope and ecclesiastical power is “Jure Civili” and comes from the sovereign
no one else, but Hobbes disagrees. It is only Christian power. In this way, all “lawful Power is of God,” but the total power
sovereigns who can claim power to govern from God or Christ. of Pope proposed by Bellarmine is not lawful.
Any minister who has ecclesiastical power derives that power
from the sovereign. “All lawful Power is of God,” Hobbes
contends, but the absolute power of a Pope is not lawful.

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Whether Christ gave power only to the Pope, or to other In Hobbes’s estimation, the sovereign power of any given common-
ministers, too, is a moot argument, Hobbes implies, if it is wealth has the authority to make laws in that common-wealth only.
considered outside common-wealths where the Pope is the As the Pope has dominion over the subjects of Vatican City in Rome
sovereign power. A Pope only has the power to make laws if he only, the power of the Pope cannot extend to people living in other
is also the sovereign power of that common-wealth. If the Pope common-wealths.
is not sovereign power, neither he, nor any other minister
(unless they are the sovereign power), has power to make
laws.

According to Hobbes, Christ gave the Apostles and his Hobbes claims that the ecclesiastical power of a Christian sovereign
Disciples the power to preach God’s Word; however, Christ did comes from God. As the sovereign power of the Jews, Moses’s
not give them power to command the people. All ministers and ecclesiastical power comes from God, but the ecclesiastical power
bishops (unless they are the sovereign power) get their power of the 70 Elders comes from Moses. Hobbes does not dispute that
to preach and ordain from the sovereign power of the the Pope’s ecclesiastical power comes from God. What Hobbes does
common-wealth in which they belong. This can be seen in dispute is that the Pope’s power, like Moses’s, is limited and cannot
Numbers 11, in which God commands Moses to select 70 extend beyond the people of his common-wealth.
Elders and infuse them with Moses’s spirit. As God’s
Lieutenant, Moses was the sovereign power of the common-
wealth of the Jews, and Moses gave the power to preach and
ordain to the 70 Elders when he infused them with his spirit.

Cardinal Bellarmine claims the Church is like a monarchy and Hobbes’s claims that the Pope’s power is “Didacticall,” by which he
the Pope is the monarch, but Hobbes again disagrees. The means that the Pope’s power is purely ecclesiastical and is meant
Pope’s power is “Didacticall” only, and does not extend past this for teaching purposes only. Unless, of course, the Pope is operating
limitation. A Pope can never have jurisdiction, Hobbes argues, in his own common-wealth, in which he is also the sovereign power.
in the dominion of another sovereign power. A sovereign’s right Otherwise, in other sovereigns’ dominions, the Pope’s word can only
to power is derived from the covenant of the people. If a Pope be counsel, not law.
claims supreme power over the Christians in any given
common-wealth, he dismisses the contract that joins them
together.

If the Pope has absolute power, which is to say he has been Again, since the purpose of a common-wealth is to create a
granted such power by a sovereign, the Pope can depose sovereign that is as powerful as possible, it does not make much
princes and kings whenever he wants for whatever he wants. sense for the sovereign to give any of that power away. In doing so,
This is the precise argument offered by Cardinal Bellarmine Hobbes maintains, the common-wealth is technically destroyed.
and many others, Hobbes says, and Popes have historically put Placing the Pope in a position of authority over all Christian
such power into practice. For instance, Pope Innocent III and sovereigns diminishes their power and dissolves their original
the fourth Council of Lateran decried that any king under the covenants, in which case their subjects cannot be obligated to obey
Pope’s command was to rid their kingdom of heretics within the Pope either. In short, Hobbes maintains it is impossible for the
one year or face excommunication. People cannot be expected Pope to claim any power over other Christian sovereigns.
to serve two different masters, Hobbes argues. To avoid this
conflict, sovereign powers must keep all their power
exclusively, including religious matters, or sovereign powers
should give all their power to the Pope. To divide power is to
destroy it and the common-wealth.

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Cardinal Bellarmine argues that the “Civill Power” of a sovereign In Hobbes’s opinion, having “Spirituall Power” over someone is not
is subject to the “Spirituall Power” of the Pope. Even if this were the same as having “Civil Power” over them. Spiritual power, like the
true, Hobbes says, that still doesn’t mean that the sovereign is power God has over Christians, does not technically exist until one
obligated to obey the Pope. What Bellarmine means to say in becomes a spirit and enters into God’s Kingdome. Thus, even if the
his argument concerning the “Spirituall Power” of the Pope is Pope had spiritual power over a sovereign, this power is ineffective
that Pope has authority to command a sovereign power, and in an earthly, civil sense.
this, Hobbes implies, can never be.

The Pope may very well be Christ’s only true minister, Hobbes Again, Hobbes sees a clear difference between spiritual power and
says, but the Pope’s power doesn’t exist until Christ’s second civil power. The Pope only has authority in a spiritual world—not in
coming. And even then, the power wouldn’t belong to the Pope the civil, earthly world that currently exists. In Hobbes’s opinion,
of the present day, but to St. Peter and the rest of the Apostles, there can be no crossover between the earthly, civil world and the
who will be the Judges in Christ’s Kingdome. Cardinal spiritual world of God. The earthly civil world exists until Christ’s
Bellarmine also argues that a spiritual common-wealth can take second coming, and only then can the spiritual world begin.
over a civil common-wealth if that common-wealth cannot
rightly defend itself. Hobbes again disagrees.

According to Hobbes, there is no such thing as a “Spirituall Again, Hobbes argues that the Pope can claim no spiritual authority
Common-wealth,” at least not in this world. A “Spirituall over Christians of other common-wealths while they are still alive.
Common-wealth” is just like the Kingdome of Christ, which In their earthly existence, Christians are beholden to their earthly
even Christ says doesn’t exist in this world. Christ’s Kingdome sovereign only, not the Pope or even God. One’s spiritual authority
will exist in the next world, after the Resurrection. A spiritual only has power over them once a subject has died.
body cannot rise until the death of a natural body, Hobbes
argues. Therefore, there can be no “Spirituall Common-wealth”
for those who are still alive.

Cardinal Bellarmine also argues that it is unlawful for Again, according to the Laws of Nature, only a sovereign has the
Christians to obey a heretical king, and that the Pope has the power to decide what is heretical. The Laws of Nature also dictate
authority to decide what constitutes heresy. Hobbes claims this that human beings must always obey their sovereign power. As God
argument is categorically false. It goes against the Law of gave the Laws of Nature to humankind, Hobbes implies that
Nature for subjects of a common-wealth to disobey their Bellarmine’s claims of the Pope’s absolute power violate God’s laws
sovereign power. Furthermore, it is the sovereign power, not as well as the Laws of Nature.
the Pope, who has the authority to decide what is or isn’t
considered heretical in a common-wealth.

Hobbes examines several more examples of the Holy Scripture This passage recaps the heart of Hobbes’s argument: the Pope does
offered by Cardinal Bellarmine to prove his argument, and not have authority over those outside his own common-wealth. For
Hobbes’s conclusion each time is the same. A Pope can never example, the Pope does not have dominion over the Christians of
have absolute power over people, unless he is also the England, nor does the Pope have dominion over England’s
sovereign power of a common-wealth. And, perhaps most sovereign, even if that sovereign is a Christian.
importantly, a Pope can never have dominion over another
sovereign power or the people residing in said sovereign’s
common-wealth.

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CHAPTER 43: OF WHAT IS NECESSARY FOR A MANS RECEPTION INTO THE KINGDOME OF
HEAVEN
The most frequent cause of civil unrest and war in Christian Hobbes implies that it isn’t necessary for one’s salvation to always
common-wealths arises from the difficulty that comes from obey God over their sovereign power. Instead, Hobbes argues one
trying to obey God and a sovereign power when their laws are can hold their sovereign power above God without offending God.
contradictory to one another. Many people believe that when Hobbes repeatedly argues that God commanded all Christians
two commands are received, and one of them comes from God, through the Apostles to obey their earthly sovereigns, which means
God must be obeyed—even if that command goes against the obeying one’s sovereign even when a sovereign’s law goes against
sovereign power. The trick to avoiding such difficulty, Hobbes God.
maintains, is knowing what is and is not necessary for one’s
acceptance into Christ’s Kingdome.

The command of a sovereign power can be obeyed without In situations in which a sovereign’s will goes against God’s,
forfeiting one’s salvation. To disobey the sovereign for any Christians usually want to obey God; however, Hobbes argues doing
reason is unjust, Hobbes argues, and his own proof is again so is actually the greater offense in God’s eyes. God commanded all
Holy Scripture: “Servants obey your Masters in all things.” Christians to obey their sovereigns, and they must always do so.
Therefore, to avoid punishment in this world and the next, it is
best to obey one’s sovereign power.

There are but two virtues required for salvation and Salvation, or entrance into Christ’s Kingdome, is granted to all
acceptance into Christ’s Kingdome. The first is to have faith in Christians who believe in Christ and repent their sins. Hobbes
Christ, and the second is to obey laws. Hobbes argues that repeatedly illustrates that the subject of a common-wealth can be
each and every human being is disobedient in some way, commanded by a sovereign to follow certain laws (even if those laws
beginning with Adam’s disobedience in the Garden of Eden. are against God); however, a sovereign cannot force a subject to
Thus, all that is really necessary to ensure one’s salvation is believe or disbelieve in God.
faith in Christ. Heaven is shut only to sinners. Those who are
disobedient and repent are granted entrance to Christ’s
Kingdome.

Next, Hobbes considers whom Christians must have faith in to Hobbes again implies that there is not a universal definition of faith
ensure their salvation. Moses and the other prophets had faith that all people follow. Different people have faith in different pieces
in God, and the Apostles and the Disciples had faith in Christ. of Holy Scripture for different reasons. For example, Hobbes finds
Afterwards, people believed in the words of Moses, and they more authority in in the scripture of the Old Testament, but many
had faith in what Moses said as Christ’s “Supreme Pastor.” In a others find the same authority in the New Testament. These
common-wealth, Hobbes says, the sovereign power is the differences are a matter of individual faith and cannot be
“Supreme Pastor.” Different people believe any given religious reconciled.
doctrine or piece of Holy Scripture for different reasons. Faith
is God’s gift, and it works differently in everyone.

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In Christian faith, the Bible is considered the “Word of God,” Like many branches of philosophy, Hobbes argues that questions
but the reasons why the Bible is believed to be the “Word of involving religion and faith can never be answered with any real
God” differ greatly and are quite disputed. It is reasonable to certainty and will always rely largely on opinion. As Holy Scripture
say that Christians do not know that Holy Scripture is the can never in itself be considered fact, the power of a sovereign is
“Word of God”; they believe that Holy Scripture is the “Word of required to make any piece of Holy Scripture into civil law.
God,” which means they also believe in God. Hobbes again
quotes Holy Scripture, this time Romans 10:14-15: “How shall
they beleeve in him of whom they have not heard? and how shall
they hear without a Preacher? and how shall they Preach, except
they be sent?” The answer for Hobbes is faith. Faith allows one
to believe in that which they cannot prove.

Teaching Holy Scripture is often the cause of faith, but not Again, Hobbes reiterates that the only thing necessary for a
everyone who is taught Holy Scripture believes. Again, Hobbes Christian to gain entrance into Christ’s Kingdome is a belief in
claims that faith is God’s gift, and God does not give it to Christ. In other words, one’s salvation is not dependent upon
everyone. Therefore, Hobbes argues, the only virtue necessary obeying God over the sovereign when the sovereign’s will conflicts
for salvation and entry into Christ’s Kingdome is the faith that with God’s. In such cases, a Christian should obey the
“JESUS IS THE CHRIST.” This, too, is reflected in Holy sovereign—they will still be admitted to Christ’s Kingdome as long
Scripture. In John 11:26, Christ says: “Whosoever liveth and as they are true believers.
bleeveth in mee, shall not die eternally.”

There is, of course, the “Allegoricall” parts of Holy Scripture This passage further reduces all other arguments regarding the
that claim that “They shall be saved, but so as by fire, or through requirements of salvation into Hobbes’s opinion that a belief in
fire.” But, Hobbes says, there is nothing in Holy Scripture that Christ is all that is needed to gain entrance into Christ’s Kingdome.
defines the fires of Hell as an actual place. Hobbes points out As God’s power is implied in the belief in Christ, Hobbes maintains
that it may also be reasonable for one to say that belief in God’s that belief in God is not explicitly required. The belief in Hell is not
omnipotence and his role as creator is every bit as important to needed to gain entrance into Christ’s Kingdome either, Hobbes
salvation as belief that Jesus is the Christ. To counter such an implies, because there is no real evidence to suggest Hell exists in
assumption, Hobbes maintains that God’s omnipotence and the the first place.
creation is implied within one’s belief in Jesus. One cannot
possibly believe that Christ is the Messiah without also
believing Christ is the son of the all-powerful God.

Next, Hobbes cites several passages of Holy Scripture that In both passages Hobbes cites, the belief in Christ is all that is
reflect his argument that faith and obedience are necessary for needed for salvation. To repent and be baptized is to believe in
salvation and entrance into Christ’s Kingdom. He begins with Christ and accept him as one’s savior, which ensures their entrance
Acts 2:37: “Repent, and be Baptized every one of you, for the into Christ’s Kingdome. In these biblical passages, there is no
remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.” He mention of obeying God, only the belief in Christ.
also cites Mark 1:15: “The time is fulfilled, and the Kingdome of
God is at hand, Repent and Beleeve the Evangile.”

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It is possible to reconcile one’s obedience to God with their Again, Hobbes argues that a sovereign power must always be
obedience to their sovereign power, even if that sovereign is obeyed over God, even if the sovereign’s will is against God’s. To
not a Christian. If one’s sovereign is a Christian, such a obey a sovereign who goes against the will of God is not to disobey
sovereign already allows Holy Scripture and likely considers it God, Hobbes contends. On the contrary, since God commanded all
law. Furthermore, obedience to civil laws is commanded by the Christians obey their earthly sovereigns, this includes obeying a
Laws of Nature, which are the Laws of God. But, supposing a sovereign that is technically wrong. To obey a sovereign who does
Christian sovereign misinterprets Holy Scripture and passes a not believe in God does not mean that a subject must also reject
law that is contrary to God’s Word, obeying a sovereign over God.
God will not hinder one’s salvation. St. Paul said everyone must
obey their teachers and follow commands; however, St. Paul
also said that one must only believe a “lawfull Teacher.” If a
sovereign’s interpretation of a Holy Scripture is against the
Law of God, that teacher is not lawful and need not be believed,
even if they must be obeyed.

And if the sovereign power is not a Christian, one can still obey A Christian subject can follow a non-Christian sovereign and still
the sovereign without offending God, even if that sovereign believe in Christ. A sovereign has the power to make and enforce
requires subjects to publicly renounce God. Faith is “internall, laws, but they do not have the power to dictate faith. Faith is a gift
and invisible,” Hobbes says, and God does not expect one to put from God and cannot be infringed upon by any earthly power.
their life on the line to prove their faith to nonbelievers. Furthermore, the Laws of Nature (which are given by God) ensure
that one cannot be forced to put their life on their line to believe one
thing or another.

CHAPTER 44: OF SPIRITUALL DARKNESS FROM MISINTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE

There is another king of power named in Holy Scripture that is The “Power of Darkness” is another metaphor, much like the
neither civil nor divine. Holy Scripture refers to the “Power of metaphor of Hell and the Devil. The “Power of Darkness,” according
Darkness,” such as “the Rulers of the Darknesse of the world,” “the to Hobbes, is anything, or anyone, who threatens to put out the true
Kingdome of Satan,” and “the Principality of Beelzebub over light of God. This “darkness” can exist in people who actively work
Dæmons.” This Darkness, like Hell, is allegorical, and Hobbes against God’s will, or it can involve the misinterpretation of
defines it as: “a Confederacy of Deceivers, that to obtain dominion scripture, which Hobbes contends is widespread across
over men in this present world, endeavor by dark, and erroneous Christendom.
Doctrines, to extinguish in the them the Light, both of Nature, and
the Gospell; as so to dis-prepare them for the Kingdome of God to
come.”

The modern church, Hobbes says, is not yet out of darkness, Again, Hobbes argues that most Christians misinterpret Holy
and he claims there are four major causes. First, darkness is Scripture, which throws Christianity into darkness. Throughout
caused by “putting out the light of Scripture,” which is the Leviathan, Hobbes offers alternative interpretations of scripture
ignorance of Holy Scripture. Secondly, darkness is caused by that he believes will help to lift Christianity out of this darkness. He
the “Dæmonolgy of the Heathen Poets,” who write of demons, also hopes to lift Christianity out of darkness by correcting the
and ghosts, and fairies. The third cause of darkness is mixing biased philosophies of Aristotle and revealing the true course of
Holy Scripture with the philosophies of the ancient Greeks, biblical history. Furthermore, Hobbes categorically disagrees with
particularly Aristotle. Fourth, darkness is caused by mixing “Heathen Poets” who perpetuate false ideas about demons and the
false traditions with dubious history. In this chapter, Hobbes Devil.
will first talk of the abuse of Holy Scripture.

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The “greatest, and main abuse” of Holy Scripture is the belief Hobbes implies here that widespread misinterpretation of scripture
that the Kingdome of God is the Church, which Hobbes has and the belief that the present-day Christian Church is God’s
already demonstrated is false. The Kingdome of God began Kingdome is the number one abuse of Holy Scripture that has
with the Jews and God’s covenant with his “Peculiar People.” thrown Christianity into darkness. Hobbes makes this point several
There has not been another common-wealth on Earth with times, but it is nevertheless important—a Christian’s obligation to
God as the sovereign power since the Jews were freed from God begins after the Second Coming. Prior to the Second Coming, a
their captivity in Egypt. The Kingdome of God will not appear Christian is obligated to their sovereign power.
until the Second Coming, and the only covenant Christians
belong to now is with their sovereign power.

The erroneous belief that the Church is God’s Kingdome leads Hobbes argues earlier that only a minister has the ecclesiastical
to a belief there is a single person or persons through whom power to preach and teach God’s Word, which implies only
Christ speaks from Heaven and gives laws to all of ministers, not lessor officers like pastors or deacons, should rely on
Christendom. This person is commonly known as the Pope, and the tithes and offerings of a congregation. Expecting a congregation
the institution of the Pope is the cause of yet another to maintain all officers is excessive, Hobbes implies, and is a strain
erroneous belief—that a Christian monarch must be crowned on the common-wealth. Hobbes’s primary argument, however, is
by a bishop for their power to be official. Yet another erroneous that the Pope should not have power over a sovereign in any
belief is that all pastors, deacons, and ministers are each capacity. To allow the Pope such power is to diminish the common-
“Clergy,” and that their maintenance must be kept through wealth and further thrust Christianity into darkness.
tithes and offerings. This leads the people of a common-wealth
to pay double taxes—one to the common-wealth and one to the
Clergy.

From the mistaken belief that the Church is God’s Kingdome Canonical laws as they are passed by the Pope can never be
comes the distinction between civil laws and canonical laws. instituted in a common-wealth where the Pope is not also the
Civil law is the work of a sovereign, whereas canon is law sovereign power. Only the sovereign has the power to make a law,
passed by the Pope in the very same common-wealth. Yet even if that law comes from Holy Scripture. Thus, canonical law can
another abuse of Holy Scripture is mistaking consecration for have no real authority in a common-wealth that does not already
conjuration. In Holy Scripture, the word “Consecrate” is to belong to the Pope. Hobbes again implies that the Christian practice
“Offer, Give, or Dedicate,” which is not the same as conjuring of transubstantiation is nonsense and does not come from God. In
some spirit through seemingly holy practices. For example, Hobbes’s view, Holy Communion can only be bread and wine
consider transubstantiation—“This is my Body” and “This is my dedicated or offered in the name of Christ, it can never be magically
Blood.” Wine and bread are supposedly turned to blood and transformed into Christ’s blood and body by a minister.
flesh by way of a charm performed by a minister, but
transubstantiation was not establish until the reign of Innocent
III (1198-1216 CE).

There are many texts that contain these errors and mistaken Theodore Beza was a French Protestant and theologian who lived in
beliefs, Hobbes explains, such as the works of Cardinal the 1500s. Beza was active during the Protestant Reformation,
Bellarmine. Included in this list of erroneous texts are the and, like Hobbes, he did not believe in the ecclesiastical power of the
works of Theodore Beza, although it is less clear whom Beza Pope. While Beza’s argument aligns more with Hobbes’s own
considers the supreme ecclesiastical power. Beza maintains argument, all Beza really proves is that Christ’s Kingdome is not of
that the Kingdome of God began with Christ’s Resurrection, this Earth. Beza does not, like Bellarmine and Hobbes, acknowledge
and he uses Mark 9:1 to argue his point: “Verily I say unto you, who the supreme ecclesiastical power is.
that there be some of them that stand here, which shall not tast of
death, till they have seene the Kingdome of God come with power.”
But, Hobbes says, all this scripture proves is that the Kingdome
of God is not of the present world.

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Hobbes moves on to consecration in Holy Scripture, another In Christianity, especially Catholicism, consecration is associated
abuse that he claims has nothing to do whatsoever with with exorcism, or the conjuring of an evil spirit through holy
exorcism. For instance, when Solomon, the first King of Israel, practices. Hobbes implies that this is a misinterpretation that
consecrated his temple, he stood before the people of Israel, thrusts Christianity into darkness. True consecration is to offer
blessed them, thanked God, and then prayed unto the people something or someone in the name of God, not the excision of an
that they might accept his temple. Never anywhere is there any evil spirit.
mention of excising ghosts or evil spirits.

Next, Hobbes considers the separation of soul and body, after Again, Hobbes argues that the spirit can only exist after the body
which the soul lives in eternal life. There are different places in had died and entered into eternal life in God’s Kingdome, which
Holy Scripture that prove this argument, such a Solomon’s cannot happen until Christ’s second coming. Thus, an earthly body
words in Ecclesiastes 12:7, “Then shall the Dust return to Dust, as cannot be held to the spiritual power of God or Christ.
it was, and the Spirit shall return to God that gave it,” or
Ecclesiastes 9:5, “The living know they shall die, but the dead know
not any thing.”

In the New Testament, eternal life is often attributed to the In Hobbes’s view, only those who repent and believe in Christ are
sinners. “Everlasting fire, Everlasting torments, Everlasting given everlasting life in Christ’s Kingdome. Sinners are held in a
punishments,” which Hobbes also dismisses, so he stops to different state. One’s spiritual body rises in Christ’s Kingdome only if
revisit what he has already shown to be true. First, the one is saved. As a spiritual body, all desires of the flesh—hunger,
Kingdome of God, or the Kingdome of Christ (which Christ thirst, and lust—all fade and the subject lives an eternal life free
rules by God’s order), will not begin until Judgement Day, on from carnal desires. This freedom from the desires of the flesh is the
which day those who are faithful to Christ will rise again in their everlasting joy Hobbes speaks of.
“spirituall Bodies” and be Christ’s subjects for all eternity. In
Eternal life, the saved will not eat, drink, marry, or feel any
desire of the flesh, and they will live in everlasting joy.

On Judgement Day, the righteous who still live will immediately Again, since sinners do not repent and profess their belief in Christ,
transform into their “spirituall Bodies” and join the others in sinners are not transformed into their spiritual bodies on Judgement
Christ’s Kingdome, wherever that may be. However, nowhere Day. Thus, a sinner is not given eternal life with freedom from carnal
in Holy Scripture does it indicate that sinners who do not pleasures, and this is essentially their punishment. Sinners live their
repent or those who deny Christ are ever turned into a spiritual life as before, and when their life is over, their soul does not live on in
Body. “Eternal Torments” are spoken of in generalities of fire and eternity. There is not, Hobbes contends, some literal Hell in which
death. Therefore, on Judgement Day, it can be assumed that sinners burn for all eternity.
the wicked will be left to “live as they did,” giving into hunger,
thirst, and other desires and needs of the flesh, while the
believers live in eternal bliss and happiness.

When St. Paul speaks of the Resurrection in 1 Corinthians, he Hobbes implies that Bellarmine’s argument is weak and depends on
says the body is “Sown in Corruption, raised in Incorruption; sown assumption rather than fact. As those who are saved are held in
in Dishonor, raised in Honour; sown in Weaknesse, raised in Power; eternal joy in Christ’s Kingdome, Bellarmine assumes that sinners
sown a Narturall body, raised a Spirituall body.” But, Hobbes says, are held in eternal torture, but Hobbes maintains there is no
the same is not said for bodies sent for punishment. Upon this scripture to support this assertion.
absence scripture is the founding of Purgatory, as it is argued
by Cardinal Bellarmine.

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Cardinal Bellarmine alleges other places within the New Hobbes ultimately argues that Hell is a metaphor, and its existence
Testament that also prove the existence of Purgatory. For cannot be proven in the scripture cited by Cardinal Bellarmine. In
example, Matthew 12:32. “Whosoever speaketh a word against fact, Hobbes argues that Bellarmine’s selected scripture proves
the Sonne of man, it shall be forgiven him; but whosoever speaketh Hobbes’s theory before it proves his own, and it is further evidence
against the Holy Ghost, it shall not bee forgiven him neither in this of the misinterpretation of Holy Scripture that thrusts Christianity
world, nor in the world to come.” This passage goes a long way to into darkness.
proving Hobbes’s claim that the Kingdome of God is not of this
world; however, it does not prove the existence of Purgatory or
indicate a specific place.

Another piece of Holy Scripture thought by Bellarmine and Again, Hobbes maintains that interpretations of Hell and Purgatory
others to prove the existence of Purgatory is I Corinthians, in in Holy Scripture are merely misinterpretations of Christ’s power on
which it says: “They themselves shall be saved; but as through Fire.” Judgement Day. Thus, Hell and Purgatory (Purgatory being some
It is assumed that the “Fire” here is Purgatory, however these literal place one goes while awaiting entrance to Heaven) are merely
words are but an allusion to Zechariah 13:9, which speaks of metaphorical and do not exist in this world or the next.
the power of the Messiah, not Purgatory. There is also
Matthew 13:9. “I will bring the third art through the Fire, and will
Refine them.” But this passage, too, refers to Judgement Day
and the power of Christ the Messiah, not Purgatory.

CHAPTER 45: OF DÆMONOLOGY, AND OTHER RELIQUES OF THE RELIGION OF THE GENTILES
Demons are the immaterial spirits or ghosts of the dead, and Hesiod was a Greek poet who lived around 700 BCE, therefore
Demonology is the study of such spirits by priests, poets, and demonology has nothing whatsoever to do with Christ or
philosophers. The word “Dæmon” has been around for ages and Christianity specifically. Hobbes believe demons, ghosts, and evil
was used by Hesiod and the ancient poets. Early on, the word spirits to be “Idols of the braine,” which means such spirits are
demon included the ghosts of both good and evil spirits, but imagination only. The Jews did believe in demons and evil spirits,
now the word generally denotes an evil spirit that is possessed but Hobbes does not mean to say this is proof of their existence.
by the Devil. From Holy Scripture, it can be gathered that the
Jews believed demons to be real, and not simply “Idols of the
braine.”

If demons and ghosts do not exist, it is reasonable to ask why Christ does not simply say that demons and ghosts do not exist
Christ didn’t just say so, but Hobbes has an answer for this, too. because God gave each human being reason, and he expects them
When Christ says, “A Spirit hath not flesh and bone,” he shows to use it. God did not explicitly state every little thing he wanted
there are spirits, but he doesn’t necessarily deny they have humans to know. Instead, God game humans the ability to decipher
bodies—only that those bodies are not made of flesh and bone. for themselves what is true and what is false.
Furthermore, when St. Paul says: “We shall rise Spirituall Bodies,”
he, too, implies a ghost has an actual body.

If Christ speaks to the Devil and commands him to exit the For Hobbes, a spiritual body must have mass and take up space,
body of a person, and by “the Devil,” Christ means some otherwise it cannot be rightly called a body. Since the Devil is a
infirmary or disease such as lunacy, this speech is not improper. metaphor, it is not improper to speak of the Devil like some sort of
But it is improper to speak of “the Devil” as some sort of ghost disease or infirmary, but it’s impossible to claim that the Devil exists
or spirit without a body. Holy Scripture, in fact, does not even without some sort of tangible body. Any spirit rightly has some
teach that spirits are incorporeal in the first place. For instance, tangible body, Hobbes contends, including the Holy Spirit, and to
in Matthew 4:1, when God descends upon Christ as a Dove, claim otherwise is to misinterpret Holy Scripture and lead
Christ is “led up by the Spirit into the Wilderness.” The “Spirit” Christianity into metaphorical darkness and ignorance.
here is the Holy Ghost, and since Christ and the Holy Ghost are
one and the same (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), the
“Spirit” here is not incorporeal.

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Hobbes’s next example is St. Luke, who says of Judas Iscariot Again, Hobbes argues that Satan did not literally enter into Judas.
that “Satan entered into him, and thereupon that he went and Just as God cannot enter into another, neither can the Devil.
communed with the Chief Priests, and Captaines, how he might However, the presence of the Devil can exist metaphorically, which
betray Christ unto them.” But the word “Satan” here is meant as is not to say the Devil is an actual body that exists in the same way
merely the “Enemy,” who metaphorically enters Judas and as God or Christ.
makes him hostile and disloyal to Christ.

God did not expressly state “Immateriall Spirits” and Again, Hobbes argues that God’s gift of reason is the trick to
possession of one’s body by another spiritual body do not exist understanding what is true within Holy Scripture and that which is
because he left human beings to exercise their own “Industry, meant to be a metaphor. The “Primitive Church” is the Church as it
and Reason” to come to the same conclusions. Still, a belief in existed in the Old Testament, and in the Old Testament, the Devil is
incorporeal sprits persists in the Church. However, if one looks viewed as a metaphor, like the cause of mental illness, not an actual
back to the “Primitive Church,” they will find that that the spirit that can be infused into another.
“Casting out of Devills” was much different. In the “Primitive
Church,” the “Casting out of Devills” was done onto the insane.
Thus, demons come not from a “change of Nature; but of
Names.”

Hobbes also considers the worshiping of images not instituted Like Demonology, Hobbes considers worshiping certain images a
by Moses in the Old Testament or by Christ in the New leftover practice from early poets and non-Christians. Hobbes
Testament as another relic of the Gentiles. St. Paul says, “Wee argues that such images, like the images of Cherubs, have nothing to
know that an Idol is Nothing,” but Gentiles are fond of such do with God, and their worship is therefore idolatrous. Praying
images. Such images that pass for idols include the Cherubs before a Cherub is not worship in the true sense of the word;
often superimposed over the Ark of God. There are no however, Hobbes maintains that fearing the power of God or Christ
Cherubs in the Old or New Testaments, yet people worship is an acceptable form of worship.
such images as religious. Hobbes has already defined “Honor”
as outward acts of admiration and obedience, and he now
defines “Worship” as the inward acts that achieve the same
ends. For example, to fear or desire someone is a form of
worship.

Next, Hobbes defines idolatry, which is to worship and honor In Hobbes’s view, it is idolatry to worship any image in a spiritual
an image as if that image is a body with a soul. If one bows to a way that is not approved by God—and these approved images have
king in civil worship and recognizes the power said king has already been given to the people through Moses and Christ. Thus,
over his subjects, this is not idolatry. However, if that same the worship of any other image is unauthorized and idolatrous.
person bows to the king and asks him for good weather, this is
idolatry, as only God has the power to affect the weather. If a
king forces a subject to worship an image under pain of death,
this is not idolatry either, since a king cannot force a subject to
genuinely honor anything.

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When Aaron made the Golden Calf for religious use and This section also outlines Holy Scripture that has been largely
presented it to the people without God or Moses’s authority, misinterpreted and therefore further thrusts Christianity into
this, too, was idolatry. Gentiles throughout history have darkness. It is easy to see that Aaron’s use of the Golden Calf was
worshiped Jupiter and others as gods, which is also idolatry idolatry, but Hobbes contends the popular interpretation of Holy
since such gods were made by humans, not God. The same can Communion is idolatry as well, a particularly controversial
also be said of the Eucharist, or Holy Communion. If by the statement in Hobbes’s day or even contemporary times. As Holy
words “This is my Body,” Christ meant all bread everywhere Communion was invented by humankind and not instituted by
blessed by a Priest is his body, it is not idolatry. But since no Moses or Christ, it is technically idolatry.
mention of turning Christ’s body into bread can be found
anywhere else in Holy Scripture, the Eucharist is created by
humans and is therefore idolatry.

Next, Hobbes discusses the worship of Saints and relics, which Catholics churches, which exist under the dominion of the Church
can be found in the Church of Rome to this day. Hobbes of Rome, each have a relic that is worshiped like God, and such
maintains that Saints and relics are not included in God’s Word; relics are usually the physical remains of a Saint. As Hobbes
thus, they are also a “humane institution.” Again, God never contends that most Saints, or prophets, are not true prophets, it is
mentioned Cherubs or a “Brazen Serpent,” but he did say: “Thou likely that the relic being worship in any given Catholic church is not
shalt not make thy selfe any graven Image.” This brings the really holy, which makes the relic and the Saint idolatrous, like any
painting of angels and even God himself into question, since “graven Image” not authorized by God, such as Cherubs or snakes.
there is no way of knowing what God or his angels look like.
Painted images of God and angels are not idols, but
imagination, and they can only be used to worship God.

Hobbes argues that idolatry is all over the Roman Church in Hobbes equates the supreme power of the Pope and the Canonizing
the form of statues and images of Saints, Apostles, and the of Saints as additional relics of “heathen” Gentiles that are not
Virgin Mary. Pastors have allowed this practice to continue rooted in the power of God. As the power of the Pope and that used
because they hope that they, too, will be made into an image to Canonize Saints does not come directly from God, it does not
and worshipped as a Saint after their death. The Canonizing of carry any Christian authority, and this false power cannot under
Saints, which is another relic of Gentiles, has been practiced any circumstances trump the power of the sovereign of a common-
since Rome was an ancient common-wealth. Another practice wealth.
of the “Roman Heathen” is the “PONTIFEX MAXIMUS,” which
bestows the Pope with supreme authority and robs the
sovereign of power.

The Greeks and Romans also carried “Images in Procession,” Hobbes attributes much of the pomp and circumstance surrounding
which means they carried their Idols around on a chariot, just the Pope to “Heathen” practices, which means such practices come
as is done today with Popes who are carried on a platform from Gentiles (non-Christians), not from God. In this way, Hobbes
under a canopy. Involved in these processions is the burning of dismisses the supposed absolute power of the Pope, just as Hobbes
candles and torches before godly images. Caligula, for example, dismisses other Christian practices which have no basis in God’s
was carried from Misenum to Rome, along with burning Word, like blessing someone with Holy Water or Saturnalia, a
torches and animals offered up for sacrifice. Other religious Roman festival and precursor to Christmas.
practices of “Heathens” include “Holy Water,” “Saturnalia,” and
dancing around “May-poles,” none of which can be rightly
termed as God’s Word.

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CHAPTER 46: OF DARKNESS FROM VAIN PHILOSOPHY, AND FABULOUS TRADITIONS

Philosophy is knowledge that comes from reasoning, like a As philosophy must include the observation of cause-and-effects
Geometrician’s study of lines and figures, or an Astronomer’s relationships and not just the study of books, a philosopher is not
study of the sun and stars. Philosophy does not include merely someone who takes the word of previous philosophers (like
knowledge that comes from experience or prudence, as such Aristotle) without looking for their own conclusions. To blindly
knowledge comes from memory not reason. A false conclusion accept previous philosophers’ theories is to further thrust
is not philosophy, nor is any supernatural revelation. Philosophy Christianity into darkness.
is not merely the studying of books on a certain topic; it must
include the observation of cause-and-effect relationships.

Philosophy has been around for ages in many civilizations. The Hobbes considers Plato’s and Aristotle’s philosophies to be
“Savages of America” have good morals and even use basic particularly damaging to Christianity, and he therefore implies their
mathematics, but this does not make them philosophers. The philosophies in particular should be approached with caution and
Athenians in Greece were known to publicly debate philosophy, skepticism. The Western world is saturated in their philosophies,
and philosophers each had a specific public place where they however, and weeding it out is time consuming and complicated.
debated with others. Plato had public walks known as
“Academia,” and Aristotle used the Temple of Lyceum. From
Athens, this philosophical discourse spread across Europe and
Africa to nearly every common-wealth.

But not all philosophy came from Athens. Geometry, for Again, Hobbes believes the Aristotle’s philosophy in particular is
instance, did not originate with Plato, although he only allowed absurd and damaging to Christian common-wealths. Hobbes
students into his school if they were already Geometricians. As considers Aristotle’s and Plato’s philosophies particularly absurd
all of Nature works by motion, and one cannot expect to when compared to geometry’s sound theories. Still, Aristotle’s
understand Nature without an understanding of lines and philosophies (which are nothing but opinion and Aristotle’s own
shapes. The moral philosophy of the Athenians, however, was passions and emotions) are taught over geometry, which is the basis
but “their own Passions,” and their logic was nothing but for all of nature.
“Captions of Words.” The most absurd examples of ancient
philosophy, according to Hobbes, are Aristotle’s Metaphysiques,
his Politiques, and his Ethiques.

Now, Hobbes turns to the particular “Tenants of Vain In this section, Hobbes implies that the misinterpretation of Holy
Philosophy” that universities and churches espouse, which are Scripture (like the belief in incorporeal substances, for example) is
rooted partly in Aristotle and partly in poor understanding. rooted in Aristotle’s philosophies, which are espoused far and wide
According to Hobbes, all philosophies must rely on a in universities and churches. These false philosophies contribute to
“Philosophia prima,” which are accepted definitions of certain the darkness overtaking Christianity, and Hobbes hopes to correct
things, like “Body, Time, Place, Matter, Forme, […] Quality, these falsehoods and bring Christianity into the light.
Motion, Action, Passion,” and many other things relating to
Nature. The explanations and definitions of such things is called
Metaphysics, most of which is according to Aristotle, who
argued objects have “Abstract Essences, and Substantiall Formes.”

To understand the way in which Aristotle employs “Essences Aristotle’s idea of abstract essences and substantial forms aligns
Abstract, or Substantiall Formes,” one must first understand with understanding of incorporeal substances in Christianity. Just
exactly what these words signify. An abstract essence does not as Hobbes argues an incorporeal substance cannot exist, he likewise
have a body of substance, whereas any form that is substantial claims that an abstract essence of a substantial form cannot exist in
must have some sort of tangible body. Thus, to say “a Man, is, a the way Aristotle claims.
living Body” is to say that the man and body are one and the
same, not two separate entities (one made of substance, the
other of an abstract essence).

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Using this idea of “Separated Essences” that is predicated on In this section, Hobbes explicitly blames Aristotle for the
Aristotle’s false philosophy, citizens of common-wealths all misinterpretation of Holy Scripture. Without Aristotle’s philosophies
over the world have been frightened into disobeying their to plant such absurd ideas, Hobbes argues Christians would not
sovereign power. It is from this very same philosophy that misinterpret Holy Scripture the way they often do. In correcting the
people believe the soul of a person who is long dead can be falsehoods in Aristotle’s philosophies, Hobbes again hopes to also
seen as a spectral ghost, that a piece of bread can be turned correct the misinterpretations of scripture that throw Christianity
into the flesh of another through incantation, or that faith and into darkness.
wisdom can be “poured into” or “blown into” someone from
Heaven. This, Hobbes says, is just a short list of the fallacies
that have been brought to the church by Aristotle’s “Essences.”

Aristotle’s “Essences” laid the foundation for a whole host of Hobbes again proves that Aristotle’s philosophies regarding the
additional incongruities to enter the Church. As such intangible “essences” of objects are incorrect. Something that does not have a
substances are thought to be real, they need some place to be, body cannot feel pain or endure torture, so it is impossible for a
which accounts for the invention of Hell and Purgatory. But spiritual body to suffer eternally in Hell. Furthermore, since an
how an object without substance can feel pain and torment in “essence” does not take up space, it does not need to dwell in a
the fires of Hell is again incomprehensible. Motion is defined as literal place (Hell).
a “change of Place,” yet an incorporeal substance cannot have
“place,” as it does not have a physical body to take up space.

Aristotle’s accounting of time and eternity, too, makes little This section further discounts the philosophies of the ancient
sense. The Greeks believed eternity to be the present time Greeks. Aristotle’s teacher, Plato, argues in several of his works that
standing still, not an endless procession of time that goes on a body is made up of three souls, which Hobbes implies is the basis
indefinitely without end. Aristotle’s philosophy also gave way to for the Christian belief that God is made up of the Father, the Son,
the belief that a body can be divided and be in multiple places at and the Holy Spirit. Hobbes instead argues that one person, even
once. Physics, which is the knowledge of the natural causes of God, can never be three, and that the Holy Trinity more rightly
events, also has no place in Aristotle’s philosophy. Aristotelian refers to three separate and distinct people.
logic professes heavy objects sink because of a desire to get to
the center of the Earth, as if an object made of stone or metal
can have passions and a favorite place of rest.

Aristotle’s understanding of the human senses also relies on Hobbes says earlier that Aristotle argues the visual image of an
“Apparitions” and “Essences,” neither of which can come into object is made by a visual “apparition” or “essence,” but Hobbes
direct contact with any of the human sense organs. Aristotle’s again claims this is impossible. The human sense organs must come
moral and civil philosophy is even more ridiculous, Hobbes into contact with an object directly, not an “apparition” or “essence”
argues. For instance, if one breaks the law, this is not an of an object. In Hobbes’s opinion, humans cannot sense an “essence”
injustice, because God made the law and caused the actions of or “apparition” because an essence has no mass or body with which
the person who broke the law. Aristotle also argues there can to come into contact with the sense organs.
never be general rules of good and bad because each person
and their opinions are individual. This is not the case in a
common-wealth, in which there is agreement on what is good
and bad (lawful and unlawful) based on their shared covenant.

Another form of erroneous philosophy the Church practices is Again, Hobbes implies that popular Christian doctrine is rooted in a
denying the Clergy the ability to marry. This rule does nothing misinterpretation of Holy Scripture, not in God’s actual word. Just
but make marriage appear obscene and immoral and is likely because a spirit is not subjected to the desires of the flesh does not
based on a misinterpretation of Holy Scripture. Christ says that mean that a priest is does not experience such desires, and Hobbes
those in his Kingdome “shall neither Marry, nor bee given in argues it is not God’s intention to deprive clergy of marriage and
Marriage, but shall bee as the Angels in heaven.” But this passage therefore sex.
speaks of the spirit after Judgement Day, not of the body in this
world.

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According to Aristotle’s civil philosophy, all common-wealths This section reflects Hobbes’s primary argument that a monarchy is
that are not democracies are governed by tyrants. In this vein, a the best form of civil of government. Aristotle was biased and
monarch is a tyrant, and an aristocracy is a group of tyrants, favored a democracy, but this does not mean a democracy is the
and true liberty can only be achieved through democracy. This best form of government.
assumption is false, as Hobbes has already demonstrated that
any government, including a democracy, can hold tyrannical
power over the people.

It is also erroneous civil philosophy (although it was not learned Hobbes repeatedly argues that a sovereign power cannot force a
from Aristotle or Cicero) to extend the law’s power beyond subject to believe or disbelieve in God or Holy Scripture, yet this is
actions to the private thoughts and consciences of individual exactly the practice that the Catholic Church employed during the
people, as in done in the “Inquisition.” In such circumstances, Inquisition. During this time, subjects were forced to accept the
subjects of common-wealths are punished if they truthfully power of the Pope under pain of death. This practice, according to
admit their thoughts (if those thoughts are contrary to the Hobbes, violates God and the Law of Nature.
Inquisition), or they are forced to lie and admit that which they
do not believe to avoid punishment.

Error is also the result when a private citizen, without the According to Hobbes, only the sovereign has the power to interpret
authority of the sovereign power of a common-wealth, laws, and only the sovereign has the power to interpret Holy
independently interprets the law. This error wasn’t drawn from Scripture and make said scripture into civil law. Thus, the Pope
Aristotle either, but it is still damaging to a common-wealth. cannot be given authority to interpret laws or scripture in the
And, Hobbes points out, there is no difference between Holy common-wealth of another sovereign power, and to do so is to
Scripture and civil law if the sovereign power has made Holy diminish the power of the sovereign and dissolve the common-
Scripture the law in a specific common-wealth. Errors in wealth. Hobbes’s reference to the “Idolaters” of America is an
common-wealths also arise when anyone but the sovereign allusion to the Puritans who first colonized the country, and he
power decides when, and to whom, preaching of the Gospel is implies that such Christians do not follow the true Word of God.
appropriate. For instance, if Hobbes is in America “amongst the
Idolaters,” should he have to wait for “Orders from Rome” to
preach the true Gospel to them?

The last error Hobbes discusses is that of “false, or uncertain While Hobbes does not explicitly state it, he alludes here to the
History,” like the stories of miracles, ghosts, Hell, and Purgatory suppression of Galileo, an astronomer and mathematician who
that make up the traditions of the Church. If such traditions are claimed the Earth revolves around the Sun. Galileo’s claim was
not reflected in God’s Word, they can be nothing but old wives’ technically the truth, but since the Catholic Church believed God to
tales. With the propagation of false tradition also comes the be the center of the universe, not the sun, Galileo was deemed a
suppression of that which is true. In such cases, one who has heretic, imprisoned, and silenced. In this way, false history has also
neither authority nor education is held as a competent judge of thrust Christianity into darkness.
truth. This suppression is absurd, and it has no rational reason.
It is not possible for true philosophy to be contrary to religion if
they are both true.

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CHAPTER 47: OF THE BENEFIT THAT PROCEEDETH FROM SUCH DARKNESSE, AND TO WHOM
IT ACCREWETH
Cicero writes about a judge in ancient times who always asked Hobbes argues that the clergy benefit from the false doctrine
criminals, “Cui bono?” The judge’s question asks what benefit followed in both the Catholic and Presbyterian churches because
the illegal action had for the accused criminal, and Hobbes such beliefs assume that the church assembly must maintain the
applies this same question to the false religious doctrine that clergy through charity and offerings. As such false doctrine supports
plagues Christendom. He first considers the incorrect belief the clergy financially, they have many reasons to allow it and
that the Church is God’s Kingdome on Earth. It is through this perpetuate it.
belief that the Pope became “Pontifex Maximus,” and even after
some churches renounced the Pope and became the
Presbytery, they still kept the false doctrine of the church as
God’s Kingdome. “Cui bono?” Hobbes asks. Because it benefits
both the Roman and Presbyterian clergy, he answers.

The proof of this benefit to the clergy can be seen within the As the clergy are also subjects of a common-wealth, Hobbes
false doctrines themselves. For example, the infallibility of the suggests that it isn’t fair for clergymen not to be held to the same
Pope and the belief that the Pope cannot error obviously sovereign power as the rest of the subjects, especially since the
benefits the Pope. Clergymen are exempt from the laws of a clergy is financially supported by the very same subjects. This
common-wealth and are subjects of the Pope before the practice does not adhere to the rules of equity within the Laws of
sovereign power; however, they are maintained by the Nature and is therefore against God’s will.
common-wealth’s public coffers, which also benefits the clergy.

The belief that marriage is a holy sacrament that can be In this section, Hobbes specifically disproves those false beliefs that
performed only by clergy allows the Church to decide which exist to benefit the clergy only. Such false beliefs are not rooted in
children are legitimate, and this subsequently allows the the Word of God; thus, there is no reason for Christians as a whole
church to control the succession of kings, which again benefits to continue adhering to such doctrine. Observing false doctrine,
the clergy. Holy Confession, too, benefits the clergy, as it gives Hobbes stresses, further thrusts Christianity into darkness and
the clergy “better intelligence” than the sovereign power. False away from God’s true light.
belief in transubstantiation, absolution, Purgatory, demons, and
exorcism also benefit the clergy, as such beliefs allow the Pope
and other clergymen to gain more power through awe and
fear.

Thus, by asking “Cui bono,” Hobbes is able to demonstrate that In short, Hobbes blames the Catholic Church specifically for
“the Authors of all this Spirituall Darknesse” are the Pope and pushing the false power of the Pope. While the Presbyterian Church
clergy of both the Roman and Presbyterian churches. Teachers, is complicit in propagating the false doctrine of God’s Kingdome on
too, can be named responsible, as the preaching of false Earth, it was the Catholics in particular who threatened the power
doctrine is impossible without them. However, Hobbes mostly of Christian sovereigns with the absolute power of the Pope.
blames those who, in the beginning, used their power to push
false doctrine and give false power to the Pope.

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In the beginning, the people obeyed the Apostles because they After the Apostles, Christians believed in the approved doctrine
revered them, not because they were obligated to do so. In the because they were forced to, not because they admired and
time after the Apostles, when the clergy assembled to decide honored the clergy as they did the Apostles. Since this belief was
what Holy Scripture to teach, they resolved to teach only that forced, Hobbes implies that is was not freely believed; thus, it “was
which was approved by their assemblies. This new clergy the first knot upon [the people’s] Liberty.”
compelled Christians to believe their doctrine, and if anyone
refused, they were excommunicated. This power that the
clergy had over the people “was the first knot upon their
Liberty.”

As the number of clergy increased, the head clergyman of any The authority given to city bishops over the other clergy was the
given city or province was given authority over the other first step in the creation of the Roman Pope, which ultimately
clergymen and called a “Bishop,” which “was a second knot on affected the people’s freedom by diminishing the power of the
Christian Liberty.” Then, the Bishop in Rome named himself sovereign. These “knots” were untied when the sovereign power of
“Pontifex Maximus” of all clergy and Christian sovereigns, and England officially rejected the power of the Pope.
the “third and last knot” was tied. This process can also be seen
in reverse through the dissolution of the power of the Roman
Catholic Church in England.

First, Queen Elizabeth severed the Pope’s power over England. Prior to Queen Elizabeth’s severing of the Pope’s power, England’s
The bishops, who once derived their power from the Pope, bishops derived their power from the Pope. In the absence of the
functioned under the authority of the Queen, which “untyed Pope’s power, that power went back to Elizabeth and the common-
the first knot.” More recently, Hobbes says, the Presbyterians wealth, and the same bishops derived their power from Elizabeth.
succeeded in the creation of Episcopacy, and this untied the The second knot was untied when Elizabeth’s father, Henry VIII,
second knot. Immediately afterward, this power was taken created the Episcopacy and abandoned the Catholic Church.
from the Presbyterians, and all that is left to follow are the
“Primitive Christians,” which, Hobbes says, is probably best.

Following the religious doctrine of “Primitive Christians” is best With the untying of the first and second knots, all that remains is
because no power should be held over one’s conscience, except the knot tied by the “Primitive Christians” of the Old Testament;
for the power of God. Furthermore, the doctrine of “Primitive however, Hobbes argues that this is how it should be. “Primitive
Christians” is best because it is ridiculous to teach people the Christians” of the Old Testament worshiped God for the right
dangers of errors only to demand that the same people follow reasons—among them wisdom and humility—and Hobbes contends
someone else’s reason and ignore their own God-given ability this is the best place to start to keep Christian doctrine out of the
to do the same. True power can only be maintained through the darkness.
same means it was attained—through “Wisdome, Humility,
Clearnesse of Doctrine, and sincerity of Converstation.”

Power cannot be maintained by suppression of science and Hobbes implies that the power of the Roman Catholic Church
reason, nor can it be maintained by obscure language or holy cannot be continued through the suppression of truth (like that
frauds. From the time the Bishop in Rome declared himself expressed by Galileo), nor through the false power of the Pope.
supreme “by pretence of Succession to St. Peter,” the entire According to Hobbes, the Pope did not succeed from the same line
“Kingdome of Darknesse” can be rightly compared to a as St. Peter, and the Pope’s power is therefore illegitimate. The
“Kingdome of Fairies,” like those found in English myths and old Pope’s power comes from the “Heathen” beliefs of Gentiles, not the
wives’ tales. In this vein, the Pope is little more than the “Ghost
Ghost Word of God.
of the deceased Roman Empire,” as the Papacy was born “out of
the Ruines of that Heathen Power.”

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The Catholic Church uses Latin, a language that is not used by Again, Hobbes implies that the Roman Catholic Church is rooted in
any other nation on Earth. And what is Latin, Hobbes asks, “but the beliefs of Gentiles, not the Word of God. Hobbes’s proof is the
the Ghost of the Old Romane Language?” Another resemblance Church’s use of a Roman language and its resemblance to fairytales
of the Papacy to the “Kingdome of Fairies” is that fairies, like rather than Holy Scripture. Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth were
Popes, only exist “in the Fancies of ignorant people.” Thus, it both excommunicated by the Pope, but since neither one of them
was not difficult for Henry VIII or Queen Elizabeth to be cast recognized the power of the Pope in the first place, their
out by the Pope. However, Hobbes warns, “this Spirit of Rome” excommunication was not difficult. However, as Protestants also
is still present England, since it is not only the Roman Church believe the Christian Church is God’s Kingdome on Earth, earthly
that believes God’s Kingdome is the Church. As long as this sovereigns and common-wealths will still be robbed of power as
belief endures, it continues at the expense of the civil common- Christians will likely always believe God should be obeyed before
wealth. their sovereign power.

A REVIEW, AND CONCLUSION

Sound reasoning is necessary in all discourse and discussion. In Hobbes’s review and conclusion, he quickly recaps his most
Without reason, one’s conclusions are hasty and unfair. important arguments and adds to them. A philosopher must be
“Powerful Eloquence” is also necessary, without which reason articulate and express their theories with “eloquence,” which is what
has very little effect. According to Hobbes, “Reason, and Hobbes has attempted to do in Leviathan. Hobbes’s addition here
Eloquence” can stand together, which is what he hopes he has of a subject’s obligation to protect their sovereign power again
done in writing this book. Regarding the Laws of Nature that implies that a sovereign cannot be overthrown by subjects in a civil
Hobbes explains early in the book, he would like to also add war.
that everyone is obligated by Nature to protect during war the
same sovereign power they are protected by in peacetime.

And, due to some recently printed books about the English Here, Hobbes implies that those English subjects who did not
Civil War, Hobbes wants to remind everyone that a subject is support the English Civil War are not automatically beholden to the
obliged to a conqueror when—and only when—that subject sovereign power instituted by the parliamentarians. As this
freely submits to that conqueror and agrees to be their subject. government was not instituted through a covenant with the people,
A conquest is not victory in war; a conquest is winning power it is illegitimate.
over the subjects of another sovereign power. Thus, if one is
killed, they are not conquered, nor are they conquered if they
are held prisoner in chains.

In Chapter 29, Hobbes discusses the causes of the dissolution Many believe that since the sovereign power of the
of a common-wealth, to which he would like add that people parliamentarians is an assembly of people (Parliament), this form of
will always justify the war that brings their power. A tyrant is government cannot be tyrannical. Hobbes disagrees and again
nothing more than a name for a sovereign power, whether that reiterates that a tyrant can be either a single person or an assembly
power is one person or many people. Hobbes believes that to of people.
tolerate a hatred of tyranny is simply to tolerate a hatred of
common-wealths, and he argues it is another “evill seed” on the
maintenance of civil society.

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Hobbes has demonstrated that the Jews and God entered into Again, Hobbes makes it clear that the Jews as God’s “Peculiar
a covenant in which God was made their sovereign power by People” had a covenant with God above and beyond the natural
contract. The Jews were God’s “Peculiar People” and differed power God has over all human beings. Thus, God was also their
from others on Earth because God ruled them by consent, not sovereign power, which cannot be said about any other common-
by his natural power. In God’s Kingdome, Moses was wealth on Earth. Thus, one always has an obligation to obey their
Lieutenant on Earth and was appointed by God to punish those sovereign above God.
who broke the rules.

In a common-wealth, the punishment of those who break the Not only did this practice in Israel ensure that all witnesses were
law is usually executed by someone appointed by the sovereign heard before a criminal was punished, it also ensured that innocents
power, like a guard or soldier; however, in Israel, the people were not punished. As witnesses were tasked with throwing the first
executed the punishment, usually by stoning, and it was always stone, if there are no witnesses (or victims), there was no crime to
the witnesses that threw the first stone. This practice ensured punish.
that all witnesses were heard before an accused criminal was
punished.

In Chapter 36, Hobbes says it is not known in what manner Once again, Hobbes does not mean to imply that God did not speak
God spoke to Moses. However, Hobbes does not mean to say to Moses whatsoever, he simply means that God could not have
that God did not speak to Moses through visions or dreams. spoken to Moses in the traditional way. Thus, Hobbes does not
What Hobbes means is that God could not have spoken to reject religion and God, he only rejects Christian doctrine as it is
Moses in a “Face to Face” or “Mouth to Mouth” way, as one usually interpreted.
cannot possibly understand the infinite and raw power that is
“Divine Nature.”

As for Hobbes’s use of Holy Scripture and doctrine, he believes Many people in Hobbes’s day considered his treatment of Holy
his principles are sound and his rationale is solid, as he has Scripture and doctrine blasphemous, but Hobbes argues this is only
grounded sovereigns’ rights and subjects’ obligation and due to the broader misinterpretation of Holy Scripture. Hobbes’s
freedom according to the Law of Nature, which no one should interpretation of scripture is rooted in the Laws of Nature, which are
be ignorant of. There is nothing in Hobbes’s entire book that he God’s laws and cannot be sacrilegious. As this is merely a case of
considers to be contrary to God’s Word, proper manners, or false interpretation—of Holy Scripture and past
the public good. Thus, he believes his philosophy should be philosophies—Hobbes offers his own to correct this gross
taught in all universities to counter the civil and moral doctrine misinterpretation.
of the Gentiles.

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