Notable Métis include television actor Tom Jackson,[98] Commissioner of the Territories of

the Northwest Tony Whitford and Louis Rail, who led two resistance movements: the Red
River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his
trial.[99][100][101]

Inherently Métis languages are the Métis French or a mixed language called Michif. Michif,
mechif or metchif is a phonetic spelling of métif, a variant of Métis. [102] Today, Métis
people predominantly speak English, with French being a strong second language, as well
as numerous Aboriginal languages. A 19th-century community of Métis people, the Anglo-
Métis, were known as Countryborn. They were children of the fur trade from Rupert's
Land, typically of Orcadian, Scottish or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal
ancestry. [103] Their first languages would have been Aboriginal (Cree, Saulteaux,
Assiniboine, etc.) and English. Their parents spoke Gaelic, which
that led to the development of a English dialect acquaintance as "bungee". [104]

He article 35 of the Law constitutional of 1982 mentions to the Métis, but during a long
time ha there was a debate about the definition legal term Métis, [105] but the 23rd
September of 2003, the Court Supreme of Canada ruled that the Métis are a d i s ti n c t
people with significant rights (Powley judgment).[106]
 Métis Businessman of skins mestizo, c. 1870

The Métis are a town descendant of marriages between Europeans (mainly French) [95]
and believe, Ojibway, Algonquins, saulteaux, menominee, Mi'kmaq, maliseet and others
First Nations. [14] His history HE come back to mid of the century XVII. [3] When the
Europeans They arrived by first time to Canada, depended of the villages Aborigines for
their skills in he trade of skins and his survival. For ensure alliances, the relations
between the Traders of skins Europeans and the women Aborigines often HE
consolidated to through of the marriage. [96] The homeland Métis this formed by the
provinces Canadians of Columbia British, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba,
Quebec, New Brunswick, New Scotland and Ontario, So as the Territories of the Northwest
(NWT).[97]
The war was common among the groups Inuit with sufficient population density. The Inuit,
such as the Nunatamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited the Mackenzie River Delta area,
often participated in common wars. The Inuit of the central Arctic lacked the
density of population necessary for participate in the war. In he century XIII, the Thule
culture began to arrive to Greenland from it that today is Canada. The stories Nordics
are scarce. The articles manufactured by the Nordic of the Inuit camps in Greenland
HE they obtained through trade either pillage. [87] A story, Ivar Bárðarson, speaks of
"people small" with the that they fought the Nordic. [88] Stories of the century XIV of
that a western settlement, one of the two Norse settlements, was taken over by the
Skræling.[89]

Following the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact
with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque fishermen were
already fishing off the coast of Labrador and had established whaling stations on land,
such as those dug at Red Bay. [90] The Inuit do not seem to have interfered with their
operations, but they did raid the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron,
which they adapted to the needs of the natives. [91]
The Inuit are descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, which emerged in
western Alaska around A.D. 1000 and spread eastward across the Arctic, shifting to Dorset
culture (in Inuktitut, the tuniit). Historically, The Inuit referred to to the tuniit as "giants" or
"dwarves", which were further highs and strong that the Inuit.
[85] Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons, and
other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society. [86] By 1300, the Inuit had settled
in western Greenland and eventually moved into eastern Greenland during the next
century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Border disputes were
common and led to aggressive actions. [15]

Inuk in a kayaking, c. 1908- 1914

Many Aboriginal civilizations[76] established distinctive features and hallmarks that
included permanent urban settlements or cities,[77] agriculture, civic and monumental
architecture, and complex social hierarchies.[78] These cultures had evolved and changed
by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (ca. to Finnish of the 15th century and
beginning of the XVI), and HE they have presented to through of research archaeological.
[79]

There is evidence of contact between early peoples and those of other continents before
Christopher Columbus. Aboriginal peoples of Canada interacted with Europeans
The first trade with the Europeans began around 1000 AD, but extended contact occurred
after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. [80]
European written accounts generally recorded the friendliness of First Nations, who
benefited from trade with Europeans. [80] Such trade generally strengthened more
organized polities, such as the Iroquois Confederacy. [81] Throughout the 16th century,
European fleets made almost annual visits to Canada's eastern shores to cultivate fishing
opportunities. A growing number of First Nations traded arose, including the Iroquois
Confederacy, which was the largest in the world.
secondary industry in he traffic No organized of skins supervised by the Indian
Department.[82]
He period cultural Woodland data of around of 2000 to. C.-1000 d. C., and has
localities in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime regions.[71] The introduction of pottery
distinguishes the Woodland culture from the inhabitants of the preceding Archaic stage.
The Laurentians of southern Ontario made the oldest pottery excavated to date. date in
Canada.[60] They created pointed-bottomed vessels decorated with a rope-marking
technique that involved impressing tools with teeth into wet clay. Woodland technology
included items such as beaver incisor knives, bracelets, and chisels. The population
practicing sedentary agricultural ways of life continued to increase with a diet of squash,
maize, and bean crops.[60]

The tradition Hopewell is a culture aboriginal that flourished to it long of the rivers
Americans from he 300 to. C. until he 500 d. C. In his maximum extension, he system of
exchange Hopewell connected cultures and societies with the villages of the Canadian
coasts of the lake Ontario. The expression Canadian of the villages Hopewellians
encompasses the complexes of the peninsula of Point, Saugeen and Laurel.[72][73][74]
First Nations He boss George, of the village of Senakw, with his daughter in suit traditional,
toward 1906

The villages of the First Nations HE had settled and established routes commercials in it
that today is Canada between he 500 to. C. and he 1000 d. C. HE developed
communities, each a with his own culture, traditions and character. [75] In he
northwest were the Athapaskans, the slavey, the dogrib, the tutchone and the Tlingit.
TO it long of the coast of the Pacific were the tsimshian, the Haida, the salish, the
kwakiutl, the heiltsuk, the nootka, the nisga'a, the senakw and the gitxsan. In the plains
were the blackfoot, the kainawa, the sarcee and the peigan. In the forests of the north
were the believe and the chipewyan. Around the Big Lakes were the Anishinaabe, the
Algonquins, the Iroquois and ferrets. TO it long of the coast Atlantic were the beothuk,
the maliseet, the innu, the Abenaki and the Mi'kmaq.
Place of Thule (Inuit Copper) near of the waters of the bay of Cambridge (Island Victory)

On the west coast of Canada, between 7000 and 5000 BC (9000 to 7000 years ago),
several cultures settled around salmon fishing.[65] The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver
Island began hunting whales with long spears.
advanced at that time.[65] The Maritime Archaics are a group of the North American
Archaic culture of marine mammal hunters in the subarctic. They thrived from about 7000
BC to 1500 to. C. (between 9000 and 3500 years) to along the Atlantic coast of North
America.[66] Their settlements included houses Communal dwellings and temporary or
seasonal houses with boat roofs. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency
white flint, a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine. [67] The pre-Columbian
culture, whose members were called the Red Paint People, is native to the New England
and Atlantic Canada regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3000 BC
and 1000 BC (about 5,000 to 3,000 years ago) and was named for its burial ceremonies, in
which large quantities of red ochre were used to cover bodies and grave goods.[68]
Periods post-archaic

A northern section centered on the Saugeen, Laurel, and Point Peninsula complexes of
the map showing the southeastern United States and the Great Lakes area of Canada,
displaying the Hopewell Interaction Sphere and in different colors the various local
expressions of the Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel Complex, the Saugeen
Complex, the Point Peninsula Complex, the Marksville culture, the Copena culture,
Kansas City Hopewell, Swift Creek culture, Goodall Focus, Crab Orchard culture, and
Havana Hopewell culture.

The societies of the Early Copper Complex, dating from 3000 BC-500 BC (5000-2500 years
ago), are a manifestation of the Woodland Culture and are pre-pottery in nature. [70]
Evidence found in the northern regions of the
Great Lakes indicates that they mined copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its
natural form to make tools and implements.[70]
The tradition of the tools small of the Arctic is a wide entity cultural that was developed
to it long of the peninsula of Alaska, around of the bay of Bristol board and in the
coasts oriental of the narrow of Bering around of the 2500 to. C. (does 4500 years).
[69] These villages Paleoarctic They had a set of tools very distinctive of small leaves
(microblades) that were pointed in both extremes and HE They used like spikes laterals
either finals in arrows either spears made of others materials, such as bone or antler.
Scrapers, tools of recorded and leaves of adze also HE included in their sets of tools.
[69] The tradition of the tools small of the Arctic branches out in two variants cultural,
included the traditions predorset and of the
independence. These two groups, ancestors of the Thule people, were displaced by the
Inuit in 1000 CE.[69]:179-81
The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social
differentiation based on status. [58] There is a continuous record of occupation of S'ólh
Téméxw by Aboriginal peoples dating to the early Holocene period, 10,000–9,000 years
ago. [62] Archaeological sites at Stave Lake, Coquitlam Lake, Fort Langley, and the region
uncovered artifacts from the early period. These early inhabitants were highly mobile
hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20–50 extended family members. [62][verification
needed] The Na-Dene people occupied much of the land area of northwestern and central
North America beginning about 8000 BCE. [63] They were the early ancestors of
Athabaskan-speaking peoples, including the Navajo and Apache. They had villages with
large
multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted,
fished, and gathered food for the winter.[64] The Wendat peoples settled in southern
Ontario along the Eramosa River around 8000–7000 BCE.
(does 10,000-9,000 years). [65] HE concentrated between he lake Simcoe and Georgian
Bay. The Wendat hunted caribou to survive in the glacier-covered land.[65] Many
different First Nations cultures depended on the buffalo from
6000-5000 to. C. (does 8000-7000 years). [65] They hunted buffalos herding to the
migratory buffalos from the cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, near of Lethbridge,
Alberta, is a preserve of hunt that was in use during some 5.000 years.[65]
The cultures Flat were a cluster of communities of hunter-gatherers that occupied he
area of the Big Plains of America of the North between 12,000 and 10,000 years back. [56]
The Paleoindians HE moved to a new territory to extent that emerged of
beneath the glaciers. Big game hunting flourished in this new environment. [57] The
Plano culture is characterized by a variety of projectile-pointed tools collectively called
Plano points, which were used to hunt bison. Their diet also included pronghorn, elk,
deer, raccoons, and coyotes. [56] By the early Archaic Era, they began to adopt a
sedentary approach to subsistence. [56] Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia, have
evidence of Plano Indians, indicating
small Camps of hunt seasonal, such time revisited during generations since does some
11,000 to 10,000 years. [56] The fish and birds of hunt elderly and minor seasonal
were sources of food and subject premium.

The adaptation to the hard environment included tailored clothing and stores covers of fur
on wooden frames.[56]
period archaic

He climate of America of the North HE stabilized toward he year 8000 to. C. (does 10
000 years); the conditions climatic were very similar to the current. [58] This led to a
migration widespread, to the agriculture and, subsequently, to a increase drastic of the
population in all he continent American. [58] TO it long of thousands of years, the
indigenous peoples Americans domesticated, raised and They cultivated a great variety of
species of plants. Are species constitute now he 50-60 % of all the crops that HE They
grow in all he world. [59]

Distribution of the languages na-dene shown in red

A tip Clovis created through shelling by percussion bifacial (is say, each face HE peel in
both edges alternatively with a firing pin)

During the decade of 1930 HE They discovered deposits clovis that date of does 13,500
years in he west of America of the North. The villages clovis were considered The first
ones population Paleoindians widespread of the New World and the forefathers of all the
villages indigenous of the Americas. [49] The discoveries archaeological of the latest
thirty years they have taken to the light Others cultures of size distinctive that They
occupied the Americas from the Big Plains inferior until the coasts of Chili. [50]
The cultures regional located HE developed to leave of the period of climate cold of the
Dryas Recent, does between 12.900 and 11,500 years. [51] The tradition Folsom HE
characterized by he use of tips Folsom as tips of projectiles in sites archaeological. These
tools They helped in the activities of the places of killing that marked the slaughter and
he breakdown of bison. [52]

He bridge land existed until does 13,000-11,000 years, a lot after of that they began the
settlements humans further ancient proven in he New World.
[53] Lower sea levels in Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait produced large
grasslands called the Haida Gwaii archipelago. [54] Hunter-gatherers in the area left
behind distinctive lithic technology tools and
the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000–9,000 years
ago.[54] In July 1992, the Federal Government officially designated Xá:ytem (near Mission,
British Columbia) as a National Historic Site, one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in
Canada to be formally recognized in this manner.[55]
The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 15,000 years ago,
although growing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival.[40] It is thought that the
inhabitants entered the Americas in pursuit of Pleistocene mammals such as the giant
beaver, steppe bison, musk ox, mastodons, woolly mammoths, and ancient reindeer (early
caribou).[41] One hypothesis is that the people path towards the south through of a
corridor free of ice in he side this of the Rocky Mountains, and then dispersed across North
America before continuing on to South America.[42] The other conjectured route is that
they migrated, either on foot or using primitive boats, down the Pacific coast to the tip of
South America, and then crossed the Rocky Mountains and the Andes.[43] Evidence for the
latter has been covered up by a increase of the level of the sea of hundreds of meters after
of the last age of ice.[44][45]

The Old Crow Plains and Basins were one of the areas of Canada that were untouched by
glaciation during the Pleistocene Ice Ages, and so served as a pathway and refuge for Ice
Age plants and animals. [46] The area contains evidence of early human habitation in
Canada dating back about 12,000 years. [47] Fossils from the area include some that were
never accounted for in the Americas.
from the North, such as hyenas and large camels. [48] Bluefish Caves is an archaeological
site in Yukon, Canada, from which a specimen of mammoth bone apparently worked by
humans has been radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago.[47]
Maps that represent each phase of three stages of the first migrations human for the
settlement of the Americas

According to the evidence archaeological and genetics, America of the North and of the
South were the last continents of the world inhabited by humans. [27] During the
glaciation of Wisconsin, ago 50,000-17,000 years, the drop of the level of the sea allowed
that the people will cross he land bridge of Bering that united Siberia with the northwest of
America northern (Alaska). [28] Alaska was free of ice due to the scarce snowfall, it that
allowed the existence of a small population. The layer of ice Laurentide covered the
elderly part of Canada, blocking to the population nomads and confining them to Alaska
(Beringia Eastern) for thousands of years.[29][30]

Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of America share a unique
ancestral population, that HE developed from shape isolated and that It is believed to
have been Beringia. [31][32][33] The isolation of these peoples in Beringia could have
lasted between 10,000 and 20,000 years.[34][35][36] Does some 16,500 years, the glaciers
began to melt, it that allowed to the people commute towards the south and the east,
towards Canada and beyond.[37][38][39]
A community aboriginal in he north of Ontario

The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. The indigenous
peoples of these areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit. [23][24] The Yupik of
Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree that they
are a people distinct. [8][24] They prefer the terminology yupik, yuppie either Eskimo. The
languages Yupik are linguistically different from Inuit languages.[8] The linguistic groups of
the Arctic peoples do not have a universal replacement term for Eskimo, which include all
Inuit and Yupik people in the geographic area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.[8]
Besides of are descriptions ethnic, the villages Aborigines They usually be divided in
categories legal based in his relationship with the Crown (is say, he State). The Section
91 (clause 24) of the Law Constitutional of 1867 grants to the government federal (in
opposition at provinces) the responsibility exclusive about "the Indians and the land
reserved for the "Indians". He government inherited the obligations of the treaties of
the colonial authorities British in he this of Canada and signed treaties with the First
Nations in it west of Canada (the Treaties Numbered). Also approved the Law of the
Indians in 1876 that ruled their interactions with all the villages with and without
treaties. The members of the bands of the First Nations that are subject to the Law of
the Indians with the Crown are compiled in a list call Record Indian, and to those
people HE the calls Indians with Status. Many First Nations without treaties and all the
villages Inuit and Métis No are subject to the Law of the Indians. Without However, two
cases judicial they have rinse that the Inuit, the Métis and the First Nations without
status are all covered by he term "Indians" in the Law Constitutional of 1867. He first was
Re Eskimos in 1939 that covered to the Inuit, the second was Daniels v. Canada in 2013
that HE apply to the Métis and to the First Nations without status.[25]

TO weigh of the location of Canada inside of the American continent, he term "Native
American" is not used in Canada, as it is normally used only for
describe to the villages indigenous inside of the boundaries of the current States Joined.
[26]
Features of Canadian Aboriginal culture included settlements permanent, [10]
agriculture, [11] civic and ceremonial architecture, [12] complex social hierarchies and
trade networks. [13] The mixed-blood Métis culture originated in the mid-17th century
when First Nations and Inuit intermarried with Europeans. [14] The Inuit had more limited
interaction with European settlers during that period early. [15] HE they have issued
several laws, treaties and legislation between European immigrants and First Nations
across Canada. Aboriginal right to
self-government provides the chance of manage aspects historical, cultural, politicians, of
attention medical and of control economic inside of the communities of the first
peoples.

According to he census of 2011, the villages Aborigines of Canada added up 1,400,685

people, either he 4.3% of the population national, distributed in 600 governments
either groups of First Nations recognized with cultures, languages, art and music
distinctive. [1][16] He National Day of the Aborigines recognizes the cultures and the
contributions of the aboriginal peoples to the history of Canada. [17] The First
Nations, the Inuit and the Métis of
All backgrounds have become prominent figures and served as role models in the
Aboriginal community and helped shape cultural identity.
Canadian. [18]
The terms First Peoples and First Nations are used to refer to the indigenous peoples of
Canada.[19] The terms First Peoples or Aboriginal Peoples in Canada are typically broader
terms than First Nations, as they include the Inuit, Métis and First Nations. First Nations
(most often used in plural) has come into general usage for indigenous peoples of North
America in Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. On reserves,
First Nations are being supplanted by members of various nations who refer to themselves
by their ethnic group or identity. In conversation this would be "I am Haida", or "we are
Kwantlens", in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities.[20] In this Act, "aboriginal
peoples of Canada" includes the Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada.[21]

He term Indian go on being he term legal used in the Constitution Canadian. Its use out of
are situations can be considered offensive.[7] He term aboriginal peoples HE use
further commonly for describe to all the villages indigenous from Canada.[22] He term
town aboriginal this starting to be considered obsolete and slowly this being replaced by
he term town indigenous.[2]
Villages indigenous in Canada

The Indigenous peoples of Canada,[2] also known as Indigenous Canadians or Aboriginal

Canadians, are the indigenous peoples living within the boundaries of present-day
Canada. They comprise the First Nations,[3] the Inuit[4] and the Métis.[5]
Although "Indian" is a term that still HE use commonly in the legal documents, the
descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" they have fallen in disuse in Canada and some They
consider them pejorative. [6][7][8] Of manner similar, "aboriginal" as noun collective is a
term technical specific that HE use in some documents legal, included the law
Constitutional of 1982, although in some circles that word also this falling into disuse. [9]

Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the first sites known of room human in
Canada. The cultures paleoindigenous Clovis, Flat and Pre-Dorset are previous to the
villages indigenous current of the Americas. Tools with tip of projectile, spears,
ceramics, bracelets, chisels and scrapers mark the sites
archaeological, the which allows us to distinguish cultural periods, traditions and styles of
reduction lithic.
In virtue of the letters patent of the king Henry VII of England, he Italian John Cabot
became in he first European acquaintance in have landed in Canada after of the time of
the Vikings. [33] The records indicate that he 24 of June of 1497 sighted land in a place
of the north that HE believe that was in some place of the provinces Atlantic. [34] The
tradition official consider that he first place of landing was he cape Bonavista,
Newfoundland, although are possible Others locations. [35] After of 1497, Cabot and his
son Sebastian Cabot continued doing others trips for find he Passed of the Northwest, and
others explorers continued Sailing from England toward he New World,
although the details of these trips No are good registered. [36]

Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Spanish Crown claimed that it had territorial rights
in the area visited by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498 AD.[37] However, Portuguese explorers
such as João Fernandes Lavrador would continue to visit the northern Atlantic coast,
explaining the appearance of "Labrador" on topographic maps of the time.[38] In 1501 and
1502, the Corte-Real brothers They explored Newfoundland (Terra Nova) and Labrador and
They claimed are land as part of the Empire Portuguese. [38][39] In 1506, King Manuel I of
Portugal created taxes for cod fishing in Newfoundland waters.
[40] João Álvares Fagundes and Pêro de Barcelos established fishing posts in
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521 AD; however, these were
abandoned further late, and the colonizers Portuguese focused their efforts in fishing for
cod in the waters of Newfoundland.
L'Anse aux Meadows in the island of Newfoundland, place of a cologne Nordic around of
the year 1000.

There are reports of contacts made before Christopher Columbus' 1492 voyages and the
Age of Discovery between First Nations, Inuit and those from other continents. The
Norse, who had settled in Greenland and Iceland, arrived around of the year 1000 and
They built a little settlement in L'Anse aux Meadows in the far north of Newfoundland
(carbon dating estimate 990 - 1050 AD)
[31] L'Anse aux Meadows also is remarkable for his connection with he tried of cologne of
Vinland established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with the
Norse exploration of the Americas.[31][32]
Distribution pre-columbian of the languages na-dene in America of the North

The interior of British Columbia was home to Salishan language groups such as the
Shuswap (Secwepemc), Okanagan, and southern Athabascan language groups, primarily
the Dakelh (Carrier) and Tsilhqot'in.[27] The inlets and valleys of coastal British Columbia
were home to large and distinctive populations, such as the Haida, Kwakwaka'wakw, and
Nuu-chah-nulth, supported by abundant salmon and shellfish.
of the region. [27] These people developed complex cultures dependent on the western
red cedar that included wooden houses, war canoes and seagoing whalers, and elaborately
carved potlatch ware and totem poles. [27]

In he archipelago arctic, the badges Paleo-Eskimos known as villages Dorset, whose culture
HE come back to around of the year 500 to. C., were replaced by the ancestors of the
Inuit current toward he year 1500 d. C. [28] This transition this
supported by archaeological records and Inuit mythology that tell of having expelled the
tuniit either "first" population". [29] The laws traditional Inuit are anthropologically
different from Western laws. Customary law was non-existent in Inuit society before the
introduction of the Canadian legal system. [30]
Distribution pre-columbian of the languages Algonquins in America of the North.

Speakers of the Eastern Algonquian languages included the Mi'kmaq and Abenaki of the
region. Maritime Canada and probably to the extinct beothuk from Newfoundland.[18][19]
The Ojibwa and other Anishinaabe speakers of the central Algonquian languages retain an
oral tradition of having moved to their lands around the western and central Great Lakes
from the sea, probably the east coast.[20] According to oral tradition, the Ojibwa formed
the Council of Three Fires in 796 AD with the Odawa and Potawatomi.[21]

The Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) were centered from at least AD 1000 in northern New York,
but its influence is extended to which today is he south of Ontario and the Montreal area
of modern Quebec. [22] The Iroquois Confederacy, according to oral tradition, was formed
in AD 1142. [23][24] On the Great Plains, the Cree or Nēhilawe (who spoke a closely related
Central Algonquian language, the Plains Cree language) depended on the large herds of
bison for their food and many other needs. [25] To the northwest were the Na-Dene
speaking peoples, including the Athapaskan speaking peoples and the Tlingit, who lived on
the islands of the Southern Alaska and he northern British Columbia. It is believed that the
Na-Dene language group is related to the Yenisean languages of Siberia.[26] The Western
Arctic Dene may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North America.[261]
Area of the Big Lakes of the Area of Interaction Hopewell

He period cultural of Woodland data of around of 2000 to. C. to 1000 d. C. and includes the
regions of Ontario, Quebec and Maritime. [12] The introduction of ceramics distinguishes
to the culture of Woodland of the population previous of the stage archaic. The related
peoples with Laurentian of Ontario They manufactured the ceramics further ancient
excavated to date in Canada.[13]

The tradition Hopewell is a culture aboriginal that flourished to it long of the rivers
Americans from he year 300 to. C. until he 500 d. C. In his maximum extension, the
system of exchange Hopewell connected cultures and societies with the villages of the
coasts Canadians of the lake Ontario. [14] The expression Canadian of the Hopewellian
villages covers the complexes of the peninsula of Point, Saugeen and Laurel. [15]

The areas wooded of the this of it that HE became in Canada were he home of the
peoples Algonquin and Iroquois. HE believe that the language Algonquin HE originated in
the western plateau of Idaho either in the plains of Mountain and HE transfer toward
he this, [16]
eventually extending from Hudson Bay to what is now Nova Scotia in the this and so on
south as the Tidewater region in Virginia.[17]
Without embargo, the layers of ice glacial in recoil still

covered big portions of land, creating

He climate of America of the North HE stabilized around of the year 8000 to. C. (does
10 000 years). The conditions climatic were similar to the patterns current; lakes of water
of
thaw. [10] Most of the groups of population during the periods Archaic were still highly
mobile hunter-gatherers.[11] However, individual groups began to focus on the resources
available to them locally; thus, Over time, there is a pattern of increasing regional
generalization (i.e.:
traditions archaic paleoarctic, of Flat and maritime). [11]

A northern section centered on the Saugeen, Laurel, and Point Peninsula complexes of
the map showing the southeastern United States and the Great Lakes area of Canada,
displaying the Hopewell Interaction Sphere and in different colors the various local
expressions of the Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel Complex, the Saugeen
Complex, the Point Peninsula Complex, the Marksville culture, the Copena culture,
Kansas City Hopewell, Swift Creek culture, Goodall Focus, Crab Orchard culture, and
Havana Hopewell culture.
The Great Lakes are estimated to have formed at the end of the last glacial period (about
10,000 years ago), when the Laurentide Ice Sheet retreated.

The evidence archaeological and genetics aboriginal indicates that America of the North
and of the South were the latest continents to the that migrated the humans. [1] During
the glaciation of Wisconsin, does 50,000-17,000 years, the drop of the level of the sea
allowed to the people move to through from the bridge land of Bering (Beringia), from
Siberia until the northwest of America of the North. [2] In that moment, were blocked by
the layer of Laurentide Ice that covered the elderly part of Canada, confining them to
Alaska and he Yukon
during thousands of years. [3] The dates exact and the routes of the settlement of the
Americas are object of a debate in course. [4][5] Does 16,000 years, he melting of the
glaciers allowed to the people move by land toward he south and he this out of Beringia
and toward Canada. [6] The islands Queen Charlotte, Old Crow Flats and Bluefish
Caves contain some of the first sites archaeological Paleoindians of Canada. [7][8][9]
The
hunter-gatherers of the Age of Ice of this period They left tools stone lithic grooved and
remains of big mammals massacred.
The history of Canada covers the period understood

between The arrival of the Paleoindians thousands of years

ago

from long ago to the present day. Canada has been inhabited for

millennia by distinctive groups of

The villages Aborigines, with networks commercials

differentiated, spiritual beliefs and social lifestyles

organization. Some of are civilizations They had

HE there was faded toward a lot time in the time of the first Europe. arrivals and

they have been discovered to through of

Research archaeological. Several treaties

and laws have been enacted between European States

Settlers and Aboriginal populations.

Beginning in the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored and settled
along the Atlantic coast. France ceded almost all of its North American colonies to Britain in
1763, after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American
colonies through the Confederacy, Canada HE formed as a domain federal of four
provinces. This initiated an accumulation of provinces and territories and a process of
increasing autonomy from of the Empire British, that HE did official with he Statute of
Westminster of 1931 and was supplemented by the Canada Act of 1982, which severed the
vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.
Great Depression

Canada HE saw harshly affected by the Great Depression world that began in 1929.
Between 1929 and 1933, he product national rough fell a 40% (in comparison with he 37%
in States Joined).

He unemployment reached he 27% in he worst moment of the Depression in 1933.[169]

Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of
$98 million in 1933. Canadian exports declined.
reduced in a 50% between 1929 and 1933. The construction practically HE stopped (low
82% between 1929 and 1933) and wholesale prices fell by 30%. Wheat prices fell from 78c
per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.[169]

National urban unemployment was 19%; Toronto's rate was 17%, according to the 1931
census. Farmers who remained on their farms were not counted as unemployed. [170] By
1933, 30% of the workforce was out of work, and one-fifth of the population became
dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. The most affected were
the areas that depended on
industries primaries as the agriculture, the mining and the felling, already that the
prices fell and there was few jobs alternative. The most of the families They had losses
moderate and few difficulties, although also HE They returned pessimists and their
debts HE They did more heavy to extent that fell the prices. Some families they saw
disappear most either the whole of their assets, and suffered severely. [171] [172]
In 1930, during the first stage of the long depression, the first Minister Mackenzie King
believed that the crisis was a change temporary of the cycle economic and that the
economy would recover soon without the government intervention. HE denied to provide
aid federal or unemployment to the provinces, saying that Yeah the governments
provincial conservatives demanded dollars federal, No them would give "neither a penny".
[173] His abrupt joke HE used to defeat to the liberals in the elections of 1930. The
question major was he fast
deterioration of the economy and Yeah he first minister was out of contact with the
difficulties of ordinary people. [174] [175] The winner of the 1930 election was Richard
Bedford Bennett and the Conservatives. Bennett had promised high tariffs and spending
to great scale, but custom made that increased the deficits, he turned cautious and
drastically cut federal spending. Faced with falling support and
As the depression worsened, Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on President
Franklin D. Roosevelt's (FDR) New Deal in the United States, but failed to succeed. HE
approved. He government of Bennett HE became in a focus of discontent popular. For
example, car owners saved on gasoline by using horses to pull their cars, which they
called Bennett Buggies. The failure of the
conservatives to the hour of restore the prosperity led to the return of the liberals
Mackenzie 's King to the elections of 1935. [176]
In 1935, the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a landslide victory in the 1935
election. [177] With the promise of a much-desired trade treaty With the US, the
Mackenzie King government passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreement of 1935. This
marked a turning point in Canada-US economic relations, reversing the disastrous trade
war of 1930–31 by reducing tariffs and producing a dramatic increase in trade.[178]

In 1935, it worse of the Depression already there was past, when Ottawa put in march
programs of aid as the Law National of Dwelling and the Commission National of
Employment. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation HE became in a corporation of
the crown in 1936. Trans-Canada Airlines (the precursor of Air Canada) HE formed in 1937,
to the equal that the National Film Board of Canada in 1939. In 1938, he Parliament
transformed he Bank from Canada of a entity private to a corporation of the crown.
[179]

A answer policy was a policy of immigration highly restrictive and a rise of nativism.[180]

The time were especially hard in he west of Canada, where No HE produced a recovery
complete until that began the Second War World in 1939. An answer was the creation
of new matches politicians as he motion of Social Credit and the Federation Cooperative
of the Commonwealth, So as the protest popular fit of the March to Ottawa. [181]
Second World War World

The stake of Canada in the Second War World began when Canada
declared the war to the Germany Nazi he 10 of September of 1939, delaying it a week later
of that Great Brittany will act for demonstrate symbolically his independence. The war
restored the health economic of Canada and his trust in Yeah same, already that
played a paper important in he Atlantic and in Europe. During the war, Canada HE bond
more closely with the USA US The Americans They took he control virtual of Yukon for
build the highway of Alaska and They had a presence important in the British colony of
Newfoundland with important bases aerial.[182]
Mackenzie King and Canada were largely ignored by Winston Churchill and the British
government despite Canada's important role in supplying food, raw materials, raw
materials, ammunition and money to the British economy in troubles, the training airmen
for the Commonwealth, protecting the western half of the North Atlantic Ocean from
German submarines and supplying combat troops for the invasions from Italy, France and
Germany in 1943-45. The government mobilized with The economy was successfully
prepared for the war, with impressive results in industrial and agricultural production. The
depression ended, prosperity returned, and Canada's economy expanded significantly.
Politically, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national unity. [183]
The federal elections
Canadians of 1940 is celebrated as was provided normally, and produced another majority
for the liberals.
The creation of the Royal Canadian Air Force was a high priority; it remained separate from
The Royal Force British Air Force. The Agreement of the Plan of Training Air of the British
Commonwealth, signed in December 1939, linked Canada, Great Britain, New Zealand and
Australia to a program that eventually trained half
of the aviators of those four nations in the Second War World. [184]

After he start of the war with Japan in December 1941, he government, in cooperation
with the United States, began the internment of Japanese and Canadians, which he sent to
22,000 British Columbia residents of Japanese descent to offshore resettlement camps.
The reason was intense public demand for expulsion and the fears of espionage either
sabotage. [185] He government ignored the reports of the RCMP and the Canadian
military that most Japanese were law-abiding and did not pose a threat.[186]
The Battle of the Atlantic began immediately and, between 1943 and 1945, was led by
Leonard W. Murray of Nova Scotia. German U-boats operated in Canadian and
Newfoundland waters throughout the war, sinking many naval and merchant vessels, while
Canada took over the defences of the western Atlantic. [187] The Canadian military
participated in the failed defence of Hong Kong, the failed Dieppe Raid, and the failed
British Navy. in August of 1942, the invasion ally of Italy and the very successful invasion of
France and the Netherlands in 1944-45.[188]

The 1944 conscription crisis greatly affected unity between French-speaking and English-
speaking Canadians, although it was not as politically intrusive. as the of the First War
World. [189] Of a population of
Approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in World
War II. Many thousands more served in the Merchant Navy. Canadian. [190] In total,
further of 45,000 They died and others 55,000 were injured.
The postwar period, 1945- 1960

Prosperity returned to Canada during World War II and continued in the In the following
years, with the development of universal health care, old-age pensions, and veterans'
pensions.[193][194] The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of
Newfoundland to give up a responsible government in 1934 and became a crown colony
governed by a British governor.[195] In 1948, he government British gave to the voters
three options in he referendum of Newfoundland: remain a crown colony, return to
Dominion status (i.e. the
independence) or joining Canada. Joining the United States did not become an option.
After a bitter debate, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[196]

He Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow (Recreation).

Canada's foreign policy during the Cold War was closely linked to that of the United States.
Canada was a founding member of NATO (which Canada wanted to be as well). a union
transatlantic economic and political [197]). In 1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea
during the Korean War as part of the United Nations forces. The federal government's
desire to assert its territorial claims in the Arctic during the Cold War was fueled by the
This was manifested by the High Arctic relocation, in which the Inuit were moved from
Nunavik (the northern third of Quebec) to the barren Cornwallis Island;[198] this project
was subsequently the subject of a lengthy inquiry by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal
Peoples.[199]
In 1956, the Nations United they responded to the Crisis of Suez summoning a Force
Emergency of the Nations United for supervise the withdrawal of the forces invasive. The
force of maintenance of the peace was initially conceptualized by he Secretary of Affairs
Foreign Affairs and future First Minister Lester B. Pearson. [200] Pearson was
Awarded with he Prize Nobel of Peace in 1957 for its job in he establishment of the
operation maintenance of peace. [200] A mid from the decade of 1950, Louis St. Laurent
(12th First Minister of Canada) and his successor John Diefenbaker They tried create a new
one and very advanced plane of combat a reaction, the Avro Arrow. [201] He controversial
aircraft was cancelled by Diefenbaker in 1959. Diefenbaker instead purchased the system
of defense of missiles BOMARC and airplanes Americans. In 1958, Canada established
(with the States Joined) he Command of Defense Aerospace of America of the North
(NORAD). [202]
In 1604, Pierre You Gua, Sieur of Mons, obtained he monopoly of the trade of skins in
America of the North. [49] He trade of skins HE became in a of the Main activities
economic of America of the North. [50] You Guide directed his first expedition of
colonization to a island located near of the mouth of the river St. Croix. Between his
lieutenants HE I found a geographer called Samuel of Champlain, who
quickly he took to cape a important exploration of the coast northeast of it that today is
the United States. [49] In In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new
settlement of St. Croix was moved to Port Royal (today Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia).[51]

The Quebec settlement: A.-The warehouse. B.-The dovecote. C.-Separate buildings where
we keep our weapons and to house our workers. D.-Another separate building for the
workers. E.-Sundial. F.-Another separate building where the blacksmith shop is.
where the workers are housed. G.- Galleries around the houses. H.- The houses of Mr. de
Champlain. I.- The gate of the settlement with a drawbridge. L.- Walk around of the
settlement of ten feet of broad until the edge from the pit. M.-Foso in all the way around
the settlement. O.-Mr. de Champlain's garden. P.-The kitchen. Q.-The space in front of the
settlement on the river bank. A.-The great St. Lawrence River.
Music

Aboriginal peoples of Canada comprise diverse ethnic groups with their own musical
traditions. Music is often social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public and social music
may be dance music accompanied by rattles and drums. Private ceremonial music
includes vocal songs with percussion accompaniment, used to mark occasions such as
Midewivin ceremonies and
dances of the sun.

Traditionally, the villages Aborigines They used the materials that they had by hand to
make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to
Canada.[156] First Nations people made rattles from gourds and animal horns, which they
carved with great care and painted with bright colors.[157] In the areas wooded, They did
horns with crust birch and drumsticks with carved antlers and wood. Traditional
percussion instruments, such as drums, were usually made from carved wood and animal
skins. These musical instruments provide the background for songs, and songs provide the
background for dances. Traditional First Nations peoples consider singing and dancing to
be dance are sacred. For years after Europeans arrived in Canada, First Nations people
were prohibited from practicing their ceremonies.[155][156]
Demography and classification of the villages indigenous

Cultural areas of the indigenous peoples of North America at the time of European contact

There are three groups badges of villages indigenous of America of the North (the First
Nations, [3] the Inuit[4] and the Métis [5]) recognized in the Law constitutional
Canadian of 1982, articles 25 and 35.[21] By virtue of the Law of equality in he
employment, the Aborigines are a cluster appointed together with the women, the
minorities visible and the people with
disability. [158] No are a minority visible according to the Law of equality in he employment
and in the opinion of Statistics Canada.[159]

The 2011 Canadian census enumerated 1,400,685 Aboriginal people in Canada, 4.3% of
the country's total population. [1] This total comprises 851,560 people of First Nations
descent, 451,795 Métis and 59,445 Inuit. National representative bodies of Aboriginal
people in Canada include the Assembly of First Nations, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the
Métis National Council, the Native Women's Association of Canada, the National
Association of Friendship Centers Native and the Congress of Peoples Aborigines. [160]
art visual

Indigenous peoples produced art for thousands of years before the arrival of European
settlers and the establishment of Canada as a nation state. Like the people who produced
them, Indigenous artistic traditions spread across territories of all America of the North.
The historians of the art organize the Indigenous artistic traditions according to cultural,
linguistic or regional groups: northwest coast, plateau, plains, eastern forests, subarctic
and arctic. [152]

The traditions artistic vary enormously between these various groups and inside of them.
Indigenous art, focused on portability and the body, is distinguished from the
European traditions, centered on architecture. Indigenous visual art may be used
alongside other arts. Shamans' masks and rattles are used ceremoniously in dance,
storytelling, and music. [152] The works of art preserved in the collections of the
museums date of the period later to European contact and show evidence of the
adoption and creative adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads.
[153] The distinct Métis cultures that have emerged from cross-cultural relations with
Europeans contribute culturally hybrid art forms.[154] During the 19th century and the
first half of the In the 20th century, the Canadian government pursued an active policy of
forced cultural assimilation towards indigenous peoples. The Indian Act banned Sun Dance
performances, the Potlatch, and works of art depicting them. [155]

No was until the years 1950 and 1960 that artists indigenous as Mungo Martin, Bill Reid
and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly renew and reinvent Indigenous artistic traditions.
Today, there are Indigenous artists practicing in all media in Canada and two Indigenous
artists, Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore, have represented Canada at the Venice
Biennale in 1995 and 2005 respectively. [152]
Aboriginal people could not be counted during the 2006 census.[161][162] This is due to
the fact that certain Aboriginal reserves and communities in Canada did not participate in
the 2006 census, as enumeration of those communities was not permitted.[161][163] In
2006, 22 communities native No were listed completely unlike the In 2001, 30 First Nations
communities were not enumerated, and in 1996, 77 First Nations communities could not
be fully enumerated.[161][163] Therefore, there were probably 1,212,905 people of
Aboriginal descent (North American Indians, Métis and Inuit) residing in Canada.
during he time in that HE performed he census of 2006 in Canada.

The villages indigenous They affirm that their rights sovereigns are valid and they point
out The Proclamation Real of 1763, that HE mentions in the Law constitutional
Canadian from 1982, article 25, the Laws of the America of the North British and the
Convention of Vienna from 1969 about he Right of the Treaties (of the that Canada is
signatory) in support of this statement. [164][165]
Languages

In Canada there are 13 Aboriginal language groups, 11 spoken and 2 signed, composed of
over 65 distinct dialects. [148] Of these, only Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large
enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable for long-term survival. [149]
Two of Canadian territories grant official status to native languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut
and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages English and French,
and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in the territorial government. [150] In the
Northwest Territories, the Official Languages Act states that there are eleven different
languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich'in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, inuvialuktun,
slavic of the northern, slavic of the south and tłįcho. [151] In addition from English and
French, these languages No are vehicular in the government; Official status entitles
citizens to receive services there if they request them and to deal with the government
there. [149]
Aboriginal cultural areas depend on the primary way of life of their ancestors, or their
occupation, at the time of European contact. These cultural areas correspond closely
with the physical and ecological regions of Canada. [143] Indigenous peoples of the
Pacific Northwest coast focused on ocean and river fishing; in the interior of British
Columbia, hunting-gathering and
river fishing. In both areas, salmon was of utmost importance. For the peoples of the
plains, bison hunting was the main activity. In the subarctic forest, other species such as
the elk were more important. For the peoples near the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence
River, shifting agriculture was practiced, which included the cultivation of corn, beans and
squash. [16][143] While for the Inuit, hunting was the main source of food and the seals
were he main component from their diet. [144] He caribou, Fish, other marine mammals
and, to a lesser extent, plants, berries and seaweed are part of the Inuit diet. One of the
most notable symbols of Inuit culture, the inukshuk is the emblem of the Vancouver 2010
Winter Olympics.
Inuksuit are stone sculptures made by stacking stones; they are shaped like a human figure
and are called inunnguaq. [145]
Culture of the villages indigenous

TO through of the narration of stories and others styles of learning interactive, Countless
indigenous words, inventions and games from North America have become an everyday
part of Canadian language and usage. Thanks to groups like the teachers of
Aboriginal Language and Culture (ALC) of British Columbia, these practices continue to be
transmitted of generation in generation. The canoe, the rackets of snow, the sledding,
lacrosse, tug-of-war, maple syrup, and tobacco are just a few of the products, inventions,
and games. [138] Some of the words include barbecue, caribou, chipmunk, groundhog,
hammock, skunk, and moose. [139] Many places in Canada, both in Both natural features
and human settlements use indigenous names. The word "Canada" itself derives from the
St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning "village" or "settlement."[140] The province of
Saskatchewan derives its name from the Saskatchewan River, which in the Cree language
is called "Kisiskatchewani Sipi," meaning "swift-flowing river."[141] Canada's capital,
Ottawa, comes from the Algonquian term "adawe," which means "swift river."[142] means
"to trade".[141] The groups juveniles modern Such as Scouts Canada and Girl Guides of
Canada include programs based primarily on indigenous tradition, arts and crafts,
character building and crafts, and outdoor camp life.[142]
The Reservations indigenous, established in the legislation Canadian by treaties as the
Treaty 7, are land of the First Nations recognized by governments No indigenous people.
[146] Some Reservations HE find inside of the cities, as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in
Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Wendake in the city of Quebec either Stony Plain 135 in the
Region Capital of Edmonton. There is further Reservations in Canada that First Nations,
to the that HE them They gave in multiple Reservations by treaty. [147] The Aborigines
at the moment They work in a variety of occupations and they can live outside their
ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a
strong influence on them, from spirituality to
political attitudes. [16][143] National Aboriginal Day is a day of recognition of the
cultures and contributions of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. The day
was first observed in 1996, after being proclaimed that year by then Governor General of
Canada Roméo LeBlanc to be observed on June 21 of each year. [17] Most provincial
jurisdictions do not recognize it as a legal holiday. [17]
Commission Real

The Commission Real about the Villages Aborigines was a Commission Real created
by the Government of Canada in 1991 for tackle the issues of the villages Aborigines
from Canada. [128] Evaluated the policies governmental previous toward the
aboriginal peoples , as the schools residential, and provided Recommendations of policies
to the government. [129] The Commission public his report end in November of 1996. He
report
of five volumes and 4.000 pages covered a wide range of issues; their 440
recommendations They demanded changes radicals in the interaction between the
aboriginal peoples , the No Aborigines and the governments of Canada. [128] He report
"established an agenda of 20 years for he change". [130]
Organization policy

The organizations of the First Nations and of the Inuit varied in size, from societies of
bands of nails few people until confederations multinationals such as the of the
Iroquois. The leaders of the First Nations of all he country formed the Assembly of the First
Nations, that began as the Sisterhood National India in 1968.[136] The Métis and the
Inuit are represented to level national by he National Council Métis and he Inuit Tapirit
Kanatami respectively.

The organizations policies current are he result of the interaction with the European-
style methods of government through the Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non -Status
Indians. The organizations policies Aborigines in all Canada vary in how much to
political position, views and reasons for forming.[137] First Nations, Métis and Inuit
negotiate with the Canadian Government through Indian and Northern Affairs Canada on
all matters relating to land, rights and
ownership.[136] The groups of the First Nations that operate of independently do not
belong to these groups.[136]
Policy of health

In 1995, the government federal announced the Policy of Self-government of the Aborigines.
[131] This policy recognizes that the First Nations and the Inuit have he constitutional
law of give shape to their own forms of government for adapt to their circumstances
historical, cultural, policies and economic individuals. The Policy transfer of Health of
the Indians provided a frame for that the aboriginal peoples assumed he control of the
services of health and established a approach of
development for the transfer centered in the self-determination in subject of health. [132]
[133] TO through of this process, the decision of start conversations about the transfer
with Health Canada relapses in each community. A time involved in the transfer, the
communities they can take he control of the responsibilities of the program of health
to a rhythm certain by their circumstances individual and their capabilities of
management of the health. [134] The Organization National of Health Aboriginal
(NAHO), incorporated in 2000, is a not-for-profit organization designed and controlled by
Aborigines in Canada that works for influence and promote the health and he welfare of
Aboriginal peoples. [135]
Persons accepted as band members under its rules cannot be legally-status Indians. C-31
clarified that several sections of the Indian Act would apply to band members. The
sections under discussion relate to community living and land tenure. Sections relating to
Indians (First Nations peoples) as individuals (in this case, wills and personal property
taxes) were not included.[127]
Law India

The Law about the Indians is a law federal that data of 1876. From so, HE have made
further of 20 changes important to the law original, the last time in 1951; HE
amended in 1985 by Bill C-31. The The Indian Act outlines how reservations and bands may
operate and defines who is recognized as an "Indian."[126]

In 1985, he Parliament Canadian approved he project of law C-31, "Law of modification

of the Law about the "Indians". Due to a requirement constitutional, the project of law came
into force he 17 of April of 1985.[127]

• Puts end to the provisions discriminatory of the Law about the Indians, especially
those that discriminated against women.[127]

• Change he meaning of "status" and by first time allows the limited resettlement of
Indians who were denied or lost their status and/or membership in the Band.[127]

• Allows to the bands define their own rules of membership. [127]

According to he Agreement Political of the First Nations and the Crown Federal, "the
cooperation will be a stone angular for the association between Canada and the First
Nations, where Canada is the shape abbreviated of reference to His Majesty the Queen
in Right from Canada". [122] The Court Supreme argument that the treaties "served" for
reconcile the
sovereignty aboriginal preexisting with the sovereignty assumed of the Crown, and for
define the rights "aboriginals". [122] The villages of the First Nations They interpreted that
the agreements contemplated in he treaty 8 would last "while shine he sun, grow the grass
and flow the rivers". [125]
Policy, right and legislation.

Treaties

The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples began to interact during the period of
European colonization. Numbered treaties, the Indian Act, the Constitution Act 1982, and
case law were established. Aboriginal peoples interpret these agreements as being
between them and the Canadian Crown through the Agent
Indigenous to the districts, and not to the Cabinet of Canada.[122] The Māori interpret the
Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand in a similar manner.[123] A series of eleven treaties
were signed between the First Nations of Canada and the reigning monarch of Canada
between 1871 and 1921. The Government of Canada created the policy, appointed the
Treaty Commissioners, and ratified the agreements. These treaties are agreements with
the Government of Canada administered under Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by
the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.[124]
Because of laws and policies that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to
assimilate into a Eurocentric society, Canada violated the United Nations Convention
about he Genocide that Canada signed in 1949 and approved in he Parliament in 1952.
[119] The residential school system that removed Aboriginal children from their homes
has led scholars to believe that Canada could be tried in an international court by
genocide. [119] A case legal It turned out in a agreement of 2 thousand millions Canadian
dollars in 2006 and the establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission
Reconciliation that confirmed he effect harmful of this system about the children and
the agitation created between the Canadians Aborigines and the society Canadian. [120]
In 2008, The First Minister Stephen Harper issued a sorry on behalf of f r o m t h e
Canadian government and their citizens by he system of schools residential. [121]
The last strategy governmental of assimilation, enabled by the Law Indigenous, was the
canadian residential school system:

Of all the initiatives that HE they took to cape in he first century of the Confederation,
none was further ambitious either central for the strategy civilizing of the Department, for
your aim of assimilation, that he system of schools residential... was the experience
of the schools residential the that would take to the children further indeed out of their
communities "savages" toward a "civilization superior" and a "citizenship full".[116]

From 1847 to 1996, the Canadian government, in collaboration with the Catholic Church,
managed 130 hospitalized residential in all Canada for kids Aborigines who were forcibly
removed from their homes.[117] Although the schools were said to educate, they were
plagued by underfunding, disease, and abuse.[118]
Assimilation forced

From finals of the century XVIII, the Canadians Europeans (and he government
Canadian) encouraged the assimilation of the culture aboriginal in it that HE called
"Canadian culture ". [109] [110] These attempts they reached his climax to finals of the
century XIX and principles of the XX, with a series of initiatives that They pointed out to
the assimilation and
subjugation complete of the villages aborigines. Are policies, that were possible thanks to
laws as the Law of Civilization Gradual [111] and the Law Indigenous [112], They
focused in the ideals Europeans of the Christianity, the life sedentary, the agriculture and
education .

He tried of Christianization of the villages Aborigines of Canada HE there was prolonged

from the arrival of the first missionaries in he century XVII, but HE came back further
systematic with the Law Indigenous of 1876, that would impose new sanctions to who No
HE converted to Christianity. By example, the new laws would prevent that the
Aborigines No Christians will testify either that their cases were heard in the courts and
would prohibit he consumption of alcohol. [113] When HE modified the Law
Indigenous in 1884, HE would prohibit the religious practices and social traditional, as
he Potlatch, and Others modifications in 1920 would prevent that the "Indians" with
status" (according to the definition of the Law) will use traditional clothing either will
carry out dances traditional in a tried of put end to all non-Christian practices . [113]
Other aim of the government Canadian was to convert to the groups Aborigines of
Canada became sedentary, as they thought this would facilitate their assimilation. In the
19th century, the government began supporting the creation of model farming villages,
which were intended to encourage non-sedentary Aboriginal groups to settle in an area
and begin farming. [114] When most of these model farming villages failed, [114] the
government instead turned to creating reserves.
indigenous with the Law Indigenous of 1876. [112] With the creation of are Reservations
Many came laws restrictive, as new prohibitions about all the intoxicants, restrictions to
the eligibility for vote in the elections of band, decrease of the areas of hunt and fishing,
and impossibility of that the Indians with status will visit to other groups on their
reservations.[112]

In 1857, through the Law of Civilization Gradual, he government encouraged to the

Indians (is say, the First Nations) to obtain he right to the vote, for eliminate all the legal
distinctions between [the [Indians] and the others subjects Canadians of His Majesty.
[111] Yeah an aboriginal opted by obtain the right to vote, HE you stripped to him and to his
family from the aboriginal title , with the idea of that HE would return "less "savages" and
"further civilized", and So would assimilate to the society Canadian. [115] Without
embargo, the Europeans to slight they followed them defining as No citizens, and the few
that it they got HE They found often with disappointment.[115]
Map that sample the conquests territorial British after the "War of the Seven Years". The
territorial conquests of the Treaty of Paris in pink and the Spanish territorial conquests
after the Treaty of Fontainebleau in yellow.

With the end of the Seven Years' War and the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763), France
ceded almost all of its remaining territory in continental North America, except for fishing
rights off Newfoundland and the two small islands of Saint
Pierre and Miquelon, where its fishermen could dry their fish. France had already secretly
ceded its vast territory of Louisiana to Spain under the Treaty of Fontainebleau
(1762), in he that he king Luis XV of France there was given to his cousin he king Carlos III of
Spain as a whole the area of the basin of drainage of the river Mississippi from the Big
Lakes until the Gulf of Mexico and since the Appalachians.
Canada low he domain British (1763- 1867)

Map that shows the conquests territorial British after the "War of the Seven Years”. The
territorial conquests of the Treaty of Paris in pink and the Spanish territorial conquests
after the Treaty of Fontainebleau in yellow.
The new rulers British of Canada retained and protected the biggest part of the property,
religious, political and social culture of the French-speaking inhabitants, guaranteeing the
right of Canadians to practice the Catholic faith and to use French civil law (now Quebec
law) through the Quebec Act of 1774.[95] The Royal Proclamation of 1763 had been issued
in October, by King George III after the acquisition
of territory French by part of Great Brittany.[96] The proclamation organized he Britain's
new North American empire and stabilized relations between the British Crown and
Aboriginal peoples through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the
western frontier.[96]
With he end of the War of the Seven Years and the signature of the Treaty of Paris (1763),
France
He gave up almost all of it territory that remained in South America The northern
mainland, except for fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland and the two tiny islands
of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, where its fishermen could dry their fish. France had already
secretly ceded its vast territory of Louisiana to Spain under the Treaty of Fontainebleau.
(1762), in which King Louis XV of France had granted his cousin King Charles III of Spain
the entire Mississippi River watershed area from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico
and from the Appalachian Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. France and Spain kept the
Treaty of Fontainebleau secret from other countries until 1764.[93] change to acquire
Canada, Great Brittany returned France its most important sugar-producing colony,
Guadeloupe, which the French at the time considered more valuable than Canada.

(Guadeloupe produced further sugar that all the islands British together, and Voltaire had
dismissed notoriously to Canada calling him "Somethings arpents of "snow", "a few acres
of snow"). [94]
When the British evacuated the city of New York in 1783, they took to many refugees
loyal to New Scotland, while that others HE directed to the southwest of Quebec. So many
loyal They arrived to the shores of the river Saint Juan that HE believe a cologne
independent, New Brunswick, in 1784;[100] followed in 1791 by the division of Quebec in
he Lower Canada (Canada French), in his most of speaks French, to it long of the river
Saint Lorenzo and the peninsula of Gaspé, and a High Canada loyal anglophone, with his
capital established in 1796 in York, in the current Toronto. [101] After of 1790, the most
of the new settlers were farmers Americans that were looking for new land; although in
general were favorable to the republicanism, were relatively apolitical and HE maintained
neutrals in the war of 1812.[102]
The Revolution American and the Loyal

During the Revolution United States, was certain sympathy by the cause American
between the Acadians and the population of New England in New Scotland. [97] None
of the two matches HE joined to the rebels, although several hundreds of people HE joined
to the cause revolutionary. [97] [98] A invasion of Quebec by part of the Continental
Army in 1775, with he aim of snatch Quebec of the control British, was
detained in the Battle of Quebec by Guy Carleton, with the aid of the militias local. The
defeat of the British Army during the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781 marked the end of
the struggle of Great Brittany for suppress the Revolution United States. [99]
War of 1812

The War of 1812 was a war between the United States and Great Britain, in which the
British colonies of North America were heavily involved. [106] With firepower far superior
to that of the British Royal Navy, war plans
Americans HE focused in a invasion of Canada (especially it that today is the east and
west of Ontario). The states borderlands Americans voted to favor of the war for
suppress the raids of the First Nations that frustrated the settlement of the border. [106]
The war in the border with States Joined was characterized by a series of multiple
invasions failed and fiascos of both sides. The forces Americans They took he control of
the lake Erie in 1813, expelling to The British of the west of Ontario, killing to the leader
native American Tecumseh and breaking the can military of his confederacy. [107] The
war was supervised by officers of the army British as Isaac Brock and Charles of
Salaberry with the aid of the First Nations and of informants loyal, in particular Laura
Second. [108]
Lower stands out the benefits positives of the Revolution for the Americans, turning
them in a town energetic, while that for he Canada English the results were negatives:

[He Canada English] No inherited the benefits, but the bitterness of the Revolution. No
obtained from she none bright testimony. No obtained a lot release of energy and No HE
They opened new ones horizons for he spirit. There was been a calamity, pure and
simple. [105] To replace he fire internal that was driving to the Americans to cross he
continent towards he west, only there was a contemplation melancholic of the things
as could have been and a reflection gloomy of that world ineffably glorious on the other side
of the stormy Atlantic.

He Canada English began his life with a push nostalgic toward he past so
powerful as he that the Conquest there was given to the Canada French: two small
officially villages dedicated to the counterrevolution, to the causes losses, to the ideals
sordid of a society of men and masters, and No to the self-sufficient freedom that
accompanied them. [105]
The signature of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 put end formally to the war. Great Brittany
made several concessions to Americans to at the expense of the North American colonies.
[103] It is noteworthy that the borders between Canada and the United States were
officially demarcated; [103] all the land south of the Great Lakes, which
previously formed part of the province of Quebec and included the current Michigan,
Illinois and Ohio, was ceded to the Americans. Also HE granted rights of fishing to the
States Joined in he gulf of Saint Lorenzo and in the coast of Newfoundland and the
Major Banks. [103] The British ignored part of the treaty and maintained their military
posts in the areas of the Big Lakes that had ceded to the USA U.S., and continued to
supply ammunition to their allies natives. The British evacuated the positions
advanced with he Treaty Jay of 1795, but he supply continuous of ammunition irritated to
Americans in he period previous to the War of 1812. [104]
The rebellions and he Report Durham

The rebellions of 1837 against he government colonial British They had place so much in he
Tall as in he Low Canada. In he High Canada, a cluster of reformers low he leadership by
William Lyon Mackenzie took the arms in a series of skirmishes disorganized and finally
Unsuccessful in small scale in the surroundings of Toronto, London and Hamilton. [110]

In he Low Canada HE produced a rebellion further important against he domain

British. Rebels Anglo-Canadians and French Canadians, who in occasions They used
bases in the States Joined, a country neutral, They freed themselves several skirmishes
against the authorities. The rebels They took the cities of Chambly and Sorel and the
city of Quebec was isolated of the rest of the cologne. He leader rebel of Montreal,
Robert Nelson, read the "Declaration of Independence of the Low Canada" in view of a
crew gathered in the city
of Napierville in 1838.[111] The rebellion of the motion Patriot was defeated after of
several battles throughout Quebec. Hundreds of people were arrested and several villages
were burned in retaliation.[111]
The war term without changes in the borders thank you to the Treaty of Ghent of
1814 and to the Treaty Rush-Bagot of 1817.[106] A result demographic was he change of
the destination of the migration United States of the High Canada to Ohio, Indiana and
Michigan, without fear of attacks indigenous people.[106] After of the war, the
supporters of Great Brittany They tried to suppress he republicanism that was common
between the immigrants Americans in Canada.[106] He disturbing memory of the war
and the invasions Americans were recorded in the awareness of the Canadians as a
distrust in the intentions of the States Joined toward the presence British in America
of the North.[109] pp. 254-255
The British government then sent Lord Durham to examine the situation; he remained in
Canada for only five months before returning to Britain and brought with him his Durham
Report, which strongly recommended responsible government. [112] A less well-received
recommendation was the amalgamation of Upper and Lower Canada for the deliberate
assimilation of the French-speaking population. The Canadas were amalgamated into a
single colony, the United Province of Canada, by the Act of Union of 1840, and
responsible government was achieved in 1848, a few months after it was achieved in
Nova Scotia.
[112] The parliament of United Canada in Montreal was burned down by a Tory mob in
1849 after the passage of a bill for compensation for persons who suffered losses during
the rebellion in Lower Canada.[113]

Between the Napoleonic Wars and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants arrived in the
colonies of British North America, mainly from the British Isles, as part of the Great
Migration from Canada.

[114] Between they HE they found the Scots of the Land Highs of speaks Gaelic displaced
by the expulsions of the Land Highs to New Scotland and the settlers
Scots and English to the Canadas, particularly Upper Canada. The Irish Famine The 1840s
saw a significant increase in the pace of Irish Catholic immigration to British North
America, with over 35,000 hard-pressed Irish landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848 alone.
[115]
Spanish explorers had taken the initiative on the northwest Pacific coast, with the voyages
of Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775.

[116] When the Spanish They decided build a strong in the island of Vancouver, the
navigator British James Cook already there was visited he narrow of Nootka and mapped
the coast until Alaska, while that the Traders maritime of skins British and
Americans had initiated a intense was of trade with the villages coastal for satisfy he
dynamic market of skins of otter marine in China, starting So which HE would know as
he Trade of China. [117] In 1789, the war threatened between Great Brittany and
Spain by their respective rights; the crisis of Nootka HE resolved peacefully in great
extent to favor of Great Brittany, the power naval a lot stronger . In 1793, Alexander
MacKenzie, a Canadian that I was working for the Company from the Northwest, crossed
he continent and with their guides Aborigines and his crew
Vancouver 's cartographic expedition to the region by only nails few weeks.

[118] In 1821, the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a
territory commercial combined that spread by license to the Northwest Territory and the
fur districts of Columbia and New Caledonia, which extended to the Arctic Ocean in the
north and the Pacific Ocean in the west. [119]
Confederacy

The seventy-two resolutions of the Quebec Conference of 1864 and the Charlottetown
Conference established the framework for uniting the British colonies in North America
into a federation. [121] They had been adopted by most of Canada's provinces and
became the basis for the London Conference of 1866, which led to the the formation of
the Dominion of Canada on 1 July 1867. [121] The term dominion was chosen to indicate
Canada's status as an autonomous colony of the British Empire, the first time that such a
rule had been established. used for a country. [122] With the entrance in force of the Law
of the America of the North British (promulgated by he Parliament British), the Province of
Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia became a federated kingdom by
right own. [123][124][125]
The Vancouver Island Colony was founded in 1849, with the trading post of Fort Victoria
as its capital. This was followed by the Queen Charlotte Islands Colony in 1853, and the
creation of of the colony of British Columbia in 1858 and of the territory of Stikine in
1861, the last three being founded expressly to prevent these regions from being
invaded and annexed by American gold miners. [120] The colony of the islands of Queen
Charlotte and the eldest part of the territory of Stikine HE merged with the colony of
British Columbia in 1863 (the remainder, north of the 60th parallel, became part of the
North-Western Territory).[120]
Canada after of the Confederacy, 1867- 1914

The battle of Fish Creek, that HE book he 24 of April of 1885 in Fish Creek,
Saskatchewan, was a important victory Métis about the forces of the Domain of Canada
that They were trying to smother the Rebellion of the Northwest of Louis Rail.

Expansion

With the lure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a transcontinental line that would unite the
nation, Ottawa attracted support from the Maritime provinces and British Columbia. In
1866, the Colony of British Columbia and the Colony of Ottawa Island were established.
Vancouver was merged into a single Colony of British Columbia; it joined Canadian
Confederation in 1871. In 1873, The Island of the joined Prince Edward. Newfoundland,
which had no need of a railway transcontinental, vote in against in 1869 and No HE joined
to Canada until 1949.[127]
The federation emerged of multiple impulses: the British They wanted that Canada HE
defended to Yeah same; the provinces maritime needed connections railways, that is They
promised in 1867; he nationalism British-Canadian I was looking for bind the land in a only
country, dominated by he language English and the culture British; many
French Canadians saw an opportunity to exert political control within a new,
predominantly francophone Quebec[109]pp. 323-324 and feared possible American
expansion to the north.[122] At the political level, there was a desire for expansion of
responsible government and the elimination of the legislative deadlock between Upper
and Lower Canada, and its replacement by provincial legislatures in a federation.[122] This
was driven by the desire to especially by he motion liberal reformer of the High Canada
and the French-Canadian Red Party in Lower Canada, which favoured a decentralized union
as compared to the Conservative Party of Upper Canada and, to some extent, the French-
Canadian Blue Party, which favoured a centralized union. [122][126]
In 1905, when Saskatchewan and Alberta were admitted as provinces, were growing
quickly thank you to the abundant harvests of wheat that attracted immigration to the
plains of Ukrainians and Europeans of the north and center, So as of settlers of States
Joined, Great Brittany and he this of Canada. [132] [133]

A postal photochromic that sample he center of Montreal, around of 1910. Canada's

population became urbanized during the 20th century.

The quarrel by the border of Alaska, that HE there was prolonged from the buys of
Alaska in 1867, HE came back criticism when HE discovered gold in he Yukon to Finnish
of the decade from 1890, when States Joined controlled all the ports of entrance
possible. Canada argued that his border included the port of Skagway. The dispute was to
arbitration in 1903, but he delegate British HE put of the side of the Americans, it that
enraged to Canadians , that they felt that the British had betrayed the interests
Canadians for earn he favor of States United.[134]
In the 1890s, legal experts codified a framework of criminal law that culminated in he Code
Penal of 1892.[135] This solidified the ideal liberal of "equality before the law" a way that
became a principle abstract in a tangible reality for every adult Canadian.[136] Wilfrid
Laurier, who served as the seventh prime minister of Canada between 1896 and In 1911,
he felt that Canada was on the verge of becoming a world power and declared that the
20th century "would belong to Canada."[137]

Laurier signed a reciprocity treaty with the United States that would reduce tariffs on both
addresses.

The conservatives, headlines by Robert Borden, the They denounced, saying that would
integrate the economy of Canada to the of States Joined and would relax the ties with
Great Britain. He game conservative won the elections Canadians.

Elections federal of 1911.[138]

In 1873, John TO. Macdonald (first minister of Canada) believe the Police Mounted from
the Northwest (now the Real Police Mounted of Canada) for help to watch the Territories
from the Northwest. [128] In concrete, the Police Mounted should say the sovereignty
Canadian before possible invasions Americans in land scarcely populated. [128]

The first mission to great scale of the Mounted Police were suppress he second
movement of independence of the Métis of Manitoba, a town mestizo of European and
First Nations ancestry, originating in the mid-17th century.[129] The desire for
Independence erupted in the Red River Rebellion in 1869 and the subsequent North-West
Rebellion in 1885 led by Louis Riel. [128][130] The suppression of the Rebellion was
Canada's first independent military action. It cost about $5 million and demonstrated the
need for the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It secured Anglophone control of
the Prairies and showed that the national government was capable of taking decisive
action. However, it lost the Conservative Party for most of its support in Quebec and
caused a permanent distrust of the anglophone community by the francophones.[131]
Culture popular

In Canada, he leisure in he country this related with the decrease of the hours of job
and it is certain by the values morals and the communities ethnic-religious and of gender.
In a country cold with long nights of winter and days extended in summer, the activities
of leisure favorites include racing of horses, sports of equipment as he hockey, group
singing, skating and games of table.[139] [140] [141] The churches They tried lead the
activities of leisure, preaching against he consumption of alcohol and scheduling
revivals annual and activities weekly of the club. [142] In 1930, the radio juice a paper
important in the union of the Canadians behind of their teams of hockey local or
regional. The coverage sporty move by move, especially of the hockey on ice, absorbed to
the Fans a lot further intensely that the stories of the newspapers to day after. The
areas rural were especially influenced by the coverage
sporty. [143] The Canadians in he century XIX They arrived to believe that possessed a
"northern character " only, due to the long and hard winters that only could survive those
of body and mind resistant. This endurance HE considered a feature Canadian, and
sports as he hockey about ice and the rackets of snow that the reflected HE
They considered typically Canadians. [144] Out of the scope sports, the Canadians express
the characteristics national of be peaceful, ordered and educated. In the interior, they
shout to all lung in the matches of hockey about ice, clapping the
speed, the ferocity and the violence, it that converts to the hockey in a symbol ambiguous
from Canada. [145]
Culture popular

In Canada, he leisure in he country this related with the decrease of the hours of job
and it is certain by the values morals and the communities ethnic-religious and of gender.
In a country cold with long nights of winter and days extended in summer, the activities
of leisure favorites include racing of horses, sports of equipment as he hockey, group
singing, skating and games of table. [139] [140] [141] The churches They tried lead the
activities of leisure, preaching against he consumption of alcohol and scheduling
revivals annual and activities weekly of the club. [142] In 1930, the radio juice a paper
important in the union of the Canadians behind of their teams of hockey local or
regional. The coverage sporty move by move, especially of the hockey on ice, absorbed to
the Fans a lot further intensely that the stories of the newspapers to day following. The
areas rural were especially influenced by the coverage
sporty. [143] The Canadians in he century XIX They arrived to believe that possessed a
"northern character " only, due to the long and hard winters that only could survive those
of body and mind resistant. This endurance HE considered a feature Canadian, and
sports as he hockey about ice and the rackets of snow that the reflected HE
They considered typically Canadians. [144] Out of the scope sports, the Canadians express
the characteristics national of be peaceful, ordered and educated. In the interior, they
shout to all lung in the matches of hockey about ice, clapping the
speed, the ferocity and the violence, it that converts to the hockey in a symbol ambiguous
from Canada. [145]
He support to Great Brittany during the First War World caused a important political crisis
over recruitment, as francophones, mainly from Quebec,
They rejected national policies. [149] During the crisis, large numbers of enemy aliens
(especially Ukrainians and Germans) were placed under government control. [150] He Game
Liberal was deeply divided, and the most of Their Anglophone leaders joined the Unionist
government headed by Prime Minister
Robert Borden, he leader of the Game Conservative. [151] The liberals recovered his
influence after of the war low he leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie King, who He
served as Prime Minister for three separate terms between 1921 and 1949.[152]
Wars world and years of interwar period 1914- 1945

First War World

The Canadian Forces and civilian participation in the First World War helped foster a
sense of British-Canadian nationality. The high points of Canadian military achievements
during the First World War came
during the battles of Somme, Vimy, Passchendaele and it that further late HE would
know as "The hundred days of Canada". [146] The reputation that HE They won the
troops
Canadians, together with he success of the aces of the aviation Canadians, between they
William George Barker and Billy Bishop, They helped to give to the nation a new sense of
identity.
[147] He Ministry of War reported in 1922 of approximately 67,000 dead and
173,000 wounded during the war. [148] This excludes the deaths of civilians in wartime
incidents such as the Halifax Explosion.[148]
women's suffrage

The National Council of Women of Canada vigorously promoted non-voting political status
for women between 1894 and 1918. It promoted a vision of "transcendent citizenship" for
women. The vote was not necessary, since citizenship was to be exercised through
personal influence and moral suasion, through the election of men of strong moral
character, and through the raising of public-spirited children.
[153] The position of the Advice National reflected his program of construction
national that I was looking for defend to Canada as a nation of settlers whites. Yeah
good the movement by he suffrage female was important for extend the rights politicians
of the women white, also was authorized through arguments based in the race
that linked the emancipation of the women white with the need of protect to the nation
of the "degeneration racial". [153]

Women did have local voting rights in some provinces, such as Canada West from 1850,
where land-owning women could vote for the
school administrators. In 1900, other provinces adopted similar provisions and, in 1916,
Manitoba took the initiative in the extension of the suffrage full female membership.[154]
At the same time, suffragettes gave strong support to the prohibitionist movement,
especially in Ontario and the western provinces.[155][156]
The Military Voters Act of 1917 granted the right to vote to British women who were
widows of war or They had children either husbands that they lent service in he foreigner.
The first minister Unionist Borden HE committed during the campaign of 1917 to equalize
suffrage for women. Following her landslide victory, she introduced a bill in 1918 to extend
voting rights to women. This bill was passed without a vote.
division, but No HE applied to the elections provincial and municipal of Quebec.
Women of Quebec they obtained suffrage full in 1940. The first women chosen for
Parliament was Agnes Macphail of Ontario in 1921.[157]

Interwar period

Map anachronistic of the world between 1920 and 1945 that shows the Society of Nations
and the world.
In he scenery world

As a result of its contribution to the Allied victory in World War I, Canada became more
assertive and less deferential to British authority. Convinced that Canada had proven its
worth on the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that had
a seat separate in the Conference of Peace of Paris in 1919. This was initially rejected not
only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw such a delegation as an extra
British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000
men, a much larger proportion of its men, its right to equal status as nation had been
consecrated on the battlefield. British Prime Minister David
Lloyd George finally gave in and convinced to the reticent Americans for that they
accepted the presence of delegations of Canada, India, Australia, Newfoundland, New
Zealand and South Africa. These also received their own seating in the League of the
Nations. [158] Canada No asked repairs neither mandates. Juice only a paper modest in
Paris, but the mere made of have a seat was a question of pride. HE He cautiously
showed optimistic regard of the new Society of Nations, in the that played a paper asset
and independent. [159]
In 1923, he first minister British, David Lloyd George, asked repeatedly he support of
Canada in the Chanak crisis, which threatened war between Britain and
Türkiye. Canada refused. [160] The Department of Foreign Affairs, which had been founded
in 1909, it broad and promoted Canadian autonomy, since Canada reduced
its dependence on the Diplomats British and used your own service exterior. [161] Thus
began the careers of such important diplomats as Norman Robertson and Hume Wrong,
and the future Prime Minister Lester Pearson.[162]

In 1931, he Parliament British approved he Statute of Westminster, that gave to each

dominion the opportunity for almost complete legislative independence from London.
[163] While Newfoundland never adopted the statute, for Canada the Statute of
Westminster became its declaration of independence. [164]
In 1926, he first minister Mackenzie King advised to the governor general, Lord Byng, to
dissolve Parliament and call new elections, but Byng refused; it was the only time that he
governor general exercised such can. In his place, Byng asked to Meighen, the leader
of the Game Conservative, that will form government. [167] Meighen tried do it, but failed
to obtain a majority in the House of Commons and he also advised the
dissolution, that this time was accepted. He episode, he case King-Byng, brand a
constitutional crisis that HE resolved through a new tradition of total No interference in
the affairs politicians Canadians by part of the government British. [168]
America, New France and colonization 1534- 1763

Replica of the dwelling of Port Royal, located in he Place Historical National of Port-Royal
of Canada, Nova Scotia.[44]

He interest French in he New World began with Francisco Yo of France, who in 1524
sponsored Giovanni da Verrazzano for sailing by the region between Florida and
Newfoundland with the hope of find a route toward he Ocean Peaceful. [45] In 1534,
Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the peninsula of Gaspé and claimed the land in name of
Francisco YO. [46] The attempts of colonization previous of Cartier in Charlesbourg Royal
in 1541, in the island Saber in 1598 by he marquis of The Roche-Mesgouez and in
Tadoussac, Quebec in 1600 per François Serious You Bridge had failed. [47] TO weigh of
these failures initials, the fleets fishing French They started to browse toward the coast
Atlantic and toward he San River Lorenzo, trading and doing alliances with the First
Nations. [48]
Affairs internal

Between 1921 and 1926, the government liberal of William Lyon Mackenzie King applied a
internal policy conservative with the objective of reduce the taxes in time of war and
especially, cool the tensions Ethnic during the war, So as deactivate conflicts labor of
postwar period. The progressives HE They denied to join to the government, but they
helped to the liberals to defeat the motions of censorship. King HE faced to a delicate
balance between reduce the duty it enough for please to the progressives of the prairies,
but No too much for remove his vital support in the areas industrial of Ontario and
Quebec, that needed duty for compete with the imports
Americans. King and he leader conservative Arthur Meighen HE faced constant and bitterly
in the debates of the Camera of the Common.

[165] The progressives HE were weakening bit to bit. His effective and passionate leader,
Thomas Create, resigned for return to his business of cereals and was replaced by he
calmer Robert Forke. He reformist socialist JS Woodsworth was winning influence and
power among the progressives and arrive to a agreement with King about issues
policies.
The residence of Champlain in the city of Quebec, toward 1608

In 1608 Champlain founded what is now the city of Quebec, one of the first permanent
settlements, which would become the capital of New France.

[52] He personally took charge of the administration of the city and its Champlain was a
member of the Huron family, and he sent expeditions to explore the interior. [53]
Champlain discovered Lake Champlain in 1609. By 1615, he had traveled by canoe up the
Ottawa River via Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay to the center of Huron country near
Lake Simcoe. [54] During these voyages, Champlain assisted the Wendat (also known as
"Hurons") in their battles against the Iroquois Confederacy. [55] As a result, the Iroquois
would become enemies of the French and would be involved in multiple conflicts (known
as the French and Iroquois Wars) until the signing of the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701.
[56]
The English, led by Humphrey Gilbert, had claimed St. John's, Newfoundland, in 1583. as
the first cologne English of America of the North by prerogative real of the Queen Elizabeth
I. [57] During the reign of King James I, the English established colonies
Additional settlements were established at Cupids and Ferryland, Newfoundland, and
soon afterward established the first successful permanent settlements from Virginia to the
south. [58] On September 29, 1621, King James I granted a charter for the founding of a
Scottish colony in the New World to Sir William Alexander. [59] In 1622, the first settlers
left Scotland. They were initially unsuccessful, and permanent settlements in Nova Scotia
were not firmly established until 1629 during the end of the Anglo-French War. [59] These
colonies did not last long: in 1631, under the reign of Charles I of England, a charter was
signed for the founding of a Scottish colony in the New World. he Treaty of Suza, that put
end to war and returned Nova Scotia to the French.
[60] New France No was completely restored to the domain French until he Treaty
of Saint-Germain-en-Laye of 1632.[61] This led to new French immigrants and the founding
of Trois-Rivières in 1634.[62]
In 1604, Pierre You Gua, Sieur of Mons, obtained he monopoly of the trade of skins in
America of the North. [49] He trade of skins HE became in a of the Main activities
economic of America of the North. [50] You Guide directed his first expedition of
colonization to a island located near of the mouth of the river St. Croix. Between his
lieutenants HE I found a geographer called Samuel of Champlain, who
quickly he took to cape a important exploration of the coast northeast of it that today is
the United States. [49] In In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new
settlement of St. Croix was moved to Port Royal (today Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia).[51]

The Quebec settlement: A.-The warehouse. B.-The dovecote. C.-Separate buildings where
we keep our weapons and to house our workers. D.-Another separate building for the
workers. E.-Sundial. F.-Another separate building where the blacksmith shop is.
where the workers are housed. G.- Galleries around the houses. H.- The houses of Mr. de
Champlain. I.- The gate of the settlement with a drawbridge. L.- Walk around of the
settlement of ten feet of broad until the edge from the pit. M.-Foso in all the way around
the settlement. O.-Mr. de Champlain's garden. P.-The kitchen. Q.-The space in front of the
settlement on the river bank. A.-The great St. Lawrence River.
Although immigration rates to New France remained very low under the direct French
control,[68] most of the newcomers were farmers, and the rate of population growth
among the settlers themselves had been very high.[69] Women had about 30 percent
more children than comparable women who remained in France.

[70] Yves Landry says: "The Canadians They had a diet exceptional for his time". [70] This
HE should to the abundance natural of meat, fish and water pure; the good conditions
of conservation of the food during he winter; and a supply
appropriate of wheat in the most of the years. [70] The census of 1666 of New France
was made by he mayor of France, Jean Bead, in he winter of 1665-1666. He census
showed a count of population of 3.215 Acadians and population (French Canadian
farmers ) in the districts administrative of Acadia and Canada. [71] He The census
also revealed a large difference in the number of men: 2,034 versus 1,181 women.[72]
During this period, in contrast with the highest density and he development further slow of
agricultural settlements by the English from the east coast of the colonies, the interior
frontier of New France would eventually cover an immense area with a network
thin centered on the fur trade, conversion efforts by missionaries, the establishment and
the claim of a empire, and the efforts military to protect and promote these efforts.[63]
The largest of these canoe networks covered much of present-day Canada and the central
United States.[64]

After Champlain's death in 1635, the Roman Catholic Church and the The Jesuit
establishment became the most dominant force in New France and hoped to establish a
utopian Aboriginal and European Christian community. [65] In 1642, the Sulpicians
sponsored a group of settlers led by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve, who founded Ville-
Marie, the precursor of modern-day Montreal. [66] In 1663, The French crown took direct
control of the colonies of the New France Company. [67]
Map of North America North in 1702 showing forts, cities and areas occupied by
European settlements. Great Britain (pink), France (blue) and Spain (orange)

TO beginning of the decade of 1700, the settlers of New France were well established
to it long of the shores of the river Saint Lorenzo and parts of New Scotland, with a
population of around of 16,000. [73] Without embargo, the newly arrived They left of
come from France in the decades following, [74] [75] [76] it that It turned out in that the
English and Scottish settlers in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the southern Thirteen
Colonies vastly outnumbered the French population by approximately ten to one in the
decade of 1750. [68][77] A from 1670 onwards, through the Company of Hudson Bay, the
English also claimed Hudson Bay and its drainage basin known as such as Rupert's Land,
establishing new trading posts and forts, while continuing operating settlements fishing
vessels in Newfoundland. [78] The expansion French expansion along the Canadian canoe
routes challenged the claims of the Hudson's Bay Company, and in 1686 Pierre Troyes led
an overland expedition from Montreal to the bay shore, where they managed to capture a
handful of outposts. [79] La Salle's explorations gave France a claim to the Mississippi
River valley, where fur trappers and a few settlers established forts and scattered
settlements. [80]
There were four French and Indian Wars and two additional wars in Acadia and Nova
Scotia between the Thirteen American Colonies and New France from 1688 to 1763.
During King William's War (1688 to 1697), military conflicts in Acadia included: Battle of
Port Royal (1690); a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy (Action) of the 14 of July of 1696);
and the incursion in Chignecto (1696). [81] He Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 put end to war
between the two colonial powers of England and France for a brief time.
[82] During the War of the Queen Ann (1702 to 1713), the conquest British of Acadia
occurred in 1710,[83] it that It turned out in that Nova Scotia, except Cape Breton, was
officially ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht, including Rupert's Land, which
France had conquered in the late 17th century (Battle of Hudson's Bay). [84] As an
immediate result of this setback, France founded the powerful Fortress of Louisbourg on
Cape Breton Island. [85]
Louisbourg It was destined to serve as base military and naval during all he year for
France's remaining North American empire and to protect the entrance to the Saint
Lawrence River. Father Rale's War resulted both in the downfall of New France's influence
in present-day Maine and in the British recognition of having to negotiate with the
Mi'kmaq in New Scotland. During the War of the King Jorge (1744 to 1748), a army of New
Englanders led by William Pepperrell He mounted an expedition of 90 ships and
4,000 men against Louisbourg in 1745.[86] Within three months the fortress surrendered.
The return of Louisbourg to French control by the peace treaty prompted the British to
found Halifax in 1749 under Edward Cornwallis.[87] Despite the official cessation of the
war between the empires British and French with he Treaty of Aachen, he Conflict in
Acadia and Nova Scotia continued as Father Le Loutre's War.[88]
The British They ordered that the Acadians were expelled of their land in 1755
during The French and Indian War, a event called The Expulsion of The Acadians either you
Grand Dérangement.[89] The "expulsion" resulted in approximately 12,000 Acadians being
sent to destinations in all of America North of Great Brittany and France, Quebec and the
French Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue.[90] The first wave of expulsion of the
Acadians began with the Campaign of the Bay of Fundy (1755) and the second The wave
began after the final siege of Louisbourg (1758). Many of the Acadians settled in southern
Louisiana, creating the Cajun culture there.[91] Some Acadians managed to hide and
others eventually returned to Nova Scotia, but were
surpassed in number by a new migration of planters of New England that They settled on
the former lands of the Acadians and transformed Nova Scotia from a colony of
occupation for the British into an established colony with stronger ties to New England.
[91] Britain eventually gained control of Quebec City and Montreal after the Battle of the
Plains of Abraham and the Battle of Fort Niagara in 1759, and the Battle of the Thousand
Islands and the Battle of Sainte-Foy in 1760.[92]