John Locke (1632-1704)

Life Sketch of John Locke

John Locke was born in 1632 into the family of a Puritan lawyer in Somerset.
He received his early education at Westminster and Oxford but did not excel as a student.
After earning his M.A. degree, Locke became a tutor at Oxford. However, he found teaching
unfulfilling and decided to study medicine instead.
After two years of apprenticeship in medicine, Locke established himself as a medical
practitioner.
In his role as a physician, he became associated with Lord Ashley, serving as his personal
physician and confidential secretary.
After the Bloodless Revolution of 1688, when William of Orange was invited to take the
throne of England after King James II vacated it, Locke returned to England and was
appointed as Commissioner of Appeals.
Locke passed away in 1704. He was a later contemporary of Hobbes and witnessed
significant events such as the restoration of Charles II in 1660 and the Bloodless
Revolution of 1688, of which he became a prominent theorist.
 Writings of Locke
Locke authored around 35 books covering various topics, including:
Essays Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
Letters on Toleration (1689, 1690, 1692, and 1706)
Two Treatises of Government (1690)
Fundamental Constitution Concerning California (1706)
Fourth Letter on Toleration (1706)

Influences on the Life of John Locke

Filmer and Hobbes: Locke was influenced by the writings of Filmer and Hobbes, both of
whom advocated for absolute government but for different reasons. In response, Locke
wrote the First Treatise of Civil Government to challenge Filmer and the Second Treatise
on Civil Government to counter Hobbes.
Sydney’s Discourses: Locke was significantly impacted by Sydney’s ‘Discourses Concerning
Government’, published in 1683.
Contemporary Conditions: Locke’s thoughts were shaped by the contemporary conditions
of his time, as well as by earlier and contemporary thinkers. His close association with
 the Earl of Shaftesbury (Lord Ashley) had a profound impact on his ideas.
Glorious Revolution: Locke was greatly influenced by the Glorious Revolution, which led to
the replacement of absolute monarchy with a responsible government.
Supremacy of the People: Locke borrowed the idea of the supremacy of the people over
the government from Hooker but adapted it to fit the changing circumstances of his time.

Political Ideas of John Locke

Human Nature
State of Nature
Law of Nature
Social Contract
State
Government
Revolution
Property

The following political ideas of Locke are enumerated below:

Human Nature
Locke believes that human beings are fundamentally good and have a natural instinct for
social interaction.
He sees people as essentially peace-loving and not prone to conflict.
Locke's views on human nature are not presented in a systematic way; instead, they are
scattered throughout his works, such as the Essays Concerning Human Understanding and
the Second Treatise.
He argues that humans are not always selfish; they can also be altruistic.
Locke considers all individuals to be morally equal and asserts that everyone has certain
natural rights, including the rights to life, liberty, and property.
These rights are not based on factors like position, strength, or wealth, but are inherent to all
human beings.
 Locke's view of human nature is in stark contrast to that of Hobbes.
However, Locke does not provide a scientific basis for his beliefs about human nature; he
simply assumes that people are basically decent, orderly, socially minded, and capable of
self-governance.

Try yourself: Which of the following best describes John Locke's view of human nature?

a. Humans are inherently selfish and prone to conflict.

b. Humans are fundamentally good and have a natural instinct for social
interaction.
Correct Answer

c. Humans are always selfish and incapable of self-governance.

d. Humans are morally superior to all other beings.

Explanation
- John Locke believed that humans are fundamentally good and have a natural instinct for
social interaction.
- He viewed people as essentially peace-loving and not prone to conflict.
- Locke argued that individuals are morally equal and possess certain natural rights, such
as the rights to life, liberty, and property.

Report a problem

State of Nature
 Locke views the state of nature as a time of "peace, goodwill, mutual assistance, and
preservation." He sees it not as a state of war, but as a prepolitical condition where reason
and cooperation were prevalent.
Unlike Hobbes, who depicts the state of nature as a chaotic struggle for survival, Locke
emphasizes its positive aspects, arguing that people are generally capable of living
harmoniously without the need for government intervention.
Locke's perspective on the state of nature reflects his belief in the fundamental goodness of
human nature and the capacity for individuals to govern themselves through reason and
mutual respect.
He sees the state of nature as a time when people could coexist peacefully, guided by reason,
rather than being locked in a constant struggle for power.

Law of Nature
According to Locke, every individual has an equal right to uphold the law of nature and
protect not only their own rights but also the rights of their neighbors.
The concept of the law of nature is central to Locke's philosophy. He believed that it
regulated human behavior not only in the state of nature but also continued to do so within
civil society.
To prevent individuals from infringing upon each other's rights, the law of nature is upheld,
and its enforcement in the state of nature is the responsibility of all community members.
Each member of the community has the right to punish those who violate natural law and to
ensure its maintenance.
The laws of nature guarantee individuals certain inalienable rights, such as the right to life,
health, liberty, and property.

Social Contract
Locke's concept of the social contract is founded on the consent of the people.
If we accept Locke's perspective, the social contract should be binding only on the original
signatories and should be renewed by each generation.
 While Locke granted absolute and unlimited powers to the sovereign ruler, his contract
allows for only limited powers to the community.
Unlike Hobbes's contract, which implies a bond of slavery, Locke's contract represents a
charter of freedom.
In Locke's social contract, the sovereign is a party to the agreement and is equally bound by
the interpretation of natural laws, just like other members of the society.
Locke does not provide a satisfactory explanation for why individuals leave the state of
nature and enter into a contract to form a government, simply asserting that the law of
nature is insufficient.
Locke identifies three deficiencies in the law of nature that prompt individuals to enter into a
social contract:
Absence of an established law: Without a known and settled law, individuals interpret the
law differently, leading to confusion.
Lack of impartiality: The law of nature lacks an unbiased authority to enforce it, making it
difficult for individuals to resolve disputes fairly.
Difficulty in interpretation: The law of nature is open to personal interpretation, which can
result in conflicting understandings and practices.
The contract proposed by Locke is also irrevocable in the sense that once people enter into
it, they cannot return to the state of nature unless the government they established is
dissolved.
Locke's social contract is one of each with all, where individuals agree to cede certain
natural rights to the community as a whole, rather than to an individual or a group, as was
the case in Hobbes's contract.
This cession of rights is necessary to ensure peace and security in the state of nature.

State
According to John Locke, the state is founded on the consent of the people. He outlines the
structure of the state, emphasizing the balance and limitations of power within it.

Components of the State

Locke identifies three main powers within the state:
Legislative Power
Locke considers legislative power the most crucial, calling it “the supreme power of the
commonwealth.”
While he grants the legislature significant authority, he does not give it absolute power,
ensuring a system of checks and balances.

Executive Power
The executive power, which includes judicial functions, is vital for government operation but
is subordinate to the legislature.
The executive is responsible for enforcing natural laws and statutes created by the
legislature. It is also authorized to impose penalties as per the law.

Federative Power
Federative power involves protecting the community and individual citizens in relation to
other communities and citizens.
This power also covers external affairs, emphasizing the state’s role in international
relations.
Locke's ideas align with the principles of parliamentary government, advocating for a system
that is not absolute or arbitrary, but balanced and accountable.
 Try yourself: What is the main difference between Locke's perspective on the state of
nature and Hobbes's perspective?

a. Locke views the state of nature as peaceful and cooperative, while Hobbes
sees it as a chaotic struggle for survival.
Correct Answer

b. Locke believes in the fundamental goodness of human nature, while Hobbes

believes humans are inherently selfish and competitive.

c. Locke emphasizes mutual respect and reason in the state of nature, while
Hobbes focuses on power and self-preservation.

d. Locke argues for limited government intervention, while Hobbes advocates for
absolute sovereign power.

Explanation
- Locke's view of the state of nature is one of peace, cooperation, goodwill, and mutual
assistance.
- In contrast, Hobbes portrays the state of nature as a constant struggle for survival and a
chaotic environment.
- Locke emphasizes reason and mutual respect as prevalent in the state of nature, while
Hobbes focuses on power dynamics and self-interest.

Report a problem

Three Categories of Government

Locke classifies governments into three categories based on the number of persons exercising
legislative powers:
Monarchy
If the legislative authority is exercised by one person, it is called monarchy.

Aristocracy
If the legislative power is vested in a few selected individuals and their heirs, the government
is known as aristocracy.

Democracy
If the community retains legislative power in its own hands and appoints a few officers to
execute the laws, the government is classified as democracy.

Best Form of Government

Locke considered democracy the best form of government because it provides adequate
safeguards for good rule and ensures adherence to the principle of consent.

Purpose of the State

Locke believed that the state exists for the people who constitute it.
He viewed the state as a mechanistic entity, an "artifice" created for the betterment of
individuals' lives.

Constitutional State
Locke's concept of the state is a constitutional state, where government operates according
to law.
The government is prohibited from ruling through extemporary decrees.

Revolution
John Locke, a key supporter of the Glorious Revolution, delved deeply into the issue of
whether people could resist government authority. He argued that the government is
essentially a trust set up to achieve specific goals. If the government fails to meet these goals,
the people have the right to revolt and change it.
 Locke's perspective on the right to rebel against the sovereign has led some to claim that he
did not create a theory of government, but rather a theory of rebellion. This highlights his
emphasis on the people's power to challenge and change an unfit government.

Natural Rights (Property)

Locke's Perspective on Property and Natural Rights:
Locke argues that property is considered legitimate because the people living in its vicinity
have consented to its existence.
The state has the authority to protect individual property through the interpretation of the
law of nature. This involves applying this interpretation among the members of society and
enforcing this right using its authority to repel aggression.
When Locke refers to property, he encompasses the natural rights of life, liberty, and
property. He often states that individuals enter into a contract to establish the state for the
preservation of property.
Locke envisions that property existed in pre-civil society and that the institution of the state
was created to safeguard this right.
It is not the state that creates the right to property (life, liberty, and property); rather, the
state is established to protect these rights.
Locke asserts that the right to private property has received the approval and sanction of
society due to its long-standing existence.
Locke uses the term "property" in two senses:
Right to Life, Liberty, and Estate: In this broader sense, property includes the fundamental
rights to life, liberty, and the ownership of one's estate.
Narrow Sense of Property: In a more specific context, Locke refers to the right to possess
and retain one's estate.