6. Theodicy: Study of God.

ETHICS 7. Ethics: Science of moral actions.

8. Social Philosophy: Human-society
relations.
REVIEWER Ethics:

CHAPTER 1  Definition: From "ethos" (character);

practical science guiding moral living.
 Imperatives (Emerita Quito):
1. Human Freedom:
Philosophy Keynotes:
Responsibility tied to free will.
2. Existence of God: Foundation
 Origin: Coined by Pythagoras for moral order, reward, and
(Greek philosopher). justice.
 Etymology: 3. Immortality of Soul: Ensures
o From Greek words: accountability beyond life.
 "Philo" = Love
 "Sophia" = Wisdom Relevance of Philosophy:
o Philosophy = Love of
Wisdom  Interconnects with science, history,
religion, and mathematics, enhancing
Philosophy: understanding and promoting peace,
order, and rationality.
 Definition: Love of wisdom; search for
ultimate truth and meaning. ETHICS AND MORALS
 Essence: Reflective, speculative, and
systematic study of existence and
reality. Ethics – grounded by actions
 Purpose: Evaluate human experience;
uncover deeper truths. “ethikos”-character/our personality
 Key Elements:
1. Wisdom vs. Knowledge: Morals- grounded by culture
Wisdom = applying knowledge
with insight and judgment. “mors” – custom
2. Classifications of Love:
 Eros: Passionate love.
 Agape: Divine love. MORAL STANDARD
 Philia: Love seeking
truth.
3. Lovers of Wisdom: Superior, -Term impartiality pertains to being free of
truth-seekers for its own sake. bias or prejudice.

Disciplines of Philosophy: -associated with special emotions and

vocabulary
1. Logic: Study of reasoning.
2. Epistemology: Validity of knowledge. Guilt- is the product of violating a moral
3. Metaphysics: Nature of being. standard.
4. Aesthetics: Study of beauty.
5. Cosmology: Universe's nature.
NON-MORAL STANDARD CHAPTER 2
-Unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.
Dilemma and Morality
- Not necessisarily linked to morality or by
nature lack ethical sense. Definition of Dilemma

Ex of non moral standards are:  A dilemma is a situation where a person

must choose between two (or more)
 Rules of etiquette conflicting options, neither of which is
 Fashion standard entirely acceptable.
 Rules in games
 House of rules
 Religious rules,some traditions and legal Moral Dilemmas (Ethical Dilemmas)
statutes
 Definition: Situations where one must
choose between conflicting options, and
CHARACTERISTIC OF none resolve the situation in a morally
MORAL STANDARDS acceptable way.
 Key Characteristics:
-Have serious impacts. They can necessarily 1. Moral dilemmas are not
everyday problems; they
one life or well being
require deep moral reflection.
2. Choices often lead to moral
RULES failure, where one moral
principle is compromised
regardless of the decision.
– instructions that what we are allowed to do
or what we are not allowed to do.
Example of a Moral Dilemma
Importance of rule
 A woman named Mary faces two
 Organize relations between
difficult choices:
individuals 1. Continue her pregnancy,
 Make it clear what is right and risking her life and her baby’s
wrong to do/follow in a society life.
 Provide opportunity to achieve 2. Have an abortion, which
personal and social goals violates her religious and moral
 Regulates various social institutions values.
to fulfill their integral rules  Key Takeaway: In moral dilemmas,
there is no perfect solution. Mary’s
NOTE: we need rules to achieve the decision either compromises the
common good. Hihi principle of protecting life or her
moral integrity.
Three Conditions of Moral Dilemmas management and prolonging
life.
1. Decision Obligation: o Business: Handling employee
o The agent (person) must make a rights, preventing harassment,
decision about the best course of addressing misleading
action. advertisements, and protecting
o Example: In Mary’s case, whistleblowers.
having an abortion may seem o Public Sector: Government
like the best option. officials deciding between
2. Options Available: serving family or campaign
o There must be different courses contributors versus the public
of action to choose from. good; maintaining fairness and
o Example: Mary has two avoiding conflicts of interest.
choices—to continue the
pregnancy or to have an 3. Structural Dilemmas:
abortion.
3. No Perfect Solution:  Involve larger networks of institutions
o Any decision will compromise and policies, often on a national or
moral principles. global scale.
o Example: Whether Mary  Example:
chooses life for herself or her o The Universal Health Care
baby, the principle of protecting (Kalusugan Pangkalahatan)
life will be compromised. program in the Philippines.
o Issue: Allocating sufficient
funds for health care may
require cutting budgets for other
Levels of Moral Dilemmas sectors, leading to conflict
between social priorities.

1. Personal Dilemmas:

 Experienced and resolved at an

Humans as Ethical Beings
individual or personal level.
 Examples:
o Breaking a promise due to  Why Are Humans Considered
conflicting obligations. Ethical?
o Choosing between saving a
1. Humans are rational,
mother’s life or the baby’s life autonomous, and self-conscious.
during childbirth. 2. They can act morally or
immorally, unlike animals.
3. Humans belong to the moral
2. Organizational Dilemmas: community and can evaluate
right and wrong.
 Ethical issues faced by organizations in
business, medical, and public sectors.
 Examples in Different Sectors:
o Medical: A hospital deciding
whether to withdraw life
Freedom as the Foundation of
support for a terminally ill Morality
patient, balancing pain
 Morality Depends on Choice:
 o Ethical behavior arises from the  Three Conditions: Decision obligation,
ability to choose values and options available, no perfect solution.
standards to guide life.  Levels of Moral Dilemmas: Personal,
 Choice Requires Freedom: organizational, structural.
o Without freedom, humans  Human Ethics: Rooted in rationality,
cannot be held morally freedom, and self-consciousness.
responsible for their actions.  Foundation of Morality: Freedom is
o Key Point: Justice and essential; morality is impossible without
accountability require freedom the ability to choose.
to act or not to act.  Requirements for Morality: Sound
reasoning and impartiality ensure fair
and just decisions.

Minimum Requirements for

Morality CHAPTER 3
1. Reason: The Moral Agent developing virtue as
o Human feelings play a role in a habit
moral decisions but must be
guided by sound reasoning.
o Reason ensures that decisions
Definition of Value
are defensible and well-
evaluated.
o Helps assess whether feelings  Origin: From Latin word valere,
and intuitions align with moral meaning "to be of worth."
standards.  Meaning:
2. Impartiality: 1. To price, esteem, appraise, or
o All individuals’ interests and estimate.
perspectives must be treated 2. Act of cherishing and passing
judgment on worth by
equally.
o Definition: Fair-mindedness or comparing it with something
even-handedness in moral else.
 Connection to Virtues:
decisions.
o When good moral values are
o Key Principle: Decisions
should be based on objective habitually practiced, they
criteria, avoiding bias, transform into virtues.
prejudice, or favoritism for
improper reasons.
Human Values

 Definition:
o Virtues guiding us to recognize
and consider the human element
when interacting with others.
Summary of Key Concepts o Reflect feelings for the essence
of others.
 Dilemma: A choice between two  Dual Nature:
conflicting, unsatisfactory options. 1. What we expect others to do for
 Moral Dilemmas: Ethical choices that us.
force a compromise of principles.
 2. What we aim to give to others. 14. Self-Control:
 Effects: Bonding, comfort, and o Managing one’s words and
reassurance. behavior.

Types of Moral Values Formation of Moral Values

Achieving a good and happy life involves  Definition:

practicing moral values for oneself and with o Standards of good and evil that
others. govern behavior and choices.
 Sources:
1. Acceptance: o Society, government, religion,
o Objective attitude toward others' or self.
ideas and practices that differ  Dynamic Nature:
from one’s own. o Moral values may change as
2. Compassion: societal laws and morals evolve.
o Understanding and addressing  Process:
others' or one’s own suffering. o Individuals assess the
3. Courage: importance of people, things, or
o Willingness to face difficulties. beliefs.
4. Equality: o They freely choose and value
o Belief that everyone deserves options, inspiring achievement
equal rights and respect. of goals.
5. Fairness:
o Acting justly and sharing
appropriately.
6. Generosity: Virtue and Its Formation
o Willingness to give resources,
time, or help.  Definition:
7. Honesty: o Applying moral values
o Being truthful and sincere. habitually to lead a good life.
8. Integrity: o Virtues are good moral habits
o Upholding moral and ethical enhancing human functioning.
principles consistently.  Relationship:
9. Kindness: o Values practiced habitually →
o Being considerate and treating Virtues attained → Better moral
others well. character.
10. Perseverance:  Greek Philosophy:
o Persisting in beliefs or purposes o Knowledge is inborn.
despite challenges. o Virtue = Knowledge + Practice
11. Politeness: of good habits.
o Using good manners and acting o Formation of virtue = Recalling
acceptably in society. and practicing good stored in
12. Respect: the mind.
o Showing consideration for
someone or something’s worth.
13. Responsibility:
o Being reliable in fulfilling
obligations.
Cardinal Virtues o Knowing the good.
o Acting morally.
1. Prudence: o Being inclined toward good
o Knowing the best course of through virtues.
action in specific circumstances.
2. Justice:
o Giving everyone their due,
unconditionally. Formation of Moral Character
3. Temperance:
o Managing sensitive appetites  Interrelation:
and desires. o Character and action are
4. Fortitude: intertwined.
o Staying resolute in facing  Impact of Conscience:
overwhelming challenges. o Ignoring one’s conscience
negatively affects moral
character.
 Example:
Theological Virtues o A physician must follow their
conscience in private life and
1. Faith: professional duties to maintain
o Believing in God’s word good character.
without physical evidence.
2. Hope:
o Trusting in Divine Providence.
3. Charity: Moral Development
o Loving God and His creations.
 Definition:
o The process of growing in the
ability to distinguish between
Moral Character and Its Formation right and wrong.
 Kohlberg’s Theory:
 Core Idea: o Begins with avoiding
o Ethics focuses on what kind of punishment.
person one ought to be, as o Evolves into a desire to improve
highlighted by philosophers like justice for all.
Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, and  Process:
Aquinas. o Develops attitudes and
 Definition of Moral Character: behaviors toward others based
o Defined by one’s virtues or on societal norms, laws, and
vices. experiences.
o Formed by actions, habits, and  Moral Decision-Making:
emotional responses directed o Based on life experiences that
toward moral good. challenge one’s principles.
 Key Concepts: o Gradually refines moral skills
o Humans are body-soul unities. through repeated encounters
o Actions of the body reflect the with moral issues.
self (self-possession, self-
governance, self-determination).
 Good Character Requirements:
 o Popular Culture: Makes high
THE MORAL culture accessible to the
masses, influenced by media.
AGENT AND o Multiculturalism: Different
ethnic groups living together.
CULTURE o Global Culture: Result of
globalization, shaped by
migration, travel, and media.
Key Points/Notes:

MORAL AGENT IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE

 A being capable of acting with  Affects Perceptions: Culture shapes

reference to right or wrong. judgment, attitudes, and emotions,
 Definition: Someone who can act influencing views of good and bad.
rightfully or wrongly and understands  Influences Behavior: Culture impacts
the concepts of rightness and how we act, interact socially, and
wrongness. approach moral decisions.
 Characteristics:  Shapes Personality: Culture defines
o Ability to discern right from expectations, influencing personality
wrong. development and values.
o Moral responsibility to avoid
unjust harm.
o Capacity for moral sentiments
(e.g., remorse, concern for MORAL BEHAVIOR
others).
o Free will, inner life, and  Definition: Behavior aligned with
knowledge of relevant facts. personal or societal morals, shaped by
o Acts guided by moral law and cultural and religious beliefs.
reason.  Morals are standards of behavior for
cooperative living.
 Examples:
o Valuing honesty leads to truth-
CULTURE
telling.
o Cultures valuing charity
 Definition: An aggregate of learned encourage helping the poor.
beliefs, attitudes, values, norms, and
customs shared and transmitted across
generations.
 Types of Culture: CULTURE'S ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
o High Culture: Associated with
elite, upper-class society.  Culture teaches morality through
o Cultural Diversity: Differences values, knowledge, and beliefs passed
within society, with cultures between generations.
existing alongside each other.  Cultural Relativism: Beliefs and
o Subculture: A smaller cultural practices should be understood from
group within a larger society, the culture's viewpoint, affirming
with distinct norms and values. uniqueness.
ETHICAL AND MORAL RELATIVISM  Values: modesty, generosity,
sharing.
 Ethical Relativism: Morality is relative  Confucian influence: duty, propriety,
to societal norms; no universal moral harmony, hierarchical relationships.
law exists.
o Example: Western governance Southeast Asian Traits:
may not fit non-Western
societies.  Avoid confrontation; value
 Moral Relativism: Moral judgments are calmness, soft words, and smiles
true/false relative to cultural (even to mask emotions).
standpoints.  Traits: fun-loving, gentle,
o Descriptive: Morals are respectful, live in the moment.
culturally defined (e.g., honesty
is nearly universal). Buddhist Influence:
o Meta-ethical: No objective
grounds for preferring one  Emphasizes karma, non-violence,
culture’s morals over another. and moral guidelines: no killing,
o Normative: Societies should
stealing, lying, illicit sex, or
accept differing moral values.
intoxicants.
 Promotes calmness, meditation, and
acceptance of life’s hardships.
QUOTES AND IDEAS
Confucian Influence:
 "When in Rome, do as the Romans do."
 Moral relativism opposes moral  Values: family love, honesty, hard
absolutism, which claims there is one work, loyalty, and consultation
correct ethical answer. over confrontation.
 Landauer & Rowlands: No ethical  Five virtues: benevolence, duty,
system is better than another; propriety, wisdom, loyalty.
judgments are meaningless without a
universal standard.

Filipino Moral Character

CHAPTER 4 Strengths:

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao: Empathy,
Asian Moral Character/Behavior trust, fairness.
2. Strong Family Ties: Love, sacrifice,
Chapter 4: Asian Moral care for kin.
Character/Behavior 3. Joy and Humor: Coping through
laughter.
4. Flexibility and Adaptability:
Asian Moral Character:
Adjust to challenges.
 Personal over task orientation; group 5. Hard Work: Willingness to work
needs over individual. for family.
 6. Faith: Acceptance of life through 3. Post-Conventional Level:
faith in God. o Stage 5: Social Contract –
Balance social order and
Positive Values: individual rights.
o Stage 6: Universal Ethics –
 Hospitality, helpfulness, bravery, Internal moral principles
respect, faithfulness, guide actions.
resourcefulness.
Examples:
Weaknesses:
 Stage 1: Child avoids candy to avoid
 Extreme personalism, family- spanking.
centeredness, lack of discipline,  Stage 2: Child behaves for a
passivity, colonial mentality, promised treat.
kanya-kanya syndrome.  Stage 3: Volunteering for empathy.
 Stage 4: Avoid drunk driving to
Negative Traits: protect others.
 Stage 5: Oppose genocide as
 Fatalism, crab mentality, ningas- morally wrong.
cogon, Filipino time, corruption,  Stage 6: Rosa Parks defied unjust
gossip, procrastination. segregation laws.

Conscience-Based Decisions:
CHAPTER 5  Conscience (cum alia scientia):
Knowledge-based reason to discern
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral good or evil.
Development  Educating Conscience: Overcome
ignorance and error by obeying laws
Heinz Dilemma: for moral decision-making.
A man steals medicine to save his dying
wife after the druggist refuses to lower the
price or allow delayed payment.

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Stages:

1. Pre-Conventional Level:
o Stage 1:
Obedience/Punishment –
Avoid punishment.
o Stage 2: Individual Interest –
Self-interest and rewards.
2. Conventional Level:
o Stage 3: Interpersonal – Seek
social approval.
o Stage 4: Authority – Obey Goodlucky!!!
laws to maintain order.