Week 1: Introduction of Science, Technology, and Society

A. The meaning of Science, Technology, and Society

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) also referred to as science and technology and the study of how
social, political, and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how
these, in turn, affect society. STS scholars are interested in a variety of problems including the relationships
between scientific and technological innovations and society, and the directions and risks of science and
technology. The field of STS is related to history and philosophy of science although with a much broader
emphasis on social aspects of science and technology.
Science, Technology, and Society refers to the interaction between science and technology, and social,
cultural, political, and economic contexts which shape and are shaped by them.
Science- came from a Latin word “scientia” meaning knowledge.

B. Meaning of Science
 Science is a systematized body of knowledge.
 Science is an organized and dynamic inquiry. (following scientific method)
 Science is knowledge gained through observation and experimentation.
 Science is a human activity.
 Science is a social enterprise (people, knowledge, skills, facilities, apparatuses, and technologies.)
 Science leads to the formation of concepts, methods, principles, theories, law, and procedures which
seek to describe and explain nature and its phenomena.

Technology- came from two Greek words “techne” meaning art, craft, or skill; and “logos” meaning to
speak, to study

C. Meaning of Technology
 Technology as material products (results of scientific inquiry, hardware produced by the scientist)
 Technology as the application of knowledge in solving scientific and practical problems that will help the
humans to survive and improve his life.
 Technology as human cultural activities or endeavors.
 Technology as a social enterprise. It is a complex system of knowledge, skills, people, methods, tools,
materials, and resources applied and allocated to the development, operation, and production of new or
improved product, process or services.
 Technology as modern technology based on the advances of science since the end of WWII to the
present.

Society – from Latin word “Societas” meaning friend, ally, or interaction between people.
D. Meaning of Society
 A Society is a group of individuals characterized by common interest and may have distinctive culture
and institution.
Life of society becomes more convenient because of technology. Science is applied to make technology,
and technology is invented to make the life of society easier and more convenient.

Science and technology affect society in general. These are as follows:

 Improved Science and Technology result to industrialization and thus converting a simple society to
a complex one.
 People’s life and lifestyle changes as a result of improved Science and Technology.
 Urbanization results when Science and Technology improve because people usually migrate to a
place where their basic needs are met.
 People have stronger desire for material goods when Science and Technology improve in the place.
  More discoveries and inventions that benefit the people due to improved Science and technology.

Disadvantages and Ethical Dilemmas of Science and Technology

1. Threats to Human Survival
2. Ethical Dilemmas
3. Disparities in Human Well-being
4. Social and Cultural Conflicts
5. Innovating technologies can have negative consequences for certain sectors or constituencies such as
pollution, increased unemployment, conversion of agricultural lands to urban areas,
psychological and emotional effects, gadget addiction, global warming, etc.

Activity 1: On a ¼ illustration board, make a cut-out of pictures showing the advancement of Science and
Technology and its effects (good and bad) in the society. Make your own slogan out of the cut-outs you
made.
Criteria for Scoring
 Depiction of the theme – 30%
 Creativity – 30%
 Cleanliness – 30%
 Materials – 10%

Week 2: HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something. Thus, historical antecedents
in science and technology are factors that paved the way for the presence of advanced and sophisticated
scientific and technological innovations today.

ANCIENT PERIOD
The rise of ancient civilizations paved the way for advances in science and technology. These
advances during the Ancient period allowed civilizations to flourish by finding better ways of communication,
transportation, self-organization, and of living in general.
1. Ancient Wheel
-“Potter’s Wheel”—a heavy flat disk made of hardened clay
which was spun horizontally on an axis.
-it is believed that Sumerians invented the potter’s wheel
shortly after 3500 BC.

2. Paper
-“Papyrus” roughly around 3000 BC, the ancient
Egyptians begun writing on papyrus, a material similar to
thick paper.
-it is made from the pith of the papyrus plant cyperus
papyrus.
-it is lightweight, strong, durable, and most importantly,
portable
-Egyptian invented the papyrus.

3. Shadoof
-an early tool invented and used by ancient Egyptians to
irrigate land.
 -shadoof also spelled as shaduf, it is a hand-operated device use for lifting water.
-its invention introduced the idea of lifting things using counterweights, because of this
invention, irrigation and farming became much more efficient.

4. Antikythera mechanism
-Even before the invention of the antecedents of the
modern computer, the Greeks had already invented the
ancient world’s analog computer orrery. Discovered in
1902 and retrieved from the waters of Antikythera,
Greece, the Antikythera mechanism is similar to a mantel
clock.

-it is believed that it was used to predict astronomical

positions and eclipses for calendar and astrological
purposes.

-it is also believed that Antikythera mechanism is one of the oldest known antecedents of
modern clockwork, was invented by Greek scientists between 150-100 BC.

5. Aeolipile
-also known as Hero’s engine, the aeolipile is widely believed to be the
ancient precursor of the steam engine.
-it is a steam-powered turbine which spun when the water container at its
center was heated, thus making it practically the first rudimentary
steam engine.
-it is not clear whether the aeolipile served any practical purpose, but it
is believed to be one of many “temple wonders”.

MIDDLE AGES
Between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5th century AD and the colonial expansion of Western
Europe in late 15th century AD, major advances in scientific and technological development took place. These
include steady increase of new inventions, introduction of innovations in traditional production, and emergence
of scientific thinking and method.
1. Heavy Plough
-the most important technological innovations during the middle
ages is the invention of the heavy plough.
-Clay soil, despite being more fertile than lighter types of soil, was
not cultivated because of its heavy weight. However, through the
invention of the heavy plough, it became possible to harness clay
soil.
-The heavy plough stirred an agricultural revolution in Northern
Europe marked by higher and healthier agricultural yields and
more efficient agricultural practices.

2. Gunpowder
- Chinese alchemist accidentally invented black powder or
gunpowder. Multiple accounts suggest that the gunpowder
might have been an unintended byproduct of attempts made by
the Chinese to invent the elixir of life, which is why the Chinese
called it huoyao, roughly translated as “fire potion”.

- it ushered in an unprecedented advancement in warfare and

combat throughout the Middle Ages.
 3. Paper Money
-although it was not until 17th century that bank notes
began to use in Europe, the first known versions of paper
money could be traced back to the Chinese in 17th century
AD as an offshoot of the invention of block printing, which
is similar to stamping. However, the idea of assigning
value to a marked piece of paper did not immediately
become popular. In fact, when Mongols attempted to
introduce paper money into the Middle East market in the
13th century, it did not gain immediate success.
Nonetheless, traders and merchants eventually realized
the huge advantage of using paper money because it was easier to transport around compared
to the previous forms of currencies.
-the Chinese are credited for the invention of the paper money.

4. Mechanical Clock
- Although devices for timekeeping and recording sprung
from the ancient times, such as the Antikythera
mechanism, it was not until the Middle Ages that clockwork
technology was developed. The development of
mechanical clocks paved the way for accurately keeping
track of time

- The sophistication of clockwork technology of the

mechanical clock drastically changed the way days were
spent and work patterns were established, particularly in
the more advanced Middle Age cities.

5. Spinning wheel
-Another important invention of the Middle Ages is the spinning
wheel, a machine used for transforming fiber into thread or yarn and
eventually woven into cloth on a loom.
-Although no consensus could be made regarding the origin of the
spinning wheel, it is theorized that the Indians invented the spinning
wheel between 6th and 11th century AD.

MODERN AGES
As the world population steadily increased, people of the Modern Ages Realized the utmost importance
of increasing the efficiency of transportation, communication, and production.
1. Compound Microscope
-A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias Janssen is
credited for the invention of the first compound microscope in
1590.

-Janssen’s compound microscope was an important

progression from the single lens microscope.

-it was capable of magnifying objects three times their size when fully closed and up to ten times
when extended to the maximum.

2. Telescope
 -Perhaps the single, most important technological invention in
the study of astronomy during the Modern Ages was the
practical telescope invented by Galileo Galilei.

-This invention could magnify objects 20 times larger than the

Dutch perspective glasses.

-it was Galileo who first used the telescope skyward and made
important astronomical discoveries, and identified the
presence of craters and mountains on the moon. Galileo’s
remarkable technological contribution drastically changed the
study of astronomy. For the first time, it became clear that the
universe is larger than previously imagined and the Earth far smaller compared to the entire
universe.

3. Jacquard Loom
-it is considered as one of the most critical drivers of the
revolution.
-Built by French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard, the Jacquard
loom simplifies textile manufacturing.
-it is also an important antecedent of modern computer
technology as it demonstrated the use of punched cards to
instruct a machine to carry out complex tasks, i.e., making
different textile patterns.

4. Engine-Powered Airplane
-Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright are
credited for designing and successfully
operating the first engine-powered aircraft.
-Wright brothers proved that aircrafts could fly
without airfoil-shaped wings. They
demonstrated this in their original Flying
Machine patent (US patent #821393) showing
that slightly-tilted wings, which they referred
to as aeroplanes, were the key features of a
powered aircraft.

5. Television
-The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is
largerly credited for the invention of the
modern television.

INVENTIONS BY FILIPINO SCIENTISTS

1. Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney)]
-the jeepney is perhaps one of the most
recognizable national symbols of the Philippines
and the most popular mode of public
transportation in the country.
-E-jeepneys are designed to be environment-
friendly, eliminating noise and air pollution as they
run on electricity.

2. Erythromycin
-One of the most important medical inventions.
 -the Ilonggo scientist Abelardo Aguilar invented this antibiotic out of a strain of bacterium
called Streptomyces erythreus, from which this drug derived its name.

3. Medical Incubator
-World renowned Filipino pediatrician and national
scientist, Fe del Mundo, is credited for the invention
of the incubator and jaundice relieving device.

4. Mole Remover
-Rolando dela Cruz is credited for the invention of a
local mole remover that made use of extracts of
cashew nuts, which are very common in the
Philippines.
-The indigenous formula easily caught on for its
accessibility, affordability, and painless and scarless
procedure.

5. Banana Ketchup
- Filipino food technologist, Maria Orosa, is credited
for the invention of banana ketchup, a variety of
ketchup different from the commonly known tomato
ketchup.
- historical accounts posit that Orosa invented the
banana ketchup at the backdrop of World War II
when there was a huge shortage of tomatoes. As a
result, she developed a variety of ketchup that made
use of mashed banana, sugar, vinegar, and spices
which were all readily available.

QUIZ NUMBER 1

WEEK 3: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

Science is transformed by Science and Technology: A Viewpoint
1. Nicolas Copernicus (1473- 1543) – a Mathematician and Astronomer

He proposed that the sun is stationary and is the center of the universe and Earth revolved around it.
His proposal is contrary to Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the universe and Aristoteles uniform circular motion
of all ecclesiastical bodies.
Copernicus heliocentric model of the universe is that the distance of the planets from the sun bare a
direct relationship to the size of their orbits.
Concept of the universe was the start of a change in a way the world was viewed. Because of
Copernicus heliocentric model of the universe, he is called as the “initiator of the scientific revolution”.

2. Charles Darwin

The Origin of Species (1859) and Descent of Man (1871). He held that man descended from apes.
He presented that natural species have changed evolved over a long time. Such evolution of species radically
forms new life which developed out of existing species. Through this period of evolution, organism compete
with one another over space, food and other things for survival, or avoid being eaten, resist disease or
parasites in order to exist. The species which are not fit for survival or not better adapted to environmental
conditions, die or are eliminated. This process of natural evolution is called the natural selection process, or
sometimes referred to as “struggle for existence and the elimination of the unfit” natural process of survival.
3. Sigmund Freud – born May 6 1856, was an Austrian physician who emphasized the role of psychoanalysis
in dealing with personality.

Freud theorized 3 aspects of personality that significantly influenced human behavior. These are the
structures for levels of the mind (conscious, pre-conscious, and unconscious); The structure of the levels of
personality (id, ego, superego) and the psychosexual stages of development.

Three Levels of Mind

Freud believed that human personalities are a result of three conflicting personalities. The conscious
mind (lowest level) consists of our thoughts, desires, and wishes which we are aware of or can be recalled at
any time.
The pre-conscious mind is located between the unconscious and conscious mind. It consists of
experiences that we are not aware of but are made conscious by simply focusing on them. For example, if one
were to ask another what she ate yesterday for lunch, this would require recalling preconscious thoughts.
The unconscious mind (sometimes referred to as sub-conscious) is the highest level of the mind that
contained repressed urges, thoughts, memories, and wishes which are disturbing and threatening. They could
not be easily accessed unless they are brought out into surface by psychoanalysis or psychotherapist.
Thoughts within the unconscious mind are unorganized. They are based solely on pleasures and desires, and
are usually in conflict with society.
The Freudian Slip

Another example of the unconscious mind can be seen in what are known as slips of the
tongue. Many of us have experienced what is commonly referred to as a Freudian slip at some point
or another. These misstatements are believed to reveal underlying, unconscious thoughts or feelings.
In simple terms, a Freudian slip is a verbal or memory mistake linked to the unconscious mind. Also
known as parapraxis, these slips supposedly reveal secret thoughts and feelings that people hold. Typical
examples include an individual calling their spouse by an ex's name, saying the wrong word, or even
misinterpreting a written or spoken word.

Three Structures of Personality

Freud also believed that there are three structures of personality: Id, Ego, and Superego. The Id is the
animalistic nature of man (MAKAHAYOP personality). It is destructive and pleasure-seeking structure of
personality. It is where the sex urge (Libido) is present.
The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or drives), including the sex (life) instinct called
Eros (which contains the libido) and the aggressive (death) instinct called Thanatos.
Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as
respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instinct is known as libido.
In contrast, Thanatos, or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces in all human beings (Freud,
1920).
When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed
that Eros was stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct.
 The Ego (self) is the human nature of man – the MAKATAO personality. It acts according to laws and
morals. It is bound by limits of reality. The ego controls the Id and acts as a mediator between the superego
and id.
The Superego (conscience) is the MAKADIYOS personality. It strives for perfection. It is always to be
good and honourable. When the ID and Superego are in conflict, the Superego tries to compromise the Id and
the ego.

Five Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking
energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an
area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.
During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the erogenous
zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development, depending
upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is
the result.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus
on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A
person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
 Oral Stage (Birth To 1 Year)
The Oral Stage is the first stage of Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, occurring from birth
until approximately 18 months.
During the oral stage, a baby’s libido, or innate pleasure-seeking energy, is focused on the mouth.
Example
The baby derives immense satisfaction from engaging in oral activities such as sucking, biting, breastfeeding,
and chewing various objects, satisfying their inherent desires.
During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the
libido.
An example of this stage is an infant who gains pleasure from sucking on a pacifier or bottle. This gives them
satisfaction and helps them learn about their environment.
Oral Fixation
Freud theorized that experiences during the oral stage significantly influence personality development.
For instance, he suggested that a child underfed or frustrated during feedings might become a pessimistic,
envious, and suspicious adult.
On the other hand, a child who is overfed or overly gratified could become optimistic, gullible, and full of
admiration.
Freud also linked oral behaviours to specific personality types in adulthood. For example, a person fixated on
the oral stage may engage in excessive eating, smoking, nail-biting, or becoming overly talkative,
symbolizing the continued fulfilment of oral needs.
We see oral personalities around us, such as smokers, nail-biters, over-eaters, and thumb-suckers. Oral
personalities engage in such oral behaviours, particularly when under stress.

 Anal Stage (1 To 3 Years)

The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development happens between the ages of 18 months
and three years. During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great
pleasure from defecating.
An example of this stage would be a child who takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their bowels.Freud
believed this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on
when and where the child can defecate.
The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child’s future relationship with all forms of
authority.
Anal Fixation
Unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as excessive cleanliness,
stubbornness, or a need for control.
The way parents approach toilet training can lead to two outcomes:
1. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess,
is obsessively tidy, punctual, and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash
and possessions. This is all related to the pleasure of holding on to their feces when toddlers and their mom
insist, they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
2. The anal-expulsive personality underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal stage. In
adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving things away.
In essence, they are “sharing their s**t”!” An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized, and
rebellious.

 Phallic Stage (3 To 6 Years)

The phallic stage, which spans ages three to six, is the third phase of psychosexual development, identified by
Sigmund Freud. This period is marked by the child’s libido (or desire) focusing on their genitals as the primary
source of pleasure. In this stage, children become increasingly aware of their bodies, exhibiting a heightened
interest in their own genitals and those of the opposite sex.
Additionally, their understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form, sparking a complex mixture of
emotions – erotic attraction, rivalry, jealousy, resentment, and fear – collectively termed the Oedipus complex
in boys and the Electra complex in girls.
This period of conflict is resolved through identification, where children start adopting the characteristics of their
same-sex parent.
Phallic Stage Fixation
Freud theorized that unresolved conflicts during this stage could potentially lead to future issues such as
sexual dysfunction, problems with gender identity, or difficulties in forming relationships.
If fixation occurs during this stage, Freud suggested it may lead to various issues in adulthood.
Freud suggested that fixations at this point could lead to adult personalities that are overly vain, exhibitionistic,
and sexually aggressive.
In men, phallic fixation might result in anxiety about sexual performance, the need for reassurance and
validation, or a tendency to be overly assertive or aggressive.
In women, fixation at the phallic stage could lead to a desire to dominate men, a rivalry with other women, or
the need for male attention or approval.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud’s most
controversial ideas that many reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father
and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the
generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or conflict arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable)
desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do
so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he
loves the most. During the phallic stage, what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy
develops castration anxiety.
According to Freud, the fear of retaliation from the father (castration anxiety) eventually leads the boy to
repress these incestuous desires and identify with the father, adopting his characteristics and values.
The little boy then begins to resolve this problem by imitating, copying, and joining in masculine dad-type
behaviours. This is called identification and is how the three-to-five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus
complex.
Identification means internally adopting another person’s values, attitudes, and behaviours. The consequence
is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Electra Complex
The Electra Complex, a component of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, posits that during the phallic stage of
psychosexual development (roughly between ages 3-6), a girl unconsciously cultivates a sexual attraction
towards her father, viewing her mother as a competitor.
In essence, the girl covets her father, yet recognizes that she lacks a penis, leading to the phenomenon Freud
labelled as “penis envy” and a subsequent wish to be male.
This girl then ostensibly resolves her dilemma by repressing her desire for her father and replacing her
yearning for a penis with a longing for a baby.
During this process, the girl purportedly blames her mother for her ‘castrated state,’ generating significant
tension.
In order to alleviate this tension, she then represses her feelings and begins to identify with her mother,
thereby adopting a traditional female gender role.
 Latency Stage (6 Years To Puberty)
The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to puberty. The libido is
dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden). In this
stage, Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative calm. During this stage,
children’s sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant), and no further psychosexual
development occurs (latent means hidden).
Example
 The focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships, and other skills
necessary for successful adult life.
 Children focus on developing social and intellectual skills, including school, friendships, and
hobbies, instead of on sexual or romantic interests.
 Freud thought most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual
energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
 Much of the child’s energy is channelled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
 An example of this stage would be a child who engages in hobbies and interests rather than
sexual activities.
Latency Stage Fixation
According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as
difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships.
For instance, if a child fails to make strong social connections or falls behind academically during this stage,
they may struggle with feelings of inadequacy, insecurity, and social isolation in adulthood.
If a child fails to make strong social connections – perhaps they struggle to make friends or fit in with their
peers – this could impact their social skills and potentially lead to feelings of isolation or inadequacy.
Similarly, if a child falls behind academically during this stage – perhaps struggling with reading, writing, or
math skills – they might feel less competent than their peers, leading to insecurity or inadequacy.
.
 Genital Stage (Puberty To Adult)
The Genital Stage is the fifth and final phase of Freud’s psychosexual development theory, beginning at
puberty and lasting into adulthood. During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is
directed towards peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality. During this stage,
individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires more
maturely and responsibly.
This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure, like during the phallic stage.
Example
 An example of this stage would be a teenager who begins to experience sexual attraction
and begins to explore their sexuality.
 As they mature physically, they develop deeper romantic interests and sexual attractions
toward others.
 These feelings may lead to their first romantic relationship, or perhaps a crush on a peer.
The teenager might also learn about sexual education and understand the importance of
consent and safe sex.
 They might experience emotional ups and downs as they navigate these new feelings and
relationships. This stage isn’t just about sexual attraction, but also about forming meaningful
emotional bonds with others.
 Through their experiences, they better understand their own sexual identity and learn how to
form mutually satisfying relationships.
 It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is
settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20s.
Genital Stage Fixation
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and
conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing
and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage, it can lead to problems
such as sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems.

Activity 2: In a group with 6 members each, make a role-play presentation about the 5 Stages of Psychosexual
Development. Be creative with your presentation.
Criteria for Judging
 Accuracy and Relevance of Performance – 50%
 Involvement of Group Members – 50%