: nes paniee global fashion to reach an overalludgement. Itincludes al the ways teachers us tod! ‘know and what they can do, Evaluation Evaluation involves the process of appraisal of an objector event with reference to some standard. The standard may be social cultural or scientific. The standard may also be true or arbitrary. For example a typist typing 80 words per minute may be described as ‘Grade A’ typist. A child may be 3 ft tall may be described as ‘short’, In evaluation one makes some value judgement based on some standard. (Characteristics of Measurement 1, All measurements contain errors. 2, All measurements are approximates 3. The results of repeated measurements do not agree exactly. Sources of Errors ‘The following are the main sources of errors in measurement. 1. Personal errors, such as errors in the manipulative skill of the person making the measurement. 2. Errors in measuring instruments 3. Errors in method e.g. using an instrument under conditions for which it was not intended. ‘Measurement Scales or levels of measurement ‘There are four levels of measurement ‘Nominal scale (ii) Ordinal scale (iii) Interval scale iv) Ratio scale ‘Nominal Seale This is the lowest level of measurement. In nominal measurement numbers are used to identify, name or classify objects, events, groups etc. ‘Nominal scales merely identify different categories. They have no property of magnitude for example people may be classified as: (Hindu 2) Muslim @ Sikhlighter, harder or softer etc. Socio-economic status is a good example of ordinal measurement because every member of the upper class is higher in social prestige than every member of the middle and lower class. ‘The draw back of ordinal measurement is that ordinal measures are not absolute quantities nor do they convey thatthe distance between the different rank value is equal. Ordinal measurements do not show the distances between the values and have no absolute zero point. Interval Seale ‘This is the third level of measurement and includes al the characteristics ofthe nominal and ordinal scale ‘of measurement. Interval scales provide information about the distance between the units and the ordering, ‘of the magnitude of the measure, but which lack an absolute zero point, The zero i arbitrary for measuring, attitude, aptitude, and temperature, Ratio Seale This isthe highest level of measurement and has all the properties of nominal ordinal and interval scales plus an absolute or true zero point. Common examples of ratio scale are the measures of weight, width, length, loudness ete. ‘Assessment Types of Assessment Diagnostic Assessment This is caried out before instruction to determine whether or not students possess ce and during instruction to help the teacher determine the difficulties students are experiencing Formative Assessment Ittakes place during instruction to provide feedback to teachers and students on students? attainment of desired objectives and to identify areas that need further attention, progress towards‘The Nature of Education Measuring Instruments Educationsts are interested in human atributes such as achievement, attitude, intellectual ability, interest and motivation, These attributes cannot be measured directly, They are measured through their effects for ‘his reason, the usual method of measuring these attributes isto present the individual with a series of tasks ‘to which he/she is expected to respond. On the basis of the performance on these tasks, we are able to infer some quantitative estimate particular attributes which the tasks were meant to sample. These tasks are ‘compiled into tests and questionnaires. These are the main measuring instruments in education. Achievement Tests ‘These are examinations or tests, which are designed to measure the extent to which students have learned the intended curriculum, Aptitude Tests ‘These tests measure the degree to whi attitudes. Criterion Referenced Tests students have the capacity to acquire knowledge, skills and ‘They measure the extent to which prescribed standards have been met. They examine students’ mastery of ‘educational objectives and are use to determine whether a student has learned specific knowledge and skills. ‘Norm Referenced Tests ‘These are tests which compare a student's performance on the test with that of other students in his/her cohort, Unlike criterion referenced tests, norm referenced test are not concemed with determi 1g how proficient a student is ina particular subject or skill “Methods of Assessment Students are assessed using different methods, The most commonly used methods are: © Written exercises ‘These are questions set and administered by teachers to students to determine the extent to which students have acquired specified knowledge and skills + Homework assignments ‘Teachers assign students work to do after classes. - aAnother method of assessment is direct observation of students’ activities. Oral Exam ‘Here the student is interviewed and expected to give an oral response for example languages e.g. French. Functions of Evaluation and Assessment 1 say ee ‘Identify problem areas in student achievement so as to strengthen the weak points in the learning process. Reward good performance Evaluate student's progress at school and recommend ways to improve student learning ‘Monitor the knowledge, skills and attitudes acquired by students. Evaluate the progress of schools in achieving curriculum objectives ‘Compare levels of achievement among several schools or education districts. Identify curriculum areas that may need study oF revision. Provide information to teachers about the effectiveness of the teaching method. Characteristics of Good Assessment 0 Objectivity Good assessment should have the trait of objectiv yi. it ust be free from the subjective element so ‘that there is complete agreement among the examiners regarding the meaning of the items and scoring of the test. Reliability Reliability isthe ability of an instrument to produce consistent results. A testis said to be consistent over a given period of time when all the examiners retain the same relative ranks on two separate ‘occasions. ‘+ Factors that Influence Reliability 1. Type of questions, objective questions are more reliable unlike essay questions 2. The absence of a marking scheme will result in variations in the marking by different examiners.Refers to the extent to which an assessment instrument measures what is purport (claims) tom ‘Validity is concemed with, being able to use scores to express ability of learners. ‘There are three types of validity 4) Content Validity “Thisis the extent to which a test covers the various objectives and topics that have been taught. “The tet must cover the various topics, which spell out the content of the course. There is need for atable of specification that will cover all areas. 4i) Construct Validity Itrefers tothe accuraey with which atest measures some meaningful traits or constructs in an individual, Itis mainly a psychological test. Criterion Validity (predictive valid ‘Also referred to as predictive validity, This isthe extent to which a test makes predictions about the performance of students. It tres to identify the corelation existence by test scores ‘and some future outcome hence criterion validity is the process of determining the extent to which tests performance is related to some other value measure of performance. ‘Two methods are used to compute this: (@) The Spearman rank method (correlation) (b) Pearson Product moment correlation FACTORS INFLUENCING VALIDITY 1 ‘Unclear directions — if directions are unclear regarding how students should respond, then it reduces validity. Ifthe reading vocabulary and sentence structure is too complex, this will result in the test ‘measuring reading comprehension and aspects of intelligence. Ambiguity — Ambiguous statements in test items contribute to misinterpretation and ‘confusion ambiguity sometimes confuses the brighter pupils more than it does the poor ones, causing discr ination to go in the opposite Econom 1~A good test should be economical in materials and time ic. it should not take too much of the teachers as well as pupils time. It should not be expensive e.g. printing‘Written Exercises: 1, Give five reasons why a teacher should assess his/her students, 2. Distinguish between measurement and evaluation. 43, Outline the functions of assessment to the administration and support level 4, Describe five factors that influence validity. UNITTWO Introduction ‘This uit discusses the importance of educational objectives in educational assessment. Its followed by a description ofthe taxonomy of educational objectives, It further describes categories under each of the three “domains of educational objectives. ‘Specific Objectives ‘After studying this unit you should be able to: 1, Explain the importance of educational object 3. Construct objectives under each of the domains. ‘THE ROLE OF OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT ‘Objectives are statements of intent specifying behavior expected after learmers being subjected to some learning experience, Educational objectives play an important role in educational assessment. Well written objectives clearly state the beh that pupils should demonstrate atthe end ofa period of instruction.«The measurement of what education has achieved may be achieve. + They provide guidance and direction to teaching and testing. Objectives specify in precise terms the student behavior to be measured hence they help teachers to identify whet pupils should learn and indicate to the teacher what questions to ask. They also help the teacher in assessing relevant material and act as a standard for measuring learning ‘outcomes. ‘They indicate samples of learning outcomes that the test developer is willing to accept as evidence that the stated instructional objectives have been achieved. ‘They give direction to education Categories of Objectives Bloom et al (ed.) (1964), Krathwol, Masia (1964) and Horrow (1972) categorize components of learning into what has now become known as the taxonomy of educational objectives, ‘The categories are: (a) The cognitive domain (b) The effective domain (6) The psychomotor domain Their main contribution was to emphasize that all the three domains of leaning exist, and that most importantly, the respective domains of learning should be addressed consci sly by Edueationists in general ‘and by the classroom teachers in particular. Further than identifying the three domains of the taxonomy, they sub-categorized the three domains. ‘The Cognitive Domain ‘The cognitive domain of educational objectives deals principally with the development of the learner's ‘mental abilities or achievements, which include intellectual aptitudes. The taxonomy of educational objectives identifies six categories of cognitive objectives: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Each category is assumed to include behaviors atthe lower levels. Each of these categories is discussed below. 1. Knowledge: It is defined as “remembering of previously learned material.” At this level students are expected simply to recall the information previously presented to them. The following are statements of objectives at the knowledge level At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to: a Define the term “photosynthesis” b List four conditions necessary for photosynthesis,Explain how the chief's baraza operates. Compute the area of rectangle measuring 60cm by 45 em, correctly. ‘Analysis It is defined as the “ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood.” The following are examples of objectives atthe analysis level. ‘At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to: State the causes of the Mau Mau in Kenya b Explain the advantages and disadvantages of liberalization of the economies of Eastern African countries. © Classify people who need help. 4a Draw a time-line showing the development of science and technology in the 20 century. ‘synthesis It is defined as the “ability to put parts together to form a new whole.” The following are some “objectives at the synthesis level. At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to: & Conduct a survey of costs of different types of transport. Compose a song for use during the national literacy day.2s is briefly described below: ‘This is the lowest level of the affective domain. It is defined as sensitivity to the existence phenomena, that is, willingness to receive or attend to them ‘The following are examples of es at receiving level. ‘The student develops a tolerance for African music. 2, The student patiently listens to a lecture on the dangers of drug abuse. | Responding. This refers to active attending o the phenomena, At this level, leamers act out behaviors “that are consistent with people who hold a particular value. (Lorber and Pierce, 1983). Student responses | atthis level indicate more than passive listening/attending; they require active participation. More complete responding would be indicated by a students wilingness to engage in an activity, even when allowed a ‘choice, Examples of objectives at the responding level are: 41, The student indicates interest in protecting the environment by voluntarily reading magazines designed for people involved in environmental protection, 2, The student demonstrates a commitment to honesty by not cheating. vidual attaches to an object, phenomenon, or behavior. It implies ‘Valuing. This refers to the worth ani something as having worth and consequently revealing consistency in behavior related to the object or phenomena, Below are some examples objectives stated at this level.values, Some examples of these learning opportunities are simulation games, project work and casestudies. The following are examples ‘of objectives at the organization level, Le ‘The student should form judgements as to whether population and family life education should be taught, 2, The student should balance hisher argument for and against polygamy. Characterization. This is the fifth level ofthe affective domain, At this level, the individual develops a consistent value system, which becomes part and parcel of his or her life style. Such individuals would never say “do as I say not as Ido” Here are two examples of objectives stated at this level. 1, The leamer should develop a consistent philosophy of life. 2. The student should demonstrate the value of honesty by consistently acting honesty in her dealings with fellow students. Behavioral Terms for Objectives in the Major Categories of the Affective Domain ‘Table 3.1 shows the behavioral terms for objectives in the major categories ofthe Affective Domain. Level OF | Examples of Behavioral Terms | Examples of Questionnaire lems Internalization Receiving “Take note of value concepts, ask, | Would you be presently interested in choose, give, identity, select, us, | joining a club that discusses the Bible? and point to Would you like to know more about Jomo Kenyatta, Reads willingly, follows [15 it usually possible for you to go to instructions, volunteers 0 help, | Church? applauds performances, answers, assists, complies, gives, practices Valuing Feips protect, campaigns actively, | Do you support elderly people? supports community organizations, 2refers to the process of assigning numerals to events, objects ete according to certain rules. “Measurement is the process of determining the presence or absence and amount or type of characteristics ‘or behaviors possessed by an individual group or program and then assigning a number, score or rating to the entity. ‘We can measure characteristics by giving tests, observations, rating scales or any other device that allows Us to obtain information in a quantitative form. An analysis of the definition of measurement reveals the following main properties of measurement. 1. In the process of measurement numbers are assigned according to some rules. Usually such rules are of two types. One type is where the procedure is obvious and explicit for example when measuring the Jength of the cloth in feet and inches, rules for assigning numerical are explicit and clear. But when attribute e.g. intelligence, aggression, or a trait of personality the rules are ‘measuring a psycholos ‘generally vague and less explicit. 2. Measurement is concemed with certain attributes or features of the object. It is these attributes or features of the object, which are measured, and not the object itself e.g. we measure peoples knowledge of algebra, honesty, perseverance etc. 3. In the process of measurement, numerals are use to represent quantities of the attribute measurement jeation. Quant indicates how much or to what extent that involves the process of quat particular attribute is present in a particular object. For example when the teacher is measuring the achievement of a child in arithmetic, he/she quantifies it by saying that the child has an 80% mark in his class. This percentage indicates how much of arithmetical knowledge he has gained in the class.Source: Lorber and Pierce, 1983, ‘The Psychomotor Domain The psychomotor domain deals with manipulative skilsand body movements and are developed by several subjects taught in primary and secondary schools incudag male art and rf, physi elven, bome science, typing and technical subjects. The psychomotor domain i divided into six categories in ascending ‘order of complexity and sophistication, These are: 1, Reflex movements Basic Fundamental movements Perceptual abilities Physical abilities Skilled movements ase ‘Non discursive communication Reflex Movements. These are involuntary actions elicited as a response to some stimulus and are not a concem of educators. These mov cements are either evident at birth or develop with maturation. Basic Fundamental Movements. These skills are developed during the first year of these skills are crawling, standing up and manipulating objects. Perceptual Abilities. This isthe third level of the psychomotor domain. Pereeptual abilities are not sbserved but depend on cognitive tasks that students are required to perform. Examples of objectives at the perceptual ability level are: 1. The student should walk the fll distance and back across a balance beam without falling. 2, The student should list the names of four musicians playing jazz from an audio recording of music, Physical Abilities. The physical abilities include endurance, strength, Mexibility and agility. Below are examples of objectives stated in this level. The student should be able to: Examples of Bcorel fifty-four push-ups continuously (eng, ‘Movements. ‘They are a result of leami ed teaming often-complex learning. They result in wax Sens ‘These include simple adaptive skills such as dancing pound adaptive skills such as playing tennis, hockey and golf, and complex adaptive ski s aerial gymnastic stunts. The i é ee . The following are examples of objectives in this category: Ee ‘The student should type at a rate of fifty words per minute without making six errors. _ ‘The student should execute two twisting dives with 100 per cent accuracy. Non-discursive Communication. This category involves non-verbal communications that are used to ‘convey a message to an observer. Examples of such movements are postures and facial expressions. A typical objective in this category is: the student will exhibit appropriate gestures and facial expressions. Behavioral Terms for Objectives in the Major Categories of the Psychomotor Domai Table 3.2 shows the behavioral terms for objectives in the major categories of the Psychomotor. ‘Table 3.2: Behavioral Terms for Objectives in the Major Categories of the Psychomotor Domain. { Category “Examples of Behavioral Terms ‘Perceptual abilities ‘Maintains balance, bounces ball, ifferentiates objects, selects by size, draws geometric symbols, writes the alphabet, catches thrown ball, identifies shapes consistently, repeats poem, plays piano from memory. \ Physical abilities ‘Runs 3 kilometers, executes push-ups, extends to toes ‘Skilled movement Plays the guitar, jumps hurdles, plays tennis, dances to music Non-discursive Exhibits appropriate gestures and facial expressions, performs original communication dance. ‘Source: Adapted from Lorber and Pierce, 1983. Note: Its important to note thats Activities is Jetting objectives is very crucial in assessment of learning outcomes. For the same content area, construct two objectives each at the knowledge, comprehension, application, synthesis and evaluation levels of the taxonomy of cognitive objectives. 2. Identify ways we measure aspects of achievement, intelligence and classroom conduct. analysis, 3, Make up examples in your subject area that illustrate mismatches between what is being tested and how is being tested. Written Exercises 1. Distinguish between cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. 2. Identify and explain (a) Five levels of cognition