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EQUIVALENCE
Elizabeth L. Scott at Berkeley
EQUIVALENCE
Elizabeth L. Scott at Berkeley

Amanda L. Golbeck
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
USA
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4944-6 (Paperback)

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 To my stars: Craig and Dan.

In memory of Betty: An exemplar and inspiration still.

Black and white caricature of Elizabeth L. Scott (Betty) from her high school yearbook.
Senior Souvenir (Oakland: University High School, 1935)
 Shall we go,
you and I
while we can?
Through
the transitive nightfall
of diamonds

Lyrics from Dark Star.

(Robert Hunter, Ice Nine Publishing, 1967)
Contents

Preface xv

About the Author xxi

Acknowledgments xxiii

Acronyms xxv

I The Betty Book 1

1 Caught in the Thick of It (1968) 3

1.1 At Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 UC and the Urban Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Berkeley Women and the Urban Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Berkeley Women Begin to Organize . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 A Complicated Set of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Thick Politics and Early Exhaustion . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

II Shaping the Life 17

2 Boots and Saddles (Before 1932) 19

2.1 Grandfather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Uncle and Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Family Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 Aunt Phoebe’s Telescope (1882–1967) 31

3.1 Astronomy Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Computer Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Astronomy Doctoral Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Lick Observatory Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 Life Career Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

vii
viii Contents

4 Becoming an Outlier (1932–1939) 45

4.1 Move to California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2 University High School Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Math Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.4 Science Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5 High School to College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.6 Tunnel Road House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.7 Neyman Serendipity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.8 Klumpke Prize and Graduation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5 Ten Thousand Hours of Practice (1939–1946) 59

5.1 Year One – Getting up the Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2 Year Two – Summer at Mount Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.3 Year Three – Beginning War Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.4 Year Four – Lick Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.5 Year Five – University Fellowship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.6 Year Six – Qualifying Exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.7 Year Seven – Ending War Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.8 Year Eight – Teaching and Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.9 A Symmetric Intellectual Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6 A Rising Star (1947–1954) 73

6.1 Prospects at Vassar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.2 Competing Offers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3 The UC-Berkeley Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.4 Lecturer in Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.5 Remarkable Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6 Instructor in Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.7 Assistant Professor of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.8 Trumpler’s Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.9 A Retrospective: Betty and Phoebe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.10 A Retrospective: Phoebe’s Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

III Clusters of Impact 93

7 Championing Science (1939–1988) 95

7.1 Themes and Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2 Modern Statisticians, Old Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.3 Statistical Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.4 General Statistical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.5 Bioscience and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.6 Symposia, Panels, and Talks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.7 Managing Neyman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Contents ix

8 The Case of Cloud Seeding (1950–1985) 113

8.1 Increase or Decrease Precipitation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 An Emotional Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.3 Radio Broadcast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.4 Legislative Testimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.5 Professional Association Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.6 Still Cloud Seeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

9 Almost Alone in Statistics (1955–1988) 127

9.1 New Statistics Department (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.2 Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.3 Administrator and Professor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.4 Colleague Juliet Popper Shaffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.5 Flexibility and Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

10 Students and Memories (1948–1988) 143

10.1 Remembrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.2 On Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.3 On Generosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.4 On Personality and Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.5 On Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.6 On Political Acumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10.7 On Approach to Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.8 On the Other Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.9 On Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.10 Summing It Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

11 Letters to Jerry (1954–1955) 159

11.1 October 1954: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.2 January 1955: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.3 February 1955: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.4 April 1955: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.5 May 1955: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.6 Thursday, May 5, 1955: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11.7 Sunday, May 8, 1955: Dieppe, Newhaven, Winchester . . . 171
11.8 Thursday, May 12, 1955: Oxford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11.9 Thursday Night, May 12, 1955: London . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.10 Tuesday, May 17, 1955: Cambridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.11 Wednesday, May 18, 1955: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.12 Thursday Morning, May 19, 1955: Paris (continuation of the
previous letter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.13 n.d: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.14 Back in Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.15 Monday Midnight [most likely May 23, 1955]: Paris . . . . 179
x Contents

11.16 Tuesday [May 24, 1955]: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

11.17 May 26, 1955, 7:20 am: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
11.18 Le 26 Mai, 17 hr: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.19 29 Mai 1955: Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.20 June 1st: Paris [1955] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
11.21 Saturday, June 4: Lisbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
11.22 Soul Mates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

12 Civil Rights Advocacy (1950–1953, 1963–1968) 191

12.1 UC Loyalty Oath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.2 IMS and Racial Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.3 Civil Rights Solicitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12.4 Saving Aquatic Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.5 Free Speech Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.6 A Changed University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

IV The Status of Academic Women at Berkeley 207

13 A Disgraceful Situation
(January – September 1969) 209
13.1 Two Faculty Clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
13.2 Berkeley Academic Senate Subcommittee . . . . . . . . . . 211
13.3 Subcommittee Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

14 Making Visible (October – December 1969) 223

14.1 Subcommittee Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.2 Women’s Faculty Group Debriefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
14.3 More Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
14.4 Nearing End of Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

15 Not a Good Time (January – April 1970) 235

15.1 One Faculty Club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.2 Interpreting Biases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
15.3 Problems in Zoology and Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
15.4 Subcommittee Follow-Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
15.5 Problems in Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
15.6 Information Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

16 Grounded in Hard Fact (May – June 1970) 249

16.1 Completing the Subcommittee Report . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
16.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
16.3 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
16.4 How to Proceed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
16.5 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Contents xi

V Getting on the Agenda 263

17 A Tiny Beginning (June – July 1970) 265

17.1 Subcommittee Report Distributed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
17.2 Advocacy Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
17.3 First Mention of Big Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

18 Persistence of Repeated Themes

(August – December 1970) 277
18.1 Hard Facts about Big Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
18.2 Requesting Action on Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 282
18.3 Faculty Club Disagreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
18.4 Year End Subcommittee Follow-Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

19 We Intend to Do (January – March 1971) 293

19.1 State and System Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
19.2 Faculty Club and Center Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
19.3 De Facto Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
19.4 Berkeley Budget Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
19.5 UC Survivor Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
19.6 Berkeley Senate Progress Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

20 A Little Fire (April – May 1971) 309

20.1 Finally on the Senate Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
20.2 Faculty Club Renovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
20.3 Berkeley Advisory Committees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
20.4 Class Action Complaint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
20.5 Awakened by Stories and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

VI Affirmative Action 321

21 Not Easily Erased Overnight (June – July 1971) 323

21.1 Prizes for Women in Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
21.2 Faculty Club Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
21.3 University Doing More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
21.4 Class Action and Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
21.5 No Women at the Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

22 A Lot of Power (August – December 1971) 335

22.1 New Advisory Committees in the UC . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
22.2 Ideas for AAAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
22.3 Policies and Practices at Berkeley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
22.4 Mobilizing a Congressman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
22.5 Chancellor’s Advisory Committee Established . . . . . . . 345
xii Contents

22.6 Class Action Impasse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

22.7 Berkeley Follow-Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
22.8 Still Negotiating Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

23 Weak, Grudging, Incomplete (January – February 1972) 353

23.1 Carnegie Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
23.2 Angela Davis and UCLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
23.3 Advisory Committee Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
23.4 Class Action Confidentiality Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . 360
23.5 Employment and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
23.6 Feeling the Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

24 Time for Action (March – June 1972) 367

24.1 Affirmative Action Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
24.2 Progress on Subcommittee Recommendations . . . . . . . 369
24.3 Affidavit, Dissent, Conferences, AAAS . . . . . . . . . . . 371
24.4 New Senate Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
24.5 Carnegie Deadlines, Topics, Connections . . . . . . . . . . 378

VII Salary Equity Studies 381

25 Facts of the Matter (July – December 1972) 383

25.1 “Facts of the Matter” Manuscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
25.2 Faculty Club Accepts Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.3 AAAS and Women in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
25.4 Inadequate Input at Berkeley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

26 Focusing on Salary Data (January – July 1973) 397

26.1 More Information Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
26.2 More AAAS Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
26.3 Faculty Club Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
26.4 Time for Affirmative Action at UC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
26.5 Lack of Senate Quorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
26.6 Carnegie Report Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

27 Society’s Problem (August – December 1973) 413

27.1 Vision for a Faculty Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
27.2 California Assembly Committee Hearing . . . . . . . . . . 415
27.3 Three Salary Manuscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

28 Women Generally Receive Less (January – April 1974) 425

28.1 Disclosing Berkeley Salary Inequities . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
28.2 Invited Speakerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
28.3 AAUP Joint Committee Venture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Contents xiii

28.4 “Underutilization” Methods at Berkeley . . . . . . . . . . 432

28.5 Communicating Methods; Explosive Results . . . . . . . . 434
28.6 Responding to “Blasts” and Supporting Individuals . . . . 438
28.7 Class Action Conciliation Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
28.8 Time to Improve Pay Reporting at Berkeley . . . . . . . . 441
28.9 Big Telescopes Story Challenged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

VIII AAUP Higher Education Salary

Evaluation Kit 447

29 Persuasive Analysis (April – December 1974) 449

29.1 Carnegie Study Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
29.2 Top 100 Salaries at Berkeley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
29.3 Statistical Scrutiny of Berkeley Affirmative Action . . . . . 455
29.4 Campus Attitudes toward Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . 457
29.5 Expertise Needed by AAUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
29.6 UC Committee of Statisticians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
29.7 Nominated for Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

30 High Stakes (1975) 471

30.1 Faculty Club Relationship Pains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
30.2 UC Progress and Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
30.3 Berkeley Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
30.4 Initial AAUP Kit Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
30.5 Federal Testimony on Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . . . 480
30.6 AAUP Pilot Studies Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
30.7 Equal Opportunity Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

31 Developing the Kit (1976) 485

31.1 More UC Affirmative Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
31.2 Faculty Club Merger Declined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
31.3 More Reports, Advocacy, Testimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
31.4 Berkeley Statistics Department Self-Evaluation . . . . . . . 490
31.5 Mills College Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
31.6 Fighting to Hold Gains on Campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
31.7 First Draft of Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
31.8 Rank as a Salary Predictor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
31.9 Next Drafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

32 Completing the Kit (1977) 501

32.1 Praise and Potential for the Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
32.2 Old Master at Purdue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
32.3 More Salary Work and Kit Dissemination . . . . . . . . . . 507
32.4 Faculty Club Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
xiv Contents

33 Influencing Salaries (1978) 511

33.1 Persisting Salary Inequities at Berkeley . . . . . . . . . . . 512
33.2 Conferences and Colloquia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
33.3 Astronomy, Statistics, Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
33.4 Idea of a Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
33.5 Irritations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
33.6 Kit Promotion and Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
33.7 Affirmative Action Report Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530

IX Conclusion 533

34 Final Decade of Leadership (1979–1988) 535

34.1 More Women’s Studies Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
34.2 More Honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
34.3 Neyman’s Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
34.4 Censored Interview? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
34.5 Revelations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
34.6 Betty’s Fatal Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555

Publications of Elizabeth L. Scott 561

Index 575
Other documents randomly have
different content
Tagus were, even then, unequalled for the excellence of their steel
and their wonderful durability. The product of the Spanish armorer
was proof against the fiercest assault of the battle or the tourney. In
weight, in stature, in endurance, in religious fervor, in martial
enthusiasm, the Castilian knight was far superior to his Moslem
antagonist. During the Moorish wars and the contemporaneous
domestic seditions was formed the model of the invincible Spanish
infantry, destined in the next century to become the dread and the
admiration of Europe. Heretofore the Moors had had the power of
the Castilian monarchy alone to contend with; now, however, they
were to encounter the combined forces of the various kingdoms of
the Peninsula, moving grimly and irresistibly forward to the
attainment of a single end. In the ensuing catastrophe, a great
people—learned, hospitable, accomplished, industrious, ingenious,
long inspired by the most noble incentives which have ever directed
the course of human progress—were to be abandoned to extortion,
robbery, persecution, and exile; a land whose natural fertility had
been enhanced a hundred-fold by the patient labor and inventive
talent of man was to be swept clean by the desolating tempest of
war; and a civilization, far surpassing that of any country in that age
in the knowledge, the culture, the graces, the refinement, which
confer national distinction and individual happiness, was to be
ruthlessly blotted out from the face of the earth.
 CHAPTER XXI
THE LAST WAR WITH GRANADA

1475–1486

Description of Granada—Its Wealth, Prosperity, and Civilization—Its

Cities—Beauty and Splendor of the Capital—The Alhambra—
Condition and Power of the Spanish Monarchy—Character of
Ferdinand—Character of Isabella—Muley Hassan and His Family
—Storming of Zahara—Alhama surprised by the Christians—
Siege of that City and Repulse of the Moors—Sedition at
Granada—Ferdinand routed at Loja—Foray of Muley Hassan—
Expedition to the Ajarquia—Defeat and Massacre of the
Castilians—Boabdil attacks Lucena and is captured—Destructive
Foray of the Christians—Boabdil is released and returns to
Granada—Renewal of Factional Hostility in the Moorish Capital—
Moslem and Christian Predatory Inroads—Siege and Capture of
Ronda—Embassy from Fez—Al-Zagal becomes King—Defeat of
the Court of Cabra at Moclin—Division of the Kingdom of
Granada—Its Disastrous Effects.
I undertake with diffidence the description of the last, the most
romantic, the most melancholy epoch in the history of Mohammedan
Spain. Its events have been recounted, its catastrophes enumerated,
its gallant exploits and its deeds of infamy depicted by far more
skilful hands than mine. The plan of this work, however, requires the
exhibition of the last scene in that great and thrilling drama which, for
a period of almost eight centuries, attracted the attention and
inflamed the proselyting zeal of Christian Europe, and without which
it would be manifestly incomplete. It is therefore from necessity that I
enter upon this task, profoundly conscious of its difficulty, yet with the
hope that the reader may not be unwilling to again peruse a story of
surpassing interest and pathos,—this time viewed from the Moorish
stand-point,—and with no design of attempting to improve that which
is popularly regarded as historically perfect or of imitating that which
is beyond all imitation.
 In the year 1475 of the Christian era, that portion of the Spanish
Peninsula bounded by the Christian provinces of Cordova and
Murcia, by the Sierra Elvira and the sea, was the richest and most
highly civilized region of corresponding area on the globe. Every
advantage of soil, of climate, and of geographical position
contributed to multiply its resources and increase its power. Its
agricultural system, invented in Mesopotamia, extended in Syria, and
perfected under the khalifs, had been developed by the industry and
experience of many generations until the territory which it controlled
appeared a marvel of diversified and luxuriant fertility. The earth
yielded in inexhaustible profusion the choicest products of every
portion of the world susceptible of cultivation and improvement. The
date, the fig, and the pomegranate grew side by side with the cherry
and the lemon, none of these fruits being indigenous, and all having
been introduced into Europe by the curiosity and enterprise of the
Arabs. The vineyards, whose grapes were seedless and for nine
months retained unimpaired their exquisite and delicious flavor,
covered the slopes of every hill and mountain-side. Such was the
extent of the olive plantations, and so unusual the size of the trees,
that they were compared by travellers to vast forests of oaks. An
endless succession of harvests was produced by the crops of barley,
wheat, and millet which grew upon the table-lands. Thousands of
acres in every district were covered with mulberry-trees, planted as
food for the silkworm, for the manufacture of silk was the most
profitable industry of the people of Granada. From the flax and
cotton grown near the coast fabrics of remarkable fineness and
durability were produced, which found a ready market in all the ports
of the Mediterranean. The rice and the sugar plantations, the
almond-groves, the citron- and orange-orchards, the forests
abounding in valuable woods, the pastures affording constant
subsistence to immense droves of cattle and flocks of sheep,
constituted no inconsiderable portion of the agricultural wealth of the
kingdom. The intelligent cultivation of medicinal herbs furnished to
the pharmacopœia many excellent remedies, still used by the
modern practitioner. The propagation of the cochineal afforded a dye
far surpassing in beauty and brilliancy the famous purple of the
ancients. In the number and value of its minerals, this land, so
favored by nature, was excelled by no other country at that time
known to man. The sierras abounded in extensive beds of jasper,
variegated marble, agates, onyx, chalcedony, lazulite, and alabaster.
The mines, whose richness had early attracted the attention of the
Phœnicians, yielded annually great quantities of gold, silver, iron, tin,
mercury, and lead. Valuable gems, such as the ruby, the sapphire,
and the hyacinth, contributed to the adornment and pleasure of
woman and the exhibition of feminine taste and vanity. Along the
coast of the Mediterranean the pearl-fisher, as in classic times, plied
his dangerous but lucrative calling.
In the development and adaptation of these extraordinary natural
advantages a laborious and intelligent people had profited by all the
expedients suggested by human experience and ingenuity. A
complete and intricate system of reservoirs and canals distributed
the mountain streams, by myriads of tiny channels, through every
orchard and plantation. Gigantic walls, which the credulity of the
ignorant ascribed to supernatural agency controlled by talismans in
the hands of royal magicians, formed terrace upon terrace rising
along the sides of every acclivity, and the ground, thus painfully
reclaimed by art, equalled in productiveness and value those more
fortunate localities whose bounties had been lavished by the prodigal
hand of Nature alone. Every country, from Hindustan to France, from
Syria to Arabia the Happy, had paid tribute to the investigating spirit
and botanical knowledge of the Spanish Moslem. Under a sun of
almost torrid intensity, in a soil of inexhaustible richness, the rarest
exotics grew with a luxuriance not surpassed in the lands from
whence they derived their origin. The graceful palm, whose drooping
branches had suggested to the architects of the Great Mosque of
Cordova that interminable series of mysterious arches which at once
awe and enchant the traveller, had been introduced by Abd-al-
Rahman I. as a souvenir of Damascus, the city of his birth, From
India had come the cubeb and the aloe; from Yemen the balm and
the frankincense; from Persia the myrtle and the oleander. The
pomegranate, from which Granada was supposed to have obtained
its name, the cotton-plant, and the sugar-cane were imported from
the coast of Africa. Europe itself furnished many contributions to the
vegetable products of the kingdom, among them the pear, the apple,
the peach, and the quince, which had long before been known to the
Romans. In short, there was no plant of culinary value or medicinal
virtues, no grain whose harvests promised an adequate return for
the toil of the husbandman, no fruit whose flavor might tempt the
palate of the epicure, which was not cultivated with success by the
Moors in the closing days of the empire.
The geographical extent of that empire, at the beginning of the
war which terminated with its conquest, was inconsiderable when
compared with its commerce, its wealth, and its population. In area it
scarcely equalled a modern European principality. At no time did its
dimensions exceed seventy-five by two hundred and ten miles; fully
one-fourth of its territory was rendered useless for agricultural
purposes by the ranges of steep and barren mountains that
intersected it, but which more than compensated for this loss by the
value of their quarries and mineral deposits. The population
exceeded three million souls. As has been previously mentioned, the
new economic and social conditions resulting from the ever-
contracting boundaries of the Moslem dominion, while they
diminished its original territorial area, enormously increased the
resources of the remaining provinces. From the conquered cities of
Seville, Xerez, and Cadiz, alone, three hundred thousand families
had emigrated to Granada. Every town and every hamlet
subsequently occupied by the Castilians furnished its proportion of
Moslem refugees, who, bearing their household goods and animated
with undying hatred of the Christian faith, sought an asylum in the
last stronghold of their race and their religion. The discerning wisdom
of the emirs saw in the industry of these unhappy exiles a prolific
source of future opulence and strength. The increase of military
power arising from their numbers was prodigious. The property
which the indulgent policy of the conqueror permitted them to retain
was often of immense value. But greater than all was the
accumulation of wealth represented by the capacity, the skill, the
diligence, of these unwilling emigrants. There were few of them,
indeed, unpractised in the science of husbandry or in the mechanical
trades. Their intelligence and thrift were revealed by the flourishing
condition of the country which they were compelled to abandon,
much of it originally but little indebted to nature and largely reclaimed
from barrenness, now covered with fragrant gardens and magnificent
plantations, watered by crystal streams, adorned with sumptuous
edifices, wherein were displayed all the resources of unbounded
opulence, all the splendid embellishments of Oriental taste, all the
wanton caprices of unbridled luxury,—a country destined soon to
relapse into its pristine barbarism, a prey to sloth, to superstition, to
ignorance; the home of mendicancy and imposture; the chosen field
of the inquisitor and the monk.
With the welcome accession of material wealth and untiring
energy came the no less valuable contributions of literary genius and
intellectual culture. Civil war and Castilian aggression had not yet
entirely destroyed the libraries of the great Moslem cities which had
been formed in the glorious age of the Western Khalifate; and these
inestimable legacies of ancient learning were, one by one, added to
the stores of knowledge already existing in the city of Granada. From
the lofty gallery of the minaret, not yet purified by Pagan lustration or
resounding with the clangor of Christian bells, the Moorish
astronomer, elevated far above the sleeping city, still observed the
aspect of the heavens with their gorgeous constellations and their
mysterious and interesting phenomena. The genius of poetry, whose
influence was ever paramount with the romantic and imaginative
Arab, found renewed inspiration amidst the beautiful surroundings of
the capital of the Alhamares,—the scene of so many heroic
achievements, the home of so many fascinating legends,
transformed by the credulous into tales of enchantment, celebrated
by the learned in poem, in disquisition, in chronicle.
In this charming region, where were concentrated the last remains
of a civilization whose development had aroused the wonder and
provoked the hatred of barbaric Europe, every merchant and every
traveller found a cordial welcome. The Genoese had great factories
in Malaga and Almeria. The enterprising Catalan, already noted for
his shrewdness and in whom the spirit of proselytism and conquest
was always subservient to the temptations of avarice, owned
extensive mulberry plantations and was largely interested in the
manufacture and exportation of silk. In Granada, the Hebrew, ever
prosperous, was engaged in banking, in commerce, in the exercise
of every mercantile occupation which suggested a substantial return
to his proverbial and insatiable rapacity. Even the Castilian, oblivious
of the hereditary prejudices of thirty generations of unceasing
hostility, did not hesitate to accept the hospitality of the infidel, and to
profit by the advantages afforded by the enlightened policy of the
emirs of Granada. What a prospect was presented to the observing
stranger who, for the first time, passed the frontiers of the Moorish
dominions! He saw great cities whose streets, obstructed by an
immense traffic, exhibited the costumes and displayed the
commodities of every country accessible to commercial enterprise.
At Malaga he beheld the ships of every nation possessing a maritime
power; stupendous warehouses; admirably cultivated districts,
where, for three days’ journey, he could traverse an uninterrupted
succession of pomegranate and fig plantations. In Almeria were
thousands of factories, furnishing employment to tens of thousands
of artisans, where were produced fabrics of silk, of wool, of linen,
and of cloth of gold,—some of gauze-like texture, others stiff with
exquisite embroidery, all of unrivalled excellence; potteries where
were formed those vessels of metallic lustre famous in the Middle
Ages, the secret of whose composition was so jealously guarded
that its tradition alone remains; hundreds of vast caravansaries
swarming with the traders of the Orient and their caparisoned camels
and other beasts of burden; bazaars filled with every ornament
demanded by pampered wealth and every article of prime necessity,
where even the utensils of the household were damascened and
embellished with delicate arabesques; suburbs, where for forty miles
the eye was charmed by an expanse of tropical verdure and
innumerable orchards and gardens, dotted at frequent intervals with
the palatial villas of the wealthy merchants of Almeria, whose
reputation for prodigality and voluptuousness had spread to the
remotest confines of the East. He saw a land enriched by a system
of cultivation without parallel in the annals of horticultural industry;
which, adopting the principles of antiquity and profiting by the
experience of centuries, had surpassed in the value and importance
of its practical results the efforts of all nations, ancient and modern;
which had brought the science of irrigation to such a degree of
perfection that the effects of its application could be computed with
all the accuracy of a mathematical problem; which, as far as the eye
could reach on every side, displayed the apparatus which had
evoked these marvels of intelligent husbandry,—that art which forms
the indispensable foundation and bond of society,-water-wheels a
hundred feet in diameter; reservoirs on whose ample surface naval
spectacles might be exhibited; dikes of prodigious height and of
cyclopean masonry; canals not inferior in their length and volume to
rivers; a maze of siphons, sluices, and rivulets which, by concerted
signals, at regular intervals, discharged their rushing waters through
field and garden and into bath and fountain; majestic aqueducts
which in dimensions and massiveness might vie with even the
gigantic and imperishable monuments of Roman antiquity. On the
face of the cliffs, hewn in the solid rock, were spacious galleries and
caves, wherein were deposited the surplus of the harvests, as a
security against siege and a resource in time of famine.
In addition to the great seaports,—each a commercial metropolis
and once the capital of an independent principality,—three hundred
towns and villages, many of them of considerable size,
acknowledged the authority of the kings of Granada. Of these, fifty
were of sufficient importance to be provided with mosques, presided
over by the expounders of the Koran. In accordance with the
customs of the Orient, the inhabitants of each manufacturing district
exercised a single occupation, the knowledge of which had been
transmitted from father to son through many generations. Baza
produced the finest silks, whose beauty and delicacy of texture
surpassed the famous fabrics of the Chinese and the Byzantine
looms,—those destined for the use of royalty being interwoven with
the portrait and the cipher of the monarch in threads of many colors
and of gold; in Albacete were forged weapons not inferior in temper
and design to the scimetars and daggers of Toledo, and
damascened with all the skill of the Syrian artificer; from the shops of
Hisn-Xubiles came furniture of ebony and sandal-wood inlaid with
mother-of-pearl and ivory, and filigree jewelry of exquisite patterns;
Granada was renowned for its enamels, its mosaics curiously
wrought and fused with the precious metals, its woollens, its silk
brocades, and its coral-colored pottery whose polished surface was
flecked with particles of gold. Other towns were distinguished for
manufactures of equal utility and beauty; castings and implements of
bronze; silken veils and mantles; leathern hangings embossed and
gilt with all the elegance of a sumptuously covered volume,—a
legacy of the Ommeyade capital, from whence the material derived
its name of Cordovan; paper of great fineness and durability made
from flax and cotton; and mats of palm and esparto, soft and flexible,
and dyed with brilliant colors.
The culminating point of this marvellous development of
architectural magnificence, commercial prosperity, and intellectual
culture was the ancient Moorish capital. From its peculiar situation
and the color of its buildings, it had early received the romantic and
appropriate appellation of Hisn-al-Romman, The Castle of the
Pomegranate. The plain, or Vega, which extended in a semicircle
before it, for a distance of ten leagues, resembled a garden evoked
by the genius of enchantment. The roads which traversed it were
bordered with hedges of myrtle, mingled with orange- and lemon-
trees, and overshadowed by the palm and the cypress. Everywhere
the ear was greeted with the grateful sound of murmuring waters,
whose channels were concealed by the dense vegetation that grew
along the banks. Above the foliage of laurel and oleander appeared
the red-tiled roofs of picturesque cottages, whose snowy walls were
often entirely covered with the roses trained upon them. In the poetic
imagery of the Arab they were likened to “so many Orient pearls set
in a cup of emerald.” Towering above all other structures, and
projected against the azure depths of an Andalusian sky, were the
minarets of numerous mosques, inlaid with colored tiles, belted with
gorgeous inscriptions, sparkling with gold. In the spacious court of
each of these temples was a marble fountain, and rows of orange-
trees and odoriferous shrubs, whose fragrance, wafted through lofty
doors and stucco lattices, permeated the interior. A hundred and
thirty mills, whose wheels were turned by the swift currents of the
Genil and the Darro, were required to grind the produce of the
abundant harvests and to supply the capital with bread. Within the
walls of that capital, which, with their thousand towers, enclosed a
vast and thickly settled area, were the homes of more than five
hundred thousand people. Access was obtained by means of twenty
gates. The principal ones of town and palace were those of the
Tower of the Seven Stories, and of Justice. The former, of grand and
imposing dimensions, was faced with the beautiful marble of Macael,
exquisitely carved. The latter, still one of the most striking memorials
of the Moorish domination, faced the holy shrine of Mecca.
In the mercantile portion of the city the streets were so crooked
and narrow that a single armed horseman could barely traverse
them, a condition attributable to climatic and defensive precautions;
the interminable bazaars were composed of a multitude of little
shops modelled after those of the great Moslem communities of the
East; the public buildings—the mosques, the colleges, the hospitals,
the insane asylums—were upon a scale of magnificence elsewhere
unknown, and scarcely exceeded by those of the khalifate during the
period of its greatest splendor. The baths, whose institution and
adornment the luxurious Moslem regarded as a part of his religion,
were embellished with precious mosaics and many-colored marbles,
and surrounded by beautiful gardens filled with fragrant and delicious
flowers. The Spanish Moslem never suffered himself to forget that
water had ever been the most precious treasure of his Bedouin
ancestors. Its offer was the first and an indispensable courtesy to a
guest. Always in sight in private houses, it dripped from the sides of
porous alcarrazas; or, in the palaces of the emirs, filled exquisite
vases standing on either side of the portal in niches where the
prodigal fancy of the Moorish architect had exhausted all the
resources of his decorative skill. There was not a dwelling, even of
the humblest character, in Granada unprovided with an abundant
supply of the purest water. The streets, always clean, were sluiced at
frequent intervals. Around the fountains, in every court-yard, grew
aromatic plants. In the mansions of the wealthy, the refreshing jets
that cooled the summer air in winter were replaced by the hypocaust,
which diffused a genial warmth through apartments hung with silken
tapestry and glittering with rich enamels.
No description can convey an adequate idea of the splendors of
this peerless city. Built upon the sloping sides of the Sierra Nevada,
whose lofty peaks protected it from the winter blast and tempered
the torrid air of summer, it stood three thousand feet above the level
of the sea. Its walls, models of mediæval fortification, were nearly
seven miles in circumference. Far above the roofs of the houses and
the groves of palm, of elm, and of cypress, scattered through the
parks and gardens, rose graceful minarets, observatories, cupolas,
towers, to the enormous number of fourteen thousand. Of these,
some were incased in many-colored mosaics; others were covered
with lace-like arabesques gilt and painted; all were furnished with
arched windows divided by columns of marble; some were roofed
with porcelain tiles of brilliant colors, others with plates of gilded
bronze.
The suburbs of the city, seventeen in all, were occupied by the
royal villas and the mansions of the nobles, which not infrequently
vied with the palaces of the Sultan in the magnificence of their
appointments and the elegance of their surroundings. The quarter of
the Albaycin, so called from the refugees of Baeza to whom
Mohammed I. had afforded an asylum, had presented with homes,
and had exempted from tribute, contained ten thousand houses. Its
defences had been largely constructed by Don Gonzalo de Zuñiga,
the Bishop of Jaen, from whom the erection of the stupendous wall
had been exacted as a ransom. The mosque of the Albaycin was
one of the most exquisite structures of the kind in the kingdom.
In the centre of the city was the Alcazaba, at once fortress and
palace, its frowning bulwarks and crenellated towers in close
juxtaposition to the orchards of tropical fruits, labyrinths of verdure,
and sparkling fountains which formed the delight of its inmates and
the admiration of foreigners,—an edifice long antedating the
Alhambra and whose origin is lost in antiquity; for centuries the seat
of government, the source of military, political, and religious
influence; a building which, swept away by the violence of the
conqueror, is now remembered only in barbarous chronicles and
uncertain traditions. Here also was the castle of Habus,—that
monarch to whom popular credulity, unable otherwise to account for
his prodigious wealth, attributed the possession of the philosopher’s
stone,—surmounted by the bronze effigy of a Moorish warrior on
horseback, armed with a double-headed lance, which turned with
every breeze, whose existence, ascribed to enchanters, was
supposed to be inseparably connected with the fate of the city, and
which the fears of the superstitious had invested with the virtues of a
powerful talisman. In the very centre of the population, surrounded
by the turmoil of a great commercial capital, stood the Djalma, or
principal mosque. While vastly inferior in dimensions, splendor, and
sanctity to the great temple of Cordova, it was long one of the holiest
shrines of the Moslem world. Its arches were supported by columns
of marble and jasper. Its floor was formed of blue and white
enamelled tiles. From its shallow cupolas, glittering with golden
stars, were suspended innumerable lamps. Its mihrab was encrusted
with mosaics. In its court-yard the waters gushed from pipes of
bronze and silver into a basin of alabaster.
Adjoining the mosque, in accordance with the custom which
always placed institutions of learning and places of worship together,
was the famous University of Granada. Founded by Yusuf I., under
whose personal supervision its building was erected, its treasury had
been enriched by the munificence of every succeeding sovereign. In
its general appearance that building resembled those elsewhere
raised for public uses by the piety or the ostentation of the emirs of
Granada. As if in open defiance of the rule of the Koran, which
sternly prohibited the representation of animal forms, the portals of
an edifice largely devoted to the study of that volume were guarded
by lions carved in stone. Its apartments, admirably adapted to the
purposes for which they were designed, were almost destitute of
ornamentation, in order that the attention of the scholar might not be
diverted from his studies. Appropriate texts and legends from the
works of celebrated writers were inscribed upon the walls in letters of
gold. Here were taught the natural and the exact sciences,—law,
theology, philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, and medicine. A great
number of eminent men, renowned in every branch of literature and
in every useful profession, are mentioned by Arab biographers as
having received their education at the University of Granada. The
halls were open even to the national enemy, and the Castilian
obtained in a hostile capital those principles of knowledge which his
native country was unable to afford.
It was the last institution of learning worthy of the name left in the
Peninsula. It was the exponent of scientific method, of intellectual
advancement, of liberal thought, of enlightened toleration; the final
refuge of Moorish culture which, expelled by armed force from its
ancient seat upon the Guadalquivir, had implored the protection of a
race of kings who emulated with distinguished success the noble
example of the khalifs, it represented the flickering ray of a
civilization which, during an epoch most conspicuous in the history of
national development, had illumined with noonday splendor the
darkness of mediæval Europe.
Originally settled by members of the military division of Damascus
who served in the army of Musa, Granada ever loved to boast a
fanciful and traditional resemblance to the famous capital of Syria.
But that capital, with all its magnificence, rising like an enchanted
vision from the desert, could never compare in picturesqueness of
situation, in productiveness of soil, in salubrity of climate, in
architectural splendor, with the beautiful city of the Spanish emirs.
Attracted by the purity of its atmosphere, the inhabitants of Africa
sought, amidst its verdant groves and refreshing waters, relief from
the ailments induced by the sultry and malarial vapors of the coast.
The fame of their kinsmen frequently prompted the sultans of Fez to
cross the sea, and become sometimes suppliants for favor,
sometimes suitors for the hand of Moorish princesses, traversing
with their swarthy retinues the streets upon carpets of flowers and
under canopies of silk and gold.
The fate of the Hispano-Arab empire had always been closely
associated with the policy of the states of Northern Africa. Thence
had come the invading army which, like an irresistible tempest,
swept away the Visigothic monarchy. Thence came the Almoravides,
who seized the throne of the Ommeyade Khalifate, and the hordes of
fanatics who had levelled the remaining monuments of civilization
with the dust. The princes of Granada had been alternately the
vassals and the allies of the sultans of Fez, Tunis, and Tlemcen, but
never their masters. For generations African garrisons occupied the
keys of the Peninsula,—Algeziras, Gibraltar, Tarifa.
The political sagacity of Mohammed I. had early recognized the
necessity of maintaining amicable relations with his Mauritanian
neighbors. From his reign the prayer for the Sultan was offered daily
in every mosque. Magnificent embassies, bearing valuable gifts,
frequently solicited his friendship. His intervention was sought in
settlement of the pretensions of rival claimants to the throne. The
fiercest warriors of the Atlas Mountains were enrolled in the guard of
the emirs. The Gomeres, the Zegris, and the Abencerrages were
permanently established in different quarters of the city which were
long distinguished by their names; and the African influence
represented by the bloody feuds of these jealous tribesmen exerted
no inconsiderable effect upon the ultimate fate of the kingdom of
Granada.
The general attractions of the populous and luxurious capital,
manifold as they were, paled, however, before the splendors of the
royal palaces. Of these, nine in number, the chief in extent and
beauty was the Alhambra. Rising upon a jutting promontory of the
Sierra, its highest point towered five hundred feet above the city. A
double wall surrounded it; the outer line of circumvallation enclosing
an oval half a mile in length by seven hundred and thirty feet in its
greatest diameter. Here were domiciled all the numerous officials
and retainers of an Oriental court and the ministers of religion, the
viziers, the faquis, the muftis, the kadis, the guards, the relatives of
the monarch, and the discarded sultanas. Oxide of iron in the plaster
which covered the walls had imparted to them a coral hue, from
whence the imposing pile derived its name of Medina-al-Hamra, The
Red City. The battlements were painted white, and, projected against
the brilliant green of the mountain-side, were visible for a distance of
many leagues. The palace itself, isolated by a wall and a moat, was
of vast dimensions and of quadrangular form. In the centre and at
each corner was a court with encircling galleries, charming:
pavilions, and innumerable fountains. At the right of the entrance, in
accordance with Oriental custom, was the apartment where the Emir,
or, in his absence, the kadi, daily dispensed justice. Beyond, opening
upon the largest court in the palace, was the great hall of audience,
devoted to grand ceremonials,—coronations, royal festivals, and the
reception of foreign ambassadors. Its dome, inlaid with ivory and
gold upon a surface of blue, green, and scarlet, was sixty feet in
height. Its walls were covered with gilded stucco-work upon a ground
of brilliant colors; its floor was of great slabs of white marble; in its
centre was a fountain of beautiful design. Constructed by the pride
and emulous ostentation of many sovereigns, the Alhambra
presented an epitome of the progress and the perfection of Arab
decorative art. To its magnificence the taste and invention of every
Oriental nation had contributed, but the utmost efforts of their skill
had been eclipsed by the genius of the native Moorish architects.
The arcades of every court, the walls of every apartment, afforded
unmistakable evidences of the foreign origin whence was derived the
civilization that erected them. In the slender marble pillars could be
discerned the tent-poles which sustained the fragile and temporary
shelter of the nomad of the Desert. The mural decorations, which in
the marvellous delicacy of their intricate patterns resembled silk and
gold brocade, were copied from the shawls of Cashmere. In the blue
domes, studded with shining stars, the Moslem recognized a
representation of the firmament under whose boundless expanse his
Syrian ancestors watched their flocks or followed with weary steps
the midnight march of the plodding caravan. The grotto-like stalactitic
arches and cupolas, modelled after a section of a pomegranate from
which the seeds had been removed, were also symbolical of the
cave which sheltered the Prophet during his flight from Mecca. In all
the truly characteristic and distinctive features of this ornamentation
the precepts of the Koran were generally, but not universally,
observed. The tracery, fairly bewildering in its complexity, was
composed of an infinite variety of combinations of simple, geometric
forms. The segments of graceful curves were blended in a thousand
fantastic designs with the rich foliage of tropical plants and flowers.
The ceilings were made up of different sections of the cube,—
triangles, prisms, rhomboids. The interior of an apartment in this
gorgeous edifice suggested the influence of the supernatural rather
than the ingenuity of man. Its doors, ten feet in height, were inlaid,
painted, and gilt. The floor was of glazed tiles and marble; the ceiling
of stalactites, resplendent with crimson and gold. The walls were
hung with brocaded tapestry and decorated leather. Light was
admitted through windows of stained glass on which appeared pious
texts and the cipher of the sovereign. Silver censers of globular form
diffused everywhere the smoke of rare perfumes. The divans were
covered with rich silks striped with many colors. On one side the eye
fell upon a court-yard paved with broad slabs of alabaster, in its
centre a great fountain supported by twelve grotesque lions; on the
other, it was charmed by a panorama of unequalled grandeur and
beauty,—a view of hill and valley, of palace and hamlet, of villa and
plantation, refreshed by a myriad of sparkling rivulets, fragrant with
the intoxicating odors of countless gardens, framed in a gorgeous
setting of empurpled mountains, verdant plain, and firmament of the
clearest blue. Not without reason did the Emir of Granada liken his
abode to Paradise!
In the decorations of this enchanted palace nothing exceeded in
elegance the inscriptions, in which might be read its history and the
sentiments and aspirations of its royal founders. Some were texts
taken from the Koran. Others were selections from the poems of
famous writers. On the capitals of columns appeared the cheerful
greetings, “Prosperity,” “Happiness,” “Blessing.” The Cufic and the
Neshki characters lent themselves with peculiar facility to this
method of ornamentation. Artistic ingenuity had so disposed the
letters that they could be read in either direction; and skilfully
inserted in many legends of double significance were the names and
the nationality of the craftsmen who had executed the work. Amidst
the maze of tracery were emblazoned the arms of the kings of
Granada, bestowed upon the first of the Alhamares by Ferdinand III.,
—a shield of crimson crossed by a golden bar held in the mouths of
dragons and inscribed with the motto, “There is no conqueror but
God.”
In the summer portion of the palace the walls of enormous
thickness, the dimly lighted apartments, the marble lattices, the lace-
like spandrels through which passed, without obstruction, the lightest
breeze, the perpetual ripple of waters, banished from the minds of
the inmates even the idea of the discomforts of a semi-tropical
climate. The winter palace, of larger dimensions, while certainly not
inferior in elegance to the remainder of the edifice, afforded less
opportunity for the display of architectural magnificence. The rooms
were smaller, and the distribution of water confined to the necessities
of religious and sanitary ablution. Warmth was distributed by the
Roman hypocaust, a system of earthenware pipes similar in
arrangement to a modern furnace. A higher degree of temperature
was obtained by the use of metal globes filled with burning charcoal,
which were rolled over the floors of the apartments. A bath, the
luxury of whose apartments was unsurpassed in the realm of Islam,
offered that voluptuous indulgence which was to the devout Moslem
a sacred obligation, enjoined by his creed and inculcated by the
traditions of centuries.
The mosque of the Alhambra, raised by the piety of Mohammed
III., was recognized by all Moslems as one of the most exquisite
temples of their religion. Its foundations had been laid by the toil of
Christian captives. The expense of its erection as well as the
revenues required by the worship celebrated within its walls—a
worship which far exceeded in ostentatious splendor that of the
Great Mosque of the city—were largely derived from the proceeds of
forays and the tributes levied upon the Jewish and Christian
population. Its materials were the rarest and most expensive that
could be procured. Columns of jasper, of porphyry, of Numidian
marble, and of alabaster sustained its arches, enriched with delicate
stuccoes and inlaid with lazulite and onyx. The bases and capitals of
these columns were of silver carved in arabesques and flowers.
From the ceiling, painted with blue and gold, hung fifty lamps of
shell, mother-of-pearl, and bronze, whose light was tempered by
rose-colored shades of silken gauze. In its tile-work, its legends, its
mosaics, its harmoniously blended hues, the Moorish artificer had
exhausted every device of human skill. Adjoining the mosque was
the pantheon, wherein, deposited in caskets of massy silver, were
entombed the emirs of Granada. Their marble sarcophagi were
ranged around a sombre vault, whose roof, like that of the Mihrab of
the Djalma of Cordova, was chiselled in imitation of a shell.
Within the great circuit of the Alhambra were many secret
apartments, subterranean passages, and galleries subservient to the
uses of the eunuchs and the garrison, which communicated with the
fortifications of the city. In the gardens, of which there were several,
the capricious taste of the Arab was disclosed by peculiarities of
floral embellishment,—walks paved with colored pebbles in
arabesque patterns; beds of myrtle representing meadows in which
grew plants and diminutive trees of the same vegetation clipped into
forms of perfect symmetry; royal ciphers and pious legends traced in
flowers of scarlet, purple, white, and yellow on a field of emerald
green. The riotous fancy of Moorish genius attained its maximum
development in the construction of this palace, celebrated by every
traveller of ancient and modern times as unrivalled in picturesque
elegance and beauty. In the delightful villas within the walls or
adjacent to the city, the emirs, in the company of their favorite
slaves, were accustomed to pass many months of the year. All of
them resembled the Alhambra in arrangement and decoration, yet
each was distinguished from the others by some peculiarity from
which it derived its name. In one was a labyrinth of waters,—
streams, cascades, and fountains, whose jets were projected to the
height of sixty feet; another was famed for the virtues of a medicinal
spring; in a third was an immense artificial lake; to another was
attached an aviary filled with the song-birds of every clime.
The channels of three great aqueducts which supplied the city
and palaces were in many places tunnelled through the solid rock.
Their waters were also utilized for mining purposes, the cliffs in the
vicinity of the Darro being especially rich in mineral deposits. The
daily rental of a single mountain in the rear of the Alhambra, where
toiled four hundred Christian slaves, amounted to two hundred
ducats of gold. From the royal demesnes, thirty in number, an annual
income of twenty-five thousand dinars, or four hundred and fifty
thousand dollars, was derived; and in addition to this great sum were
the revenues from the mines, the forests, the pastures, the ransom
of captives, and the tribute of vassals. At the roll of the Moorish
atabal fifty thousand soldiers sprang to arms. Of these, eight
thousand cavalry—the most splendid in equipment, the most rapid in
evolution, of any similar force in Europe—were quartered with
twenty-five thousand cross-bowmen in the Alhambra. The entire
available military force of the kingdom was not less than three
hundred thousand men.
An examination of the character of the inhabitants of Granada
reveals to us one of the many causes of their fall. They are
described as incredibly selfish, as deficient in humanity, without
sympathy for the living or reverence for the dead. In times of scarcity,
the superfluity of the rich was abused for the oppression of the poor.
They celebrated their riotous festivals in the vicinity of cemeteries.
That humble piety which is at once the merit and the security of a
people was extinct. The most sacred precepts of religion were
constantly violated. In the infidel University of Granada the maxims
of Averroes and other heretics of the Cordovan school were publicly
taught. The use of wine was almost universal; and the fasts enjoined
by Mohammed were transformed into scenes of wassail and license.
Charity was refused alike to the worthy unfortunate and the brazen
impostor. The schools of theology were full of scoffers and
hypocrites. In the congregations of the mosques, the women
outnumbered members of the other sex ten to one. The delineation
of animal forms, that abomination of the devout Moslem, was
everywhere visible,—on the arms of the sovereign, on the public
fountains, on the ramparts, on the ceilings of palaces, in the
institutions of learning, at the very portals of edifices dedicated to the
study of the Koran. The monarch, to whose example the people
naturally turned for instruction and whose family traced its genealogy
in a direct line to the Ansares, the Companions of the Prophet, was
not infrequently the first to violate the maxims of a religion of which
he was the acknowledged representative. The entire population was
deficient in the principle of cohesion indispensable to the
maintenance of political power. Its elements were composed of the
antagonistic fragments of a hundred tribes and factions. Sectarian
prejudice had been succeeded by undisguised hostility. Familiarity
with assassination, the impunity of frequent revolt, the exile of
princes, the recurrence of civil war, a succession of usurpers, had
practically abrogated the principle of loyalty. Without attachment to
the soil, without reverence for the throne, without incentives to
national independence, without aspirations for national glory, even
the appearance of patriotism could not exist. Enervated by luxury,
the military spirit, which sometimes prolongs the existence of
moribund nations, had ceased to display that ferocious energy which
had so frequently led the armies of Islam to victory. Twice had large
bodies of the citizens of Granada, exasperated by tyranny, resolved
on expatriation, and solicited the protection of the kings of Castile. In
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