UNIT 4

Tense aspect and modality - Time and tense. Tense and aspect. The tenses: simple present, present
progressive; stative and dynamic verbs; simple past, past progressive, the perfect tenses: present and past.
The future. Marginal modal auxiliaries. Modal auxiliaries and related verbs. Modals in the past. Meanings
expressed by modal auxiliary verbs.

We concentrate on three kinds of variation in the verb phrase: tense, aspect, and modality.
These structures can be combined in numerous ways, as you will see throughout the chapter. For example, the
verb phrase will be eating has a modal+ progressive aspect. The parts of the verb phrase-and therefore the
auxiliary verbs associated with each part-follow a consistent order (optional elements are in parentheses):

Tense and time distinctions

In English, finite verb phrases can be marked for only two tenses: present and past. Verb phrases that are marked
for tense are called tensed verb phrases.
Other main verb phrases may include a modal verb. However, these two options cannot occur together: a finite
verb phrase either has a modal or is marked for tense, but not both. Non-finite phrases, as in to-clauses and ing
clauses, do not include either tensed or modal verbs.
So, it is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to talk about time.
For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:
  I hope it rains tomorrow.
"rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)
Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:
 If I had some money now, I could buy it.
"had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)

Time is a concept which is related to our perception of reality. There are three times: past, present and future.
Tense is a grammatical category which is marked by verb inflection and expresses when an event or action
happens in the flow of time.

Strictly speaking, only two English tenses are marked by the inflection of the verb:
 past (talked)
 present (talks)

Other tenses are marked by auxiliaries (be, have):

 past continuous (was/were talking)
 past perfect (had talked)
 past perfect continuous (had been talking)
 present continuous (am/are/is talking)
 present perfect (have/has talked)
 present perfect continuous (have/has been talking)
As future time is expressed with the modal will + infinitive and not with inflection, the forms with will (will
talk, will be talking, will have talked, will have been talking) are not considered to be tenses.

However, for the sake of convenience, we refer to them as such.

Therefore, the twelve basic

tenses in English are: Perfect
Simple Continuous Perfect
continuous

Past Past Past Past Past perfect

simple continuous perfect continuous

Present Present Present Present Present perfect

simple continuous perfect continuous
Future Future Future Future Future perfect
simple continuous perfect continuous

Note that certain tenses in English may refer to a different time than that expressed by their names. For
example, the present continuous tense may refer to either present or future time:

"What are you doing?" "I'm reading." (present reference)

"What are you doing on Wednesday evening?" "I'm visiting my grandma." (future reference)

Aspect addresses whether or not the action takes place in a single block of time or if the action is continuous or
repeated.

Aspect is a grammatical category that reflects the perspective from which an action/situation is seen: as complete,
in progress, having duration, beginning, ending, or being repeated. English has two aspects, progressive (also
called continuous) and perfect(ive). Verbs that are not marked for aspect (the majority of them are not) are said
to have simple aspect. In British English, the perfective aspect is much more common than in American English,
since Americans often use the past simple where Britons use the present perfect.
Verb phrases can be marked for both aspects at the same time (the perfect progressive, however, is infrequent).
The following combinations are possible: present progressive; past progressive; present perfective; past
perfective; present perfective progressive; past perfective progressive:

He’s sleeping; He was sleeping

He has slept; He had slept
He has been sleeping; He had been sleeping

Usually, grammars contrast the progressive with the perfective aspect (and the simple, for that matter) on the
basis that the former refers to an action/event as in progress, while the latter tends to indicate the completeness of
an action, to see actions and events as a whole and a situation as permanent. This is certainly a useful distinction,
which will not be questioned here; yet students must be aware that the above is an oversimplified view, as is
demonstrated by the fact that the two aspects can combine within a single verb phrase.

Progressive aspect
The progressive aspect, either in the present or past tense, generally refers to an action/event (usually of limited
duration) in progress at a particular time, to an uncompleted activity, to a temporary state of affairs or a temporary
habit.
The present progressive is formed by the present tense of the verb be + the -ing form of the lexical verb, the past
progressive by was/were + the -ing form of the lexical verb:
Can you answer the door? I’m shaving
Look, it’s snowing!
I’m going to bed very late these days
We’re studying German this year
I was sleeping when I hear a strange noise
I was living in Buenos Aires at the time.

The activity may also not be, strictly speaking, continuous, that is to say it may refer to a series of individual acts:
Some of the demonstrators are smashing shop windows
Needless to say, the progressive aspect does not reflect the length of an action, but the speaker’s view of a certain
event. Though aspect and the duration of an action are somehow related – in fact, to describe an event lasting
only a short time the simple aspect is more frequently used – the simple aspect is not reserved for short actions
nor is the progressive used exclusively to talk about events lasting for a (fairly) long time.
As we have seen above, the progressive aspect can combine with the perfective aspect, both
present and past, as well as with a modal or a modal and a perfective together. Finally, the infinitive can also be
used in the progressive:

I’ve been toiling for hours

You must be kidding
He must have been joking
It’s too early to be sleeping

Normally, only so-called dynamic verbs are used in the progressive, while stative verbs are
found in the simple aspect. Yet, stative verbs can sometimes occur in the progressive – when, for instance, they
refer to a situation which extends over time but is not permanent – while some dynamic verbs – those referring
to actions taking a very short time – usually occur in the simple form. Indeed, the difference between stative and
dynamic verbs is not so clear-cut as is often thought to be, and thus deserves to be examined in some detail. Such
difference is better conceived in terms of a continuum, and it would be more correct to talk about the stative or
dynamic senses in which a verb is used, though the traditional distinction between stative and dynamic verbs
is undoubtedly convenient (provided it is not applied in a simplistic way).
Stative verbs are verbs of “being”. Since they refer to “states”, they are normally used with the simple aspect.
On the contrary, dynamic verbs are verbs of “doing”, they refer to activities, events and processes. They can
occur in both the simple and the progressive aspects, depending on the meaning speakers wish to convey. The
first of the following sentences refers to a habitual, repeated action, the latter to an action in progress at the time
of speaking:
I work on Saturday morning
I’m working now
In general, two elements determine if a verb is frequently or rarely found in the progressive aspect: the length of
the action described by the verb and the status of the subject as either agent or experiencer. The progressive form
is common in clauses that have a human agent as subject and refer to an action, event, state or situation which
last for a substantial period of time; contrariwise, verbs that are rarely used in the progressive form describe
temporary states of short duration or actions that take place very quickly.
Stative verbs indicate possession and describe thoughts, beliefs, feelings, wishes, preferences, perceptions of
the senses, as well as states of being. Verbs that typically occur with stative senses are:
1) verbs of perception, such as: appear, feel, hear, see, seem, smell, sound and taste;
2) verbs that refers to mental, emotional and cognitive states, such as: adore, assume, believe, care, consider,
desire, detest, dislike, doubt, envy, expect, fear, find (meaning “consider”), forget, forgive, guess, hate, hear
(meaning “to be told”), hope, imagine, intend, know, like, love, mean, mind, notice, prefer, realize, recall,
recognize, refuse, regard, regret, remember, see (meaning “understand”), want, wish, wonder;
3) verbs that contain the idea of “being” and “having”, that refer to situations which cannot easily be imagined
as having a time limitation: be, have (meaning “possess”), belong, compare (meaning “be similar to”), concern,
consist, contain, cost, depend, deserve, differ, equal, exist, fit, hold, include, interest, involve, lack, matter,
measure, need, owe, own, possess, remain, require, resemble, suit.

Some examples of verbs normally used in stative senses:

It just seems strange to me

I detest football
The police intend to prosecute him
Of course I recall our first meeting!
The whole estate belongs to him
I’m afraid this will involve plenty of paperwork
It surely matters how you spend our money!
I owe you a favour
We think we deserve some reward for our work
My opinion on the issue of genetically-modified food does not differ from yours

The progressive aspect is unacceptable with stative verbs describing qualities – i.e. (relatively) permanent and
inalienable characteristics/properties of the subject referent – as different from states, which refer to less
permanent situations and thus can occur in the progressive:
They own a beautiful country house / *They are owing a beautiful country house
She has wonderful eyes / *She’s having wonderful eyes
Most stative verbs are not incompatible with the progressive aspect, though. When used in the progressive form,
these verbs are reclassified, and a change of interpretation takes place. They may refer to an action/situation or
behaviour that has limited duration:
He is not an honest man; I’m sure he’s not being honest with you
I love music; I’m loving the music tonight
That car costs quite a lot; This night out is costing me a fortune:

Stative verbs can also take the progressive form when the idea of an uncompleted physical or mental state is
emphasized. Furthermore, verbs expressing attitudes or emotions may convey tentativeness if used in the
progressive (often the past progressive):
 I’m hoping they will reconsider their decision
I’m forgetting all I have learnt at school
I was wondering if I did the right thing

Verbs referring to sensory perceptions are usually preceded by can/could. However, they can also be used in the
progressive, when emphasis is put on the process of perception:

I can hear you I could feel the difference

There’s no need to shout. I’m hearing you!
I’m not seeing well with these new glasses

The deliberate acts corresponding to the involuntary sensory reactions indicated by hear and see are expressed
through the verbs listen and look. On the contrary, feel, smell and taste refer to both voluntary action and
involuntary perception. Needless to say, verbs referring to voluntary actions can be found in the continuous
form:

I (can) hear what they say; I’m listening to what they are saying
I (can) see her; I’m looking at her
I felt / could feel a hand touching my shoulder; I’m feeling the quality of
the leather
I (can) smell gas; She’s smelling the flowers
I (can) taste cinnamon in the cake; He’s tasting the custard

When they refer to a temporary condition, verbs describing bodily sensation can be used in both the simple and
progressive form with hardly any difference in meaning:

My knee aches badly; My knee is aching badly I feel tired; I’m feeling tired

As we have already stated, dynamic verbs indicate activities, they do not describe events as a whole. They
can occur in both the progressive and non-progressive form. They include verbs indicating a temporary situation
or an activity having some duration (for example cook, jog, live, read, study, work):

I was living in New York at that time

I’m making a cake

Some dynamic verbs are punctual, i.e. they refer to events that have very little duration, and thus they generally
occur in the simple aspect. Examples of punctual verbs are break, close, hit, jump, knock, nod, and tap. When
used in the progressive, they often indicate the repetition of an action:

They were jumping in with excitement

Someone’s knocking at the door.

A punctual verb can also be used in the progressive aspect for emphasis. This could be the case, for instance,
when speakers see events in slow-motion, or when they want to focus on something which happened while
something else was going on, even though this latter is an action taking only a little time to be completed:

Here Beckam is committing a nasty foul

The bullet struck him while he was closing the window

Two more examples:

They were hitting the man with a baton;
 He’s opening the door of the hotel.

The first sentence refers to the repetition of a momentary act, to a series of blows delivered to the man; the
second would make sense, once again, if interpreted as a series of acts (the person performing the action is a
hotel doorman), or if reference is purposely made to the few seconds an act such as opening a door takes to be
completed. In a radio or television commentary about an important political meetings, for example, it would not
sound strange even to dwell upon the opening of the door of a Prime Minister’s residence.

Verbs indicating a change of state or position, such as: arrive, become, die, drown, grow, land, leave, stop, turn,
can be used in the progressive aspect. When this is the case they refer to the period of time leading up to the
change of state (which need not take place):

Do something! They’re drowning

I’m growing old
The plane is landing
I’m leaving

A few verbs can be used either in the simple or the continuous form with no significant
difference of meaning:
You look great / you are looking great
I feel depressed / I’m feeling depressed
Other verbs can be used in both aspects, but with a difference in meaning. Consider the
following examples:
I think you’re wrong (= believe); I’m thinking about what you said (= reflecting on)
She comes from France (= lives in); She’s coming from France (= travelling)
I see what you mean (= understand); I’m seeing her quite often (= meet)
This room looks really nice (= the verb refers to the appearance of the room); He’s looking at you (= he
has directed his eyes in your direction)
Your suitcase weighs too much (the verb refers to the weight of the suitcase); People at the check-in
desk are weighing his suitcase (= they are measuring how heavy the suitcase is) The rules apply to
everyone (= concern); We are applying for a trading licence (= make an application for)
I consider him to be the best in his field (= think); They are considering my application (= look carefully
at)
Would you mind if I borrowed your bike? (= object); Our friends are minding the bags (= take care of)

So, the progressive aspect describes activities or events in progress at a particular time, usually for a limited
amount of time.
The present progressive describes events that are currently in progress, or events that are going to take
place in the future and about which the speaker feels quite certain.

present progressive describing an event in progress:

What's she doing?
I'm looking for an employee of yours.
present progressive with future time reference:
But she's coming back tomorrow.
I'm going with him next week.

Past progressive verbs describe events that were in progress at an earlier time:
I was just coming back from Witham.
Well he was saying that he's finding it a bit difficult.
It is sometimes assumed that the progressive aspect occurs only with dynamic verbs that describe activities.
However, the progressive is also used with verbs that describe a situation or a state. In this case, the
progressive refers to the ongoing continuation of the state:
Chris is living there now.
I was sitting in my office smoking one of James's cigarettes.

Perfective aspect
The perfective aspect is used to refer to a state or action which has taken place before the time of speaking, as
well as to a state or action (or series of actions) occurring in a period of time we imagine as continuing until the
present or until a certain moment in the past (until now or until then), or that has just ended. Remember: the events
and situations referred to by the perfective aspect have some relevance to the time of speaking (the present in the
case of the present perfective, the past in the case of the past perfective, the future in the case of the future
perfective). The perfective aspect is also used to indicate the completeness of an action, to see events as a whole:

I have tidied my room

I’ve often spent my holidays in South America
She had just found a solution to the problem

The present perfective is formed by have/has + past participle, the past and by had + past participle, while the
future perfective by will have + past participle:
I have had the same car for twelve years! It’s time to get a new one
I had lived in Paris for two years when I decided to come back home
We will have been together for ten years next month

The perfective aspect can combine with the progressive aspect, with a modal or with a modal and a progressive
together (examples of the first and third combination are also provided above); perfect infinitives are also to be
found:
I’ve been running
He had been watching TV all day
You should have done this more carefully
He must have been kidding
They seem to have liked the film

Note that the perfect progressive aspect indicates the possible incompleteness of an action. In the following
examples, it is not clear whether the action has been completed or not:
I’ve been repairing my bike (I may or may not have finished repairing the bike)
They have been cleaning their room for hours (they may or may not have finished
cleaning)

EXERCISES
A. Each of the following sentences exhibits aspect. Is it perfective aspect or
progressive aspect?
1. David has bought a new house Perfective
Progressive
2. I think we have seen this film already Perfective
Progressive
3. The whole class is going to the theatre tonight Perfective
Progressive
4. John's left his coat in the car Perfective
Progressive
5. Susan's leaving today Perfective
Progressive

B. Identifying perfect and progressive aspect

Every verb phrase either has simple aspect (the unmarked form), perfect aspect, progressive aspect, or perfect
progressive aspect.
Underline all verb phrases (finite and non-finite) in the sentences below.
Identify the aspect of each verb phrase: simple, perfect, progressive, or perfect
progressive.

1 The guards had found a note. had FOUND – PERFECT ASPECT

2 For nearly a year, the Zairian president has been living just down the road.
3 1 think now I might be going to San Diego this weekend.
4 Vecco's family has lived since 1969 in the spacious apartment that has become the
ultimate room with a view.
5 Welt, you could have used the meat pot.
6 Carla had decided to major in psychology and had been giving all of us frequent
free analysis.
7 1 think it was hotter today-I was sweating all day.
8 At that point, Ritchie had been sitting in one of the 8-feet-by-&feet rooms for
about five hours,
9 He is young enough to be in his prime and old enough to have acquired the
necessary experience at both baseball and life.
10 But he was just saying that he doesn't want a reward.

Tense and time distinctions: simple

present and past tense

A Simple present tense and present time

Simple present tense often refers to present time, as in these examples:

1 I want a packet of crisps.
2 The pigment occurs in the epidermal cells.
3 She's vegetarian but she eats chicken.
4 He dances and moves about a lot.
5 Here comes your mother.
6 Oh, my goodness. There he goes. Look at him walk. (talking about a toddler)

There are three major meanings for simple present tense when it refers to present time:

It can describe a state that exists at the present time. You can see this meaning in 1 and 2. The state may
be temporary, as in 1, or it may last for a longer time, as in 2.
 It can refer to a habitual action, as in 3 and 4. In these examples, simple present tense is used to refer to
an activity that is repeated on occasion, rather than to a state of being.
It can describe an action that is happening at the present time, as in 5 and 6.

In addition, simple present tense can sometimes be used to refer to past or future time.

Form of the simple present tense

We add s or es to the base form of the verb in the third person singular

I work
You work
He works
She works in an office
It works
We work
You work
They work

Spelling of the 3rd person singular

 Most verbs add s work/works drive/drives play/plays run/runs

 Verbs normally add es when they end in o do/does s miss/ misses x mix/mixes -ch catch/catches -sh
push/pushes.
 When there is a consonant before -y, change to les cry/cries but compare buy/buys say/says obey/obeys.

Uses of the simple present tense

1 Permanent truths
We use the simple present for statements that are always true
Summer follows spring Gases expand when heated

2 'The present period'

We use the simple present to refer to events actions or situations which are true in the present period of time and
which for all we know may continue indefinitely What we are saying in effect, is 'this is the situation as it stands
at present'
My father works in a bank My sister wears glasses

3 Habitual actions
The simple present can be used with or without an adverb of time to describe habitual actions, things that happen
repeatedly
I get up at 7
John smokes a lot
We can be more precise about habitual actions by using the simple present with adverbs of indefinite frequency
(always never, etc ) or with adverbial phrases such as every day / sometimes stay up till midnight
She visits her parents every day

We commonly use the simple present to ask and answer questions which begin with How often…?
How often do you go to the dentist? - I go every six months

Questions relating to habit can be asked with ever and answered with e g never and sometimes not ever
Do you ever eat meat? - No I never eat meat

4 Future reference
This use is often related to timetables and programmes or to events in the calendar
The exhibition opens on January 1st and closes on January 31st
The concert begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.30
We leave tomorrow at 11.15 and arrive at 17.50
Wednesday, May 24th marks our 25th wedding anniversary

5 Observations and declarations

We commonly use the simple present with stative and other verbs to make observations and declarations in the
course of conversation e g

I hope/assume/suppose/promise everything will be all right

I bet you were nervous /ust before your driving test
It says here that the police expect more trouble in the city
I declare this exhibition open
I see/hear there are roadworks in the street again
I love you I hate him
We live in difficult times - I agree
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
Write sentences using the adverbs in brackets
The present progressive tense

Form of the present progressive tense

The progressive is formed with the present of be + the -ing form See under be for details about form

I am I’m waiting I’m waiting

You are You’re You’re
writing writing
He is He’s He’s
She is She’s running She’s running
It is It’s It’s
We are We’re beginning We’re beginning
You are You’re You’re
lying lying
They are They’re They’re

Spelling: how to add '-ing' to a verb

wait/waiting
We can add -ing to most verbs without changing the spelling of their base forms. Other examples: beat/beating,
carry/carrying, catch/catching, drink/drinking, enjoy/enjoying, hurry/hurrying

write/writing
If a verb ends in -e, omit the -e and add -ing. Other examples:
come/coming, have/having, make/making, ride/riding, use/using This rule does not apply to verbs ending in
double e: agree/agreeing, see/seeing; or to age/ageing and singe/singeing

run/running
A verb that is spelt with a single vowel followed by a single consonant doubles its final consonant. Other
examples: hit/hitting, let/letting put/putting, run/running, sit/sitting
Compare: e.g. beat/beating which is not spelt with a single vowel and
which therefore does not double its final consonant.

begin/beginning
With two-syllable verbs, the final consonant is normally doubled when
the last syllable is stressed. Other examples: for'get/forgetting, pre'fer/prefernng, up'set/upsetting Compare:
'benefit/benefiting, 'differ/differing and 'profit/profiting which are stressed on their first syllables and do not
double their final consonants.
Note 'label/labelling 'quarrel/quarrelling, 'signal/signalling and 'travel/travelling (BrE) which are exceptions to
this rule.
Compare: labeling, quarreling, signaling, traveling (AmE) -ic at the end of a verb changes to -ick when we add
-ing:
panic/panicking picnic'picnicking traffic/trafficking

lie/lying
Other examples: die/dying, tie/tying

The present tenses in typical contexts

The simple present and present progressive in commentary
The simple present and the present progressive are often used in commentaries on events taking place at the
moment, particularly on radio and television. In such cases, the simple present is used to describe rapid actions
completed at the moment of speaking and the progressive is used to describe longer-lasting actions:
MacFee passes to Franklyn Franklyn makes a quick pass to Booth
Booth is away with the ball, but he's losing his advantage

The simple present and present progressive in narration

When we are telling a story or describing things that have happened to us, we often use present tenses (even
though the events are in the past) in order to sound more interesting and dramatic. The progressive is used for
'background' and the simple tense for the main events:
I'm driving along this country road and I'm completely lost Then I see this old fellow He’s leaning against
a gate I stop the car and ask him the way He thinks a bit then says, 'Well, if I were you, I wouldn't start
from here '

The simple present in demonstrations and instructions

This use of the simple present is an alternative to the imperative .
It illustrates step-by-step instructions:
First (you) boil some water Then (you) warm the teapot Then (you)
add three teaspoons of tea Next, (you) pour on boiling water

The simple present in synopses (e.g. reviews of books, films, etc.)

Kate Fox's novel is an historical romance set in London in the
1880's The action takes place over a period of 30 years

9.12.5 The simple present and present progressive in newspaper

headlines and e.g. photographic captions
The simple present is generally used to refer to past events:
FREAK SNOW STOPS TRAFFIC
DISARMAMENT TALKS BEGIN IN VIENNA
The abbreviated progressive refers to the future. The infinitive can
also be used for this purpose
CABINET MINISTER RESIGNING SOON (or: TO RESIGN SOON)
B Simple past tense and past time

Simple past tense is most often used to refer to past time. In fictional narrative and description, the use of simple
past tense is common for describing imagined past states and events:
The clock on the tower of St Michael-in-the-Moor chimed nine as he came
onto the road. The milkman's van was on the green; Mrs Southworth from
the Hall was at the pillar box, posting a letter. He walked on away from
the green and the houses up the bit of Jackley Road from which Tace Way
turned off.

In addition, simple past tense is sometimes used for a situation at the present time. In this case, the past tense
gives information about stance. It is usually used with verbs like think, wonder, and want. The clause refers to a
current state of mind, but the past tense conveys tentativeness and shows that the speaker is being polite:

Did you want a cup of tea?

I just wanted to thank you guys for allowing me to tape-record you.

Furthermore, in some types of dependent clauses, the simple past tense is used as the subjunctive, to show
hypothetical or 'unreal' conditions :

And if you were in the mood we could at least go.

 Timothy, it's time you got married.

The simple past tense

Form of the simple past tense with regular verbs

The form is the same for all persons

spelling
I arrive/arrived
He wait/waited
She stop/stopped
You occur/occurred
They cry/cried
Spelling of the regular past
The regular past always ends in -d:
arrive/arrived
Verbs ending in -e add -d: e.g. phone/phoned, smile/smiled- This rule applies equally to agree, die, lie, etc.

wait/waited
Verbs not ending in -e add -ed: e.g. ask/asked, clean/cleaned, follow/followed, video/videoed

stop/stopped
Verbs spelt with a single vowel letter followed by a single consonant letter double the consonant: beg/begged,
rub/rubbed

occur/occurred
In two-syllable verbs the final consonant is doubled when the last syllable contains a single vowel letter followed
by a single consonant letter and is stressed: pre'fer/preferred, re'ferlreferred- Compare: 'benefit/benefited,
'differ/differed and 'profit/profited which are
stressed on their first syllables and which therefore do not double their final consonants. In AmE labeled,
quarreled signaled and traveled follow the rule In BrE labelled quarrelled, signalled and travelled are exceptions
to the rule.

cry/cried When there is a consonant before -y, the y changes to / before we add ed eg carry earned deny denied
fry fried try tried Compare delay delayed obey obeyed play played, etc which have a vowel before -y and therefore
simply add -ed in the past.

Form of the simple past tense with irregular verbs

The form is the same for all persons

/
You
He
She shut the suitcase
It sat on
We
You
They

Uses of the simple past tense

 Completed actions
We normally use the simple past tense to talk about events, actions or situations which occurred in the past and
are now finished They may have happened recently
Sam phoned a moment ago

or in the distant past

The Goths invaded Rome in A.D. 410

A time reference must be given / had a word with Julian this morning
or must be understood from the context
/ saw Fred in town (i e when I was there this morning)
/ never met my grandfather (i e he is dead)

When we use the simple past, we are usually concerned with when an action occurred, not with its duration
.

 Past habit

Like used to, the simple past can be used to describe past habits
I smoked forty cigarettes a day till I gave up

 The immediate past

We can sometimes use the simple past without a time reference to describe something that happened a very short
time ago- Jimmy punched me in the stomach
Did the telephone ring?
Who left the door open? (Who's left the door open)?

 Polite inquiries, etc.

The simple past does not always refer to past time It can also be used for polite inquiries (particularly asking for
favours), often with verbs like hope think or wonder Compare:
I wonder if you could give me a lift
I wondered if you could give me a lift (more tentative/polite)
For the use of 'the unreal past' in conditional sentences

Adverbials with the simple past tense

The association of the past tense with adverbials that tell us when something happened is very important.
Adverbials used with the past tense must refer to past (not present) time. This means that adverbials which link
with the present (before now, so far till now yet) are not used with past tenses.
Some adverbials like yesterday, last summer and combinations with ago are used only with past tenses
/ saw Jane yesterday/last summer
Ago, meaning 'back from now', can combine with a variety of expressions to refer to the past: e g. two years ago,
six months ago, ten minutes ago, a long time ago
I met Robert Parr many years ago in Czechoslovakia

The past is often used with when to ask and answer questions:
When did you learn about it? - When I saw it in the papers
When often points to a definite contrast with the present:
/ played football every day when I was a boy

Other adverbials can be used with past tenses when they refer to past time, but can be used with other tenses as
well :
adverbs: I always liked Gloria
 I often saw her in Rome
Did you ever meet Sonia?
I never met Sonia

adverbial/prepositional phrases. We left at 4 o'clock/on Tuesday

We had our holiday in July
/ waited till he arrived

adverbial clauses:
I met him when I was at college

as + adverb + as:
I saw him as recently as last week.

Exercises
Read the following textbook article. Pay special attention to simple past-tense verbs.

Over 100 years ago, people only dreamed about flying. The Wright brothers, Wilbur and
Orville, were dreamers who changed the world. Wilbur Wright was born in 1867 and
Orville was born in 1871. In 1878, they received a paper flying toy from their father.
They played with kites and started to think about the possibility of flight. When they were older, they started a
bicycle business. They used the bicycle shop to design their airplanes. They studied three aspects of flying: lift,
control, and power. In 1899, they constructed
their first flying machine—a kite made of wood, wire, and cloth. It had no pilot. Because of wind, it was difficult
to control. They continued to study aerodynamics.1 Finally Wilbur designed a small machine with a gasoline
engine. Wilbur tried to fly the machine, but it crashed. They fixed it and flew it for the first time on December
17, 1903, with Orville as the pilot. The airplane remained in the air for twelve seconds. It traveled a distance of
120 feet. This historic flight changed the world. However, only four newspapers in the U.S. reported this historic
moment.
The Wright brothers offered their invention to the U.S. government, but the government rejected their offer at
first. The government didn’t believe that these men invented a flying machine. Finally, President Theodore
Roosevelt investigated their claims and offered the inventors a contract to build airplanes for the U.S. Army.
December 17, 2003, marked 100 years of flight. There was a six-day celebration at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina,
the location of the first flight. A crowd of 35,000 people gathered to see a replica of the first plane fly.
The cost to re-create the plane was $1.2 million. However, it rained hard that day and the plane failed to get off
the ground. You can now see the Wright brothers’ original airplane in the Air and Space Museum in Washington,
D.C.

Read more about the Wright brothers. Underline the past tense verbs in the following sentences.
The Wright brothers lived in Dayton, Ohio.
1. Their father worked as a Christian minister.
2. The boys learned mechanical things quickly.
3. They loved bicycles.
4. They opened the Wright Cycle Company repair shop, where they repaired bicycles.
5. They started to produce their own bicycle models.
6. The first airplane weighed over 600 pounds.
7. They succeeded in flying the first airplane in 1903.
8. Wilbur died nine years later, of typhoid.4
9. Orville lived to be 76 years old.

Write the past tense of these regular verbs.

learn learned clap clapped
love loved listen listened
1. play 11. enjoy
2. study 12. drag
3. decide 13. drop
4. want 14. start
5. like 15. follow
6. show 16. prefer
7. look 17. like
8. stop 18. mix
9. happen 19. admit
10. carry 20. Propel

Fill in the blanks with the past tense of the verb in parentheses ( ). Use the correct spelling.
The Wright brothers received a flying toy from their father. (receive)
1. They ………………………….. with kites. (play)
2. They …………………………. about flying. (dream)
3. They ……………………. everything they could about flying. (study)
4. They ………………………. a bicycle business. (start)
5. They ……………………. the bicycle shop to design airplanes. (use)
6. They ………………. to fly their first plane in 1899. (try)
7. Their first plane …………………………….. . (crash)
8. They …………………………. it. (fix)
9. In 1903, their plane ……………………. in the air for 12 seconds. (stay)
10. They ……………………. their invention to the U.S. government. (offer)
11. The government …………………. to offer them a contract. (decide)
12. Wilbur Wright …………………….. in 1912. (die)
13. Orville Wright ……………… for many more years. (live)
14. Their invention …………………… the world. (change)
Tell if you did or didn’t do these things in the past week. Add some specific information to tell more about
each item.
Ex - I didn’t go to the movies this week. I didn’t have time.
1. use the Internet 7. buy a magazine
2. write a letter 8. work hard
3. go to the library 9. look for a job
4. do laundry 10. rent a DVD
5. buy groceries 11. send e-mail
6. use a phone card 12. read a newspaper

Fill in the blanks with the correct words.

What kind of engine did the first airplane have?

The first airplane had a gasoline engine.
1. Where …………………………………………………………………. ?
The Wright brothers built their plane in their bicycle shop.
2. Why …………………………………………………………………….?
The first plane crashed because of the wind.
3. Why ……………………………………………………………the first flight in 1903?
Many newspapers didn’t report it because no one believed it.
4. Where ………………………………………………………………….?
Lindbergh worked for the U.S. Mail Service.
5. Why ………………………………………………………………….?
He crossed the ocean to win the prize money.
6. How much money ……………………………………………..?
He won $25,000.
7. How old ………………………………………….when he crossed the ocean?
Lindbergh was 25 years old when he crossed the ocean.
8. Where …………………………………………………….. ?
Earhart was born in Kansas.
9. Where …………………………………………………….. ?
She disappeared in the Pacific Ocean.
10. Why ………………………………………………………..?
Nobody knows why Earhart didn’t return.
11. When ……………………………………………………..?
The first man walked on the moon in 1969.
12. Why …………………………………………………….. the first moon landing?
Goddard didn’t see the first moon landing because he died in 1945.
13. Why ……………………………………………………. ?
Sully was a hero because he saved lives.
14. How many ……………………………………………. ?
He saved 150 lives.
15. Why ……………………………………………………….. ?
He didn’t return to the airport because he didn’t have time.

The past progressive tense

Form of the past progressive tense

The past progressive is formed with the past of be + the -ing form.

/ was
You were
He was
She was waiting
It was
We were
You were
They were

Uses of the past progressive tense

 Actions in progress in the past
We use the past progressive to describe past situations or actions
that were in progress at some time in the past:
/ was living abroad in 1987, so I missed the general election.

Often we don't know whether the action was completed or not:

Philippa was working on her essay last night

Adverbials beginning with all emphasize continuity:

It was raining all night/all yesterday/all the afternoon

In the same way, still can emphasize duration:

Jim was talking to his girlfriend on the phone when I came in and was still talking to her when I went out an
hour later
 Actions which began before something else happened
The past progressive and the simple past are often used together in a sentence. The past progressive describes a
situation or action in progress in the past, and the simple past describes a shorter action or event. The action or
situation in progress is often introduced by conjunctions like when and as just as, while:
Just as I was leaving the house the phone rang
Jane met Frank Sinatra when she was living in Hollywood

Or the shorter action can be introduced by when:

We were having supper when the phone rang

We can often use the simple past to describe the action in progress, but the progressive puts more emphasis on
the duration of the action, as in the second of these two examples:
While I fumbled for some money, my friend paid the fares
While I was fumbling for some money, my friend paid the fares.

 Parallel actions
We can emphasize the fact that two or more actions were in progress
at the same time by using e.g. while or at the time (that):
While I was working in the garden, my wife was cooking dinner

 Repeated actions
This use is similar to that of the present progressive:
When he worked here, Roger was always making mistakes

 Polite inquiries
This use is even more polite and tentative than the simple past:
/ was wondering if you could give me a lift.
 PAST SIMPLE VS PAST CONTINUOUS

Use

After another or at the same time?

Do you want to express that the actions in the past happened one after another or at the same time?

Simple Past Past Progressive

at the same time

after another
Simon was playing on the computer while his brother
She came home, switched on the computer and was watching TV.
checked her e-mails.

New action or already in progress?

If you want to express that a new action happened in the middle of another action, you need both
tenses: Simple Past the new action and Past Progressive for the action already in progress.

Simple Past Past Progressive

action already in progress

new action
While I was sitting in a meeting, (my mobile suddenly
My mobile rang (while I was sitting in a meeting.) rang.)

Only mentioning or emphasising progress?

 Do you just want to mention that an action took place in the past (also used for short actions)? Or do
you want to put emphasis on the progress, e.g. that an action was taking place at a certain time?

Simple Past Past Progressive

just mentioning emphasising progress

Colin played football yesterday. Yesterday at six o'clock, Colin was playing football.

Certain Verbs

The following verbs are usually only used in Simple Past (not in the progressive form).

 state: be, cost, fit, mean, suit

Example: We were on holiday.

 possession: belong, have

Example: Sam had a cat.

 senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch

Example: He felt the cold.

 feelings: hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish

Example: Jane loved pizza.

 brain work: believe, know, think, understand

Example: I did not understand him.

 introductory clauses for direct speech: answer, ask, reply, say

Example: “I am watching TV,“ he said.

Signal words

Simple Past Past Progressive

 first  while
 then  as long as
 If-Sentences Typ II (If I talked, …)

Put the verbs into the correct tense (simple past or past progressive).
1. When I (do) ------------ the washing-up, I (break) ----------------- a plate.
2. While Tom (play) -------------- the piano, his mother (do)----------------- the washing-up.
3. He (drink) ----------- some juice and then he (eat) -------------------- a few chips.
4. I (have) ------------------- dinner when I suddenly (hear) ---------------- loud bang.
5. When my father (work) --------------- in the garden, an old friend (pass) --------------by to see him.
6. She (go) ----------------- to school, (take) ---------- out her textbook and (begin) ------------- to learn.
7. When it (start) ------------------ to rain, our dog (want) ------------------to come inside.
8. When Jane (do) ---------------- a language course in Ireland, she (visit) -------------Blarney Castle.
9. When I (be) ------------------on my way home, I (see) ---------------------an accident.
10. I (not / understand) ------------------- what they (talk) ------------------------ about.

SIMPLE PRESENT PERFECT

Form of Present Perfect

Positive Negative Question

I / you / we / they I have spoken. I have not spoken. Have I spoken?

he / she / it He has spoken. He has not spoken. Has he spoken?

 For irregular verbs, use the participle form (see list of irregular verbs, Ved2). For regular verbs, just
add “ed”.

Use of Present Perfect

 puts emphasis on the result

Example: She has written five letters.

 action that is still going on

Example: School has not started yet.

 action that stopped recently

Example: She has cooked dinner.

 finished action that has an influence on the present

Example: I have lost my key.

 action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking
Example: I have never been to Australia

Present perfect progressive

 The present perfect progressive expresses an action that recently stopped or is still going on. It puts
emphasis on the duration or course of the action.

Form of Present Perfect Progressive

Positive Negative Question

I / you / we / they I have been speaking. I have not been speaking. Have I been speaking?

he / she / it He has been speaking. He has not been speaking. Has he been speaking?

Use of Present Perfect Progressive

 puts emphasis on the duration or course of an action (not the result)

Example: She has been writing for two hours.

 action that recently stopped or is still going on

Example: I have been living here since 2001.

 finished action that influenced the present

Example: I have been working all afternoon.
 1. Present Perfect Tense is used to express unfinished events that started in the past and continue to the
present. The events are still continuing.

Examples:
 I have lived in Paris for five years. ( I still live in Paris )

My son has been sick since Monday. ( My son is still sick )

He has worked in Berlin since he graduated from the university. ( He still works in Berlin )

HOWEVER; Simple Past Tense is used to express finished events.

Examples:

 I lived in Paris for five years. ( I moved another city and now I am no living there )

 My son was sick on Monday. ( My son isn’t sick now )

 He worked in Berlin after he graduated from the university. ( He found himself a new job and he isn’t working in
Berlin)

2. Present Perfect Tense is used to express finished events in someone’s life. ( if the person is still alive –
life experience )

Examples:

 I have been to England in my life. ( I am alive )

 He has never travelled by plane. ( He is alive )

 Scientist have tried to invent something new. ( We are alive )

HOWEVER; Simple Past Tense is used to express finished events in someone’s life. (if the person is dead)

Examples:

 My Mother went to America four times. ( She is dead )

 He travelled a lot by plane. ( He is dead )

 They tried to invent something new. ( they are dead )

3.Present Perfect Tense is used to express finished events that happened at an unspecified time in the past and the
impact of the event is now continuing. ( Past Event – Present Result )

Examples:

 She has lost her wallet. ( She can’t find it and I have no money now )

 We can’t reach Paul by phone. Have you seen him?

 Tom isn’t at school. I think he has gone to the theater.

HOWEVER; Simple Past Tense is used to express finished events. There is no result in the present.

Examples:

 She lost her wallet yesterday. ( I canceled my cards and bought a new wallet yesterday- there is no result now )

 Yesterday we could reach Paul by phone ( I don’t need to reach or call Paul now – there is no result now)

 He went to the theater two hours ago. ( now he is at school – there is no result now)
4. Present Perfect Tense is used with unfinished time words ( this week, today,this year etc) . The period of time is still
continuing.

Examples:

 We haven’t called him this week. ( “this week” is not over yet )

 I have eaten lots of plumps today. ( “today” is not over yet )

 They have had several exams this month. ( “this month” is not over yet )

HOWEVER; SIMPLE PAST TENSE IS USED WITH FINISHED TIME WORDS ( yesterday, last week)

Examples:

 We didn’t call him yesterday.

 I ate lots of plumps last week.

 They had several exams last year.

ATTENTION:

If we use a specific time in a sentence, we should use “Simple Past Tense“.

If we use an unspecific time in a sentence, we should use “Present Perfect Tense“.

Time words with “in the” and without “in the” have different meanings.

For example;

( last year- in the last year/ last week – in the last week / last month- in the last month )

“Last month” and “in the last month” have different meanings.

“Last month” means the month before now. It is considered a specific time, so it requires Simple Past Tense.

“In the last month” means from 30 days ago until now ( at some point between 30 days ago and now ) . It is not
considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect Tense.

Examples:
 We haven’t received any mail in the last month.
 We didn’t receive any mail last month.
 I have solved many problems in the last year.
 I solved many problems last year.

Negative Sentences

Put the verbs into the correct tense (simple past or present perfect simple).
 1. I (see / not) ……………………………. anyone yet.
2. Phil (go / not) ……………………………to the cinema last night.
3. We (be / not) ……………………………….. to the zoo so far.
4. She (arrive / not) ……………………………… yet.
5. Emily (visit / not) ……………………………………. me last week.

Questions

Put the verbs into the correct tense (simple past or present perfect simple).

1. (you / read) ……………………… the book yet?

2. How many letters (they / write) ……………………………….. so far?

3. When (he / tell) ………………….. you that?

4. (you / be) ……………………… at home last night?

5. How often (you / travel) ………………………………. abroad till now?

Text

Put the verbs into the correct tense (simple past or present perfect simple).

1. A: (you / taste / ever) ………………………………. sushi?

2. B: Yes, I (eat) ………………………….. sushi at least five times so far.

3. A: When (you / eat) ……………………… sushi for the first time?

4. B: I (eat) ………………………… sushi for the first time on my dad's 50th birthday. He (invite) ……………………….. the
whole family to a Japanese restaurant.

5. A: (you / like) ……………………. it?

A. Present Perfect Simple or Past Simple

1. Alan __________________________ (graduate) from university last month.

2. There __________________________ (be) a large earthquake in Japan in 1995.

3. I like to exercise, but I __________________________ (not/exercise) yet this week.

4. My father __________________________ (never/go) to university. He passed away last year.

5. John and Lisa __________________________ (be) married since 2010.

6. Recently, there __________________________ (be) a lot of rain.

7. My brother __________________________ (not/work) for eight months. He needs to find a job.

8. My wife and I __________________________ (be) married for 1 year. So far we _____________________ (not/have) any big
problems.

9. I started writing my essay two hours ago, and I still __________________________ (not/finish) yet.
B. Present Perfect Simple or Past Simple

A: Where’s John? B: I don’t know. I __________________________ (not/see) him today.

A: __________________________ (you/ever/be) to Hawaii? B: Yes. Twice.

A: When __________________________ (you/get) your dog? B: Last summer.

A: How long __________________________ (you/study) English? B: Five years.

A: Do you know anyone who __________________________ (be) to Thailand? B: Yes, my sister.

A: __________________________ (you/see) my keys today? B: Yes. I ___ (see) them this morning on the kitchen table.

A: Would you like half my sandwich? B: I __________________________ (just/eat) lunch, so I’m not hungry. Thanks for
asking though.

C. Prepositions: Insert For, Since, or From

1. Peter lived in Japan _________ 2001 until 2005. Now, he lives in Chicago. He has been living in Chicago _________ he
left Japan. He works as a chef at a nice French restaurant. He has been working there _________ almost two years.

2. Laura is an excellent golfer. She has been playing golf _________ she was 8 years old. Now, she’s a professional
golfer. She has also been coaching golf _________ several years. She started coaching me last year. _________ then, I
have become a much better player.

D. Present Perfect Simple or Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

Hint: Do not use the progressive tenses for state verbs.

1. My sister __________________________ (watch) TV for four hours. She should take a break.

2. I’m hungry. I __________________________ (not/have) anything to eat yet today.

3. It __________________________ (rain) since noon. I wish it would stop.

4. A: When is the bus coming? B: I don’t know. I hope it comes soon. I __________________________ (wait) for half an
hour.

5. George is my best friend. I __________________________ (know) him since I was five years old.

6. The Johnsons are trying to find a house to buy. They __________________________ (look) for four months. They
__________________________ (not/find) anything yet.

7. The weather __________________________ (be) so nice recently. I love summer.

8. You __________________________ (do) these exercises for several minutes. __________________________ (you/make) any
mistakes?

E. Insert the Correct Verb in Present Perfect Simple, Present Perfect Progressive, or Past Simple

A: Hi John. I __________________________ (not/see) you in a long time! How __________________________ (you/be) lately?
B: Fine. And guess what? I __________________________ (get) a new job.

A: Really? Where?

B: Campbell’s Auto Insurance. I’m doing accounting, of course. I __________________________ (only/work) there for a
month but it seems pretty good. And what’s new with you?

A: Well, I __________________________ (move) into a new apartment last month with Jacob.

B: Jacob?

A: My boyfriend. You __________________________ (not/meet) him. We __________________________ (be) together for half a
year now.

B: Oh, good for you! And what does Jacob do?

A: He’s an accountant too, actually. Actually, he’s looking for a job now. He __________________________ (look) for a few
months now, but he __________________________ (not/find) anything good yet.

B: I know how he feels. I __________________________ (have) about five interviews at different companies before I
__________________________ (find) my job. I’m sure he’ll find something.

A: I hope so. Okay, well, I’ve got to get going. It was nice talking to you, John. Have a nice day.

Present perfect, present simple, present continuous or past simple? Read the questions below and decide which
answer best fits each space.

Question 1 How long ... their own flat?

a. have they had

b. do they have
c. have they

Question 2 How are you? Well, I ... a sore throat, but know I ... good.

a. have had ... am feeling

b. have had ... feel
c. had ... feel

Question 3 Thomas Edison ... the lightbulb. Well, I ...

a. has invented ... didn't know

b. invented ... didn't know
c. invented ... haven't known

Question 4 Betthoven ... a great artist. He ... many popular pieces of music.

a. was ... has written

b. is ... has written
c. was ... wrote

Question 5 How long ... this headache?

a. have you had

 b. do you have
c. have you been having

Question 6 He ... in Spain since Friday.

a. is
b. has been
c. is being

Question 7 I ... you ... a teacher.

a. suppose ... are

b. have supposed ... are
c. supposed ... have been

Question 8 Last news now. Tom Smith ... in his home in London. He ... 88.

a. has passed away ... was

b. passed away ... was
c. has passed away ... has been

Question 9 When ... her

1. did you first met

2. have you first met
3. did you first meet

Question 10 He ... the best singer the world ...

1. is ... ever have

2. is ... has ever had
3. has been ... has ever had

Question 11 It's the second time I ... here.

1. am
2. have been
3. was

Question 12 ... their own flat or ... one?

1. Do they have ... they rent

2. Do they have ... do they rent
3. Have they had ... have they rented

Question 13 Since I ... you, I found the world so new.

1. left
2. have left
3. leave

Question 14 When his mother ..., he ... completely.

1. died ... has broken down

2. died ... broke down
3. has died ... has broken down

Question 15
I ... 3 essays today and it's just 1 p.m.

1. wrote
2. have written
3. am writing

Question 16 Kate and Paul ... each other for a long time.

1. have known
2. know
3. knew

Question 17 OK, I ... the car. We can go.

1. repairs
2. repaired
3. have repaired

Question 18 I ... myself. How ... that?

1. have cut ... have you done

2. cut ... did you do
3. have cut ... did you do

Question 19 I can't stand her. She ... talking for a while but now she ... again.

1. stopped ... is talking

2. has stopped ... is talking
3. has stopped ... talks

Question 20 ... the holidays? Of course, we ... such wonderful time.

1. Have you remembered ... had

2. Do you remember ... have had
3. Do you remember ... had

Past perfect
Time up to a point in the past

We use the past perfect simple (had + past participle) to talk about time up to a certain point in the past.

She'd published her first poem by the time she was eight.
We'd finished all the water before we were halfway up the mountain.
Had the parcel arrived when you called yesterday?

Past perfect for the earlier of two past actions

We can use the past perfect to show the order of two past events. The past perfect shows the earlier action and the past
simple shows the later action.

When the police arrived, the thief had escaped.

It doesn't matter in which order we say the two events. The following sentence has the same meaning.
 The thief had escaped when the police arrived.

Note that if there's only a single event, we don't use the past perfect, even if it happened a long time ago.

The Romans spoke Latin. (NOT The Romans had spoken Latin.)

Past perfect with before

We can also use the past perfect followed by before to show that an action was not done or was incomplete when the
past simple action happened.

They left before I'd spoken to them.

Sadly, the author died before he'd finished the series.

Adverbs

We often use the adverbs already (= 'before the specified time'), still (= as previously), just (= 'a very short time before
the specified time'), ever (= 'at any time before the specified time') or never (= 'at no time before the specified time')
with the past perfect.

I called his office but he'd already left.

It still hadn't rained at the beginning of May.
I went to visit her when she'd just moved to Berlin.
It was the most beautiful photo I'd ever seen.
Had you ever visited London when you moved there?
I'd never met anyone from California before I met Jim.

Put the verbs into the correct form (past perfect simple).

1. The storm destroyed the sandcastle that we (build) …………………...

2. He (not / be) ……………………..to Cape Town before 1997.
3. When she went out to play, she (do / already) ………………………her homework.
4. My brother ate all of the cake that our mum (make) …………………………...
5. The doctor took off the plaster that he (put on) ……………………… six weeks before.
6. The waiter brought a drink that I (not / order) ………………...
7. I could not remember the poem we (learn) ………………. the week before.
8. The children collected the chestnuts that (fall) ………………… from the tree.
9. (he / phone) ……………………….Angie before he went to see her in London?
10. She (not / ride) ………………………a horse before that day.

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.

1. By the time I could talk to her, she ___ to quit her job.

 decided
 'd decided
2. I looked at the photo and suddenly realised that I ___ that man somewhere before.

 saw
 'd seen
3. First I ___ the salad, then I toasted the bread.

 made
 'd made
4. ___ breakfast when you got up?

 Did James already cook

 Had James already cooked
5. She didn't feel like another coffee as she ___ one.

 just had
 'd just had
6. We had the French exam this morning. It ___ as hard as I'd expected, though.

 wasn't
 hadn't been
7. I asked Sara if she wanted to go for a walk, but she still ___ her homework.

 didn't finish
 hadn't finished
8. Dinosaurs ___ hundreds of millions of years ago.

 lived
 had lived
1. After Fred …………..(to spend) his holiday in Italy he ………………(to want) to learn Italian.
2. Jill …………….(to phone) Dad at work before she ……………….. (to leave) for her trip.
3. Susan ……………..(to turn on) the radio after she ……………(to wash) the dishes.
4. When she ………….(to arrive) the match …………already ………….(to start).
5. After the man …………..(to come) home he ………………(to feed) the cat.
6. Before he ………………(to sing) a song he ………………... (to play) the guitar.
7. She ………… (to watch) a video after the children …………………… (to go) to bed.
8. After Eric ………………… (to make) breakfast he ………….. (to phone) his friend.
9. I ……………. (to be) very tired because I ………………….. (to study) too much.
10. They ……………………….. (to ride) their bikes before they …………….(to meet) their friends.
Since computers were first introduced to the public in the early 1980's, technology (change) …………. a great deal. The
first computers (be) …………… simple machines designed for basic tasks. They (have, not) …………………………. much memory
and they (be, not) ……………very powerful. Early computers were often quite expensive and customers often
(pay) ……………….. thousands of dollars for machines which actually (do) ………………………….. very little. Most computers
(be) ……………………… separate, individual machines used mostly as expensive typewriters or for playing games.

Times (change) ……………………….. Computers (become) ………………………………… powerful machines with very practical
applications. Programmers (create) ……………………………….. a large selection of useful programs which do everything from
teaching foreign languages to bookkeeping. We are still playing video games, but today's games
(become) …………………………… faster, more exciting interactive adventures. Many computer users (get,
also) ……………………………. . on the Internet and (begin) …………………………….. communicating with other computer users
around the world. We (start) ………………………….. to create international communities online. In short, the simple,
individual machines of the past (evolve) ……………………. into an international World Wide Web of knowledge.

Past Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect Continuous is formed with had been + present participle
We had been waiting for two hours before they arrived.
Had you been waiting for more than two hours before they arrived?
We had not been waiting for two hours before they arrived.
1 Duration before a past event/action
We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something stared in the past and continued to a point in the
past. The Past Perfect Continuous has the same function as the Present Perfect Continuous except that the
action doesn't continue to the present time but stops before something else in the past.
They had been waiting for an hour before we arrived.
She had been working at that trading company for five years before she moved to their rival company.
How long had you been trying to contact Sarah before you gave up?
How long were you studying medicine before you dropped out?
2 The result of a past action
The Past Perfect Continuous before an action in the past shows the reason for a result.
Peter was tired because he had been working for more than eighteen hours.
He failed the test because he had not been studying.
I had been playing tennis for five years before the injury.
Past Continuous or Past Perfect Continuous
Without a phrase like 'for an hour' or 'since March' it is possible to use the Past Continuous instead of the Past
Perfect Continuous but this can change the meaning of the sentence.
Peter was tired because he was working hard. This sentence shows that Peter was tired because he was
working at that moment.
Peter was tired because he had been working hard. This sentence shows that Peter was tired as a result
of working hard. It is possible that he continued working but the tense implies that he had just stopped.
Adverbs such as; always, only, never etc. are placed after the auxiliary 'had' and before the present participle.
I had never seen snow before 2012.
Had you really never seen snow before 2012?
Now complete the following using the correct form:
1. I _ to make an appointment with the manager for two days before I finally succeeded.

 had been trying

 had tried

2. Claudia _ in London for six weeks before she was confident enough to go shopping alone.

 had studied
 had been studying

3. I _ three pints before I decided to go home so I couldn't drive. I had to walk.

 had had
 had been having

4. Danny _ the tickets to the concert a few weeks before so we didn't worry about missing it.

 had bought
 had been buying

5. We _ at the same supermarket for fifteen years so we were sad when it closed.

 had been shopping

 had shopped

6. I _ long before Sarah arrived which was surprising because she is usually never on time.
  had not waited
 had not been waiting

7. We _ on the new product launch for weeks when management decided to shelve the project.

 had been working

 had worked

8. I _ that Charlie Chaplin was American not English.

 had always been thinking

 had always thought

Complete the sentences with the verbs in the box.

learn • am learning • hadn’t learned • send • don’t send • weren’t doing • didn’t
1 We ……………………… anything wrongdoin•the haven’t donebut the teacher told us to leave.
art room,
2 …………………………….. him an angry email. You’ll only regret it later.
3 I ……………………………………. how to drive at the moment.
4 When I was younger, we…………………………………… much sport at my primary school.
5 Generally I …………………………… best by doing rather than watching.
6 We …………………………………. any practice tests yet so I’m not sure what they’re like.
7 ……………………………………….. me a text message when you’re free.
8 The English exam was difficult because I …………….. enough phrasal verbs.

Complete the sentences with the correct present or past form of the verbs in brackets.
1 …………………………. (tell) me exactly what …………………………… (happen) last night!
2 Mrs Hudson is my maths teacher. She …………………………. (teach) me for four years and in that time I
………………………………. (get) much better at maths.
3 I………………………………….. (never /think) of a career in medicine before I spoke to my biology teacher but now
I …………………………… (seriously/ consider) it.
4 Oh no! I ………………………………… (forget) to bring my assignment! What am I going to do? This is the second
time I (do) this!
5 I can’t remember what Mr Brown…………………….. (say) yesterday about our homework. I
…………………………………… (not listen) properly because Charlotte ………………………. (talk) to me at the same time.
6 Last year I …………………….(go) on a school trip to Scotland. We ……………………….. (have) a very interesting
time.
7 At the moment I ………………………… (think) about what subjects to take next year but I ………………………………..
(make) a final decision yet.
8 A few people (misbehave) in class sometimes, but generally everyone is quite well behaved.
There are nine central modal verbs in English: can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would, and shall. Modals have
several distinctive characteristics:

 They act as an auxiliary verb in verb phrases (e.g. I can go).

 They do not take inflections to show agreement or tense (e.g. I can go, He/she/ it can go). That is, the form does
not vary (e.g. not *He cans go).
 They precede the negative particle in not negation (e.g. I cannot go).
 They precede the subject in yes-no questions (e.g. Can you go?).
 They take a bare infinitive verb as the main verb in the verb phrase (e.g. He can go, not *He can to go or *He can
goes or *He can went).
 They express stance meanings, related to possibility, necessity, obligation, etc.
In most dialects of English, only a single modal can be used in a verb phrase. However, certain regional dialects (such as
southern Am E) allow some combinations of modals (e.g. might could or might should).

Semi-modals (also called 'periphrastic modals' or 'quasi-modals') are multiword constructions that function like modal
verbs: (had) better, have to, (have) got to, ought to, be supposed to, be going to, used to. In orthographic
representations of the spoken language, better, gotta, and gonna often occur as the reduced forms of had better, have
got to, and be going to.

Semi-modals express meanings that can usually be paraphrased with a central modal verb. For example: I have to read it
again. (CONV) <paraphrase: I must read it again.>

Mosquitoes aren't supposed to be inside here. ( c o w ) <paraphrase: Mosquitoes should not be inside here.>

In addition, some semi-modals are fixed expressions, which cannot be inflected for tense or person. However, some of
the semi-modals, like have to and be going to, can be marked for tense and person:

 past tense:
He had to call the police.

 third-person agreement:
Maybe she has to grow up a bit more.
These semi-modals can sometimes co-occur with a central modal verb or another semi-modal, underlined in the
examples:

 co-occurrence with a modal:

I might have to tell him. (FICT)

 co-occurrence with another semi-modal:

I think the teachers are gonna have to be there. (cow)

There are also some lexical verbs and adjectives that have meanings similar to modal auxiliaries, in that they express
stance meanings, but they are neither idiomatic nor fixed expressions. Rather, these verbs and adjectives express their

core lexical meanings of desire, obligation, possibility, etc. Examples are: need to, dare to, want to, be able to, be obliged
to, be likely to, be willing to.

Time distinctions with modals and semimodals

The central modals can be used to make time distinctions, even though they are not marked for tense. For example, the
modals will and shall can be used to refer to future time. The semi-modal be going to is also used for future time.

There will be no outcry from the corporate sector about the disarray in the accountancy profession.
(NEWS)

It's going to be hot.

In addition, it is possible to group the central modals (except must) into pairs with related meanings that sometimes
distinguish between past time and nonpast time:

Typical meaning distinctions for modals and semi-modals

Modals and semi-modals are grouped into three categories based on their meanings and each category
contains both personallintrinsic and logical extrinsic meanings. (The semi-modal used to is excluded from
these categories, being the only modal that refers primarily to past time.)
The permission/ possibility / ability modals
The obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals
The volition/prediction modals and semi-modals
Be going to and used to
Modals with perfect aspect
 Modals with progressive aspect

Exercise 1: Distinguishing between personal and logical meanings of modals

and semi-modals

 Each modal verb can express personal meanings or logical meanings: The permission/possibility
modals can also express 'ability'.
 Underline all modal and semi-modal verbs in the sentences below.
 For each one, identify the specific meaning. If the meaning is ambiguous, write both possibilities.

1 If possible the crop should be lifted when the ground is reasonably dry.
2 We're building a machine right now. The machine should be finished in six months.
3 You may build a bead stick only when you have the dice.
4 The regulations of the states may be more stringent than federal regulations.
5 1 can't remember what one it was. I must have left it in the car.
6 1 cannot send this letter because i am always watched and I must never be a disloyal German.
7 You can sign the book because I did it last time.
8 I have to figure out how to do this.
9 I was afraid it would get rusty.
10 Okay you won't see her in the winter.
11 I will just tell them I'm really sorry.
12 I think I'm going to rest for a while before I eat.
13 Okay, I'd better go in the shower.