(R20MED4296) Total Engineering Quality Management

Unit-III: Process Improvement and Modern Production Management Tools – Six Sigma
Approach- Total Productive Maintenance – Just – In – Time – Lean Manufacturing Paradigms

I. Process Improvement and Modern Production Management Tools:

Process improvement and modern production management tools are essential for businesses to
stay competitive, improve efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance overall performance. Here are
some key tools and methodologies commonly used in modern production management:

1.Lean Manufacturing: Lean principles aim to minimize waste and maximize value by
focusing on continuous improvement. Key tools within lean manufacturing include:

 Value Stream Mapping (VSM): A visual representation of the steps required to

deliver a product or service, identifying areas of waste and opportunities for
improvement.

 5S: A methodology for organizing the workplace to improve efficiency and

effectiveness by eliminating waste, maintaining cleanliness, and standardizing
procedures.

2. Six Sigma: Six Sigma is a data-driven approach focused on reducing defects and variations
in processes. Key tools include:

 DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyse, Improve, Control): A problem-solving

methodology used to improve existing processes.

 Statistical Process Control (SPC): Monitoring and controlling processes using

statistical techniques to ensure they remain within specified limits.

3. Total Quality Management (TQM): TQM is a management approach that emphasizes

continuous improvement of product quality and customer satisfaction. Key tools include:

 Quality Circles: Small groups of employees who meet regularly to identify, analyze,
and solve work-related problems.

 PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act): A four-step management method used for the control and
continuous improvement of processes and products.

4. Agile Manufacturing: Agile manufacturing emphasizes flexibility and responsiveness to

customer needs, often through rapid prototyping and iterative development. Key tools include:
  Kanban: A visual management method used to track work as it progresses through
various stages of production.

 Scrum: An agile framework for managing complex projects, emphasizing

collaboration, adaptability, and iterative development.

5. Theory of Constraints (TOC): TOC focuses on identifying and managing constraints

within a system to improve overall throughput. Key tools include:

 Five Focusing Steps: A systematic process for identifying and addressing constraints to
improve system performance.

 Drum-Buffer-Rope (DBR): A scheduling methodology used to synchronize production

with the constraint to maximize throughput.

6. Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES): MES software helps manage and control
manufacturing operations, providing real-time visibility into production processes and enabling
better decision-making.
 Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS): CMMS software helps
manage maintenance activities, including scheduling, inventory management, and asset
tracking, to minimize downtime and optimize equipment performance.

 Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry 4.0 technologies: IoT devices and sensors collect
real-time data from machines and processes, enabling predictive maintenance, remote
monitoring, and improved decision-making.

 By implementing these tools and methodologies, businesses can optimize their

production processes, reduce costs, improve quality, and respond more effectively to
changing customer demands.

Benefits of Process Improvement

The following are some of the benefits and business reasons for implementing process
improvement:
• The quality of a system is highly influenced by the quality of the process used to acquire,
develop and maintain it
• Process improvement increases product and service quality as organizations apply it to
achieve their business objectives
• Process improvement objectives are aligned with business objectives
II. Six sigma approach:
Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology and approach for process improvement. It aims
to identify and eliminate defects or variations in a process to improve efficiency, reduce waste,
and enhance quality. Six Sigma is probably one of the best methodologies to pervade the world
of improvements. Its measurement orientation, rigorous training scheme, process centricity and
stakeholder involvement differentiate it from other quality methodologies.
The tools in Six Sigma are not new, but its direct linkages to business objectives and priorities
make it a powerful strategy in business
The term "Six Sigma" refers to a statistical measure of how far a process deviates from
perfection. The goal is to achieve a level of performance where only 3.4 defects occur per
million opportunities.
It is a breakthrough management process that is used to improve a company’s performance by
variation reduction. The method encompasses breaking down the customer’s requirements into
steps to pinpoint pains in a process. This results in the reduction of defects and sustenance of
process improvement.
The Six Sigma methodology essentially has two elements, which comprise the voice of the
customer and the voice of process.
What differentiates Six Sigma from other quality methodologies is that it can be used to solve
key pain areas in business.
Other Six Sigma characteristics include operating processes under statistical control,
controlling input process variables rather than the usual output product variables, maximizing
equipment uptime and optimizing cycle time.

There are many ways to explain how Six Sigma works. However, the two most common
approaches are:
1. Define, measure, analyse, improve and control (DMAIC)
2. Define, measure, analyse, design and verify (DMADV)
Phase 1—Define
Defi ne the priorities of the customers with respect to quality: In this phase, those attributes
of the product/service that are considered most important by the customers in evaluating the
quality of the product are identified. These attributes are called critical to quality
characteristics (CTQ). The customer’s perception about quality attributes are updated from
time to time by conducting customer surveys.
Key questions, key issues and important tools used in this phase are given below:
Key questions: The key questions that arise are:
• What are the problems and their scope?
• What is its criticality and importance to the customer?
• What is the benchmark?
• How should resources be allocated?
• What are the independent and dependent variables affecting the project?
• Is the voice of the customer being captured directly?
Key issues: The key issues are:
• Which team is to handle the issue?
• What will they accomplish?
• What is the clear definition of project scope, including operational details?
• What are the various milestones of the project?
• What are the roles of team members?
• What are critical to quality (CTQ) parameters?
• Identification of critical success factors (CSF)
Important tools used: The main tools used are as follows:
• Brainstorming
• Pareto analysis
• QFD
• Process mapping
• Project management fundamentals to ensure scope
Phase II—Measure
Measure the processes and the defects arising in the product due to the process: The
important processes
influencing the CTQs are identified and performance measurement techniques are established
for these processes. Measurement of processes and thus the defects arising in the product due
to the
processes is undertaken.
Key questions: The key questions are:
• What are the performance variables and their impact?
• What is the gap between benchmark and existing status?
• What is the performance capability of the process/processes?
Key issues: The key issues are:
• What does the customer really want?
• Validation of measurement schemes
• Development of key input, process and output measures
Important tools used: The important tools used are:
• Process mapping
• QFD
• Cause and effect matrix
• Creativity techniques
• 7 QC tools
• Calculation of process sigma and process capability studies
• Gauge R and R studies
• ANOVA
Phase III—Analyse
Analyse the process to determine the most likely causes of defects: The key variables most
likely to be responsible for variation in the process are identified to find the reasons for
generation of defects.
Key questions: The key questions are:
• What are the success factors?
• What is the performance goal?
• What are the sources of real variation?
• What is the target percentage for improvement?
Key issues: The key issues are:
• What is the company’s ability to make/deliver it?
• What is the characterization of the problem (means/spread)?
• Selection of performance variable and their quantification
Important tools used: The important tools used are:
• Gap analysis and improvement goals
• Process map analysis
• Data stratification
• Advanced analytical tools
• Regression analysis
• ANOVA
• Tests of hypothesis

Phase IV—Improve
Improve the performance of the process and remove the causes of the defects: The
specification limits of the key variables are fixed and the system established for measuring the
deviations of the variables is validated. Improvisations in the process are undertaken to keep
the variables within the specification limits.
Key questions: The key questions are:
• How is variable performance diagnosed?
• How is the interaction between various factors studied?
• How are operating limits and new process capability established?
• How is optimum solution selected?
• How is implementation planned?
Key issues: The key issues are:
• What really affects the company’s ability to make/deliver it?
• How is performance improvement verified?
• Action plans
• Generation of solutions to address root causes and the criteria to screen and select
• Establishment of operating tolerances
Important tools used: The important tools used are:
• DOE techniques
• Tests of hypothesis
• Confirmation or validation studies
Phase V—Control
Control to ensure that the improvements are maintained over time: The modified process is
subjected to vigil at regular intervals of time to ensure that the key variables do not show any
unacceptable variations (beyond the specification limits).
DEFINE, MEASURE, ANALYSE, DESIGN AND VERIFY (DMADV) :
There are certain situations where the project team members may feel that a process needs to
be replaced by a new process rather than simply improving the existing process. The demands
of the customers with regard to quality cannot be satisfied by the existing process. At times, an
organization may decide to launch a new product or service to grab a new business opportunity
offered by the environment. In all such situations, the last two steps in the DMAIC, namely,
“improve” and “control” have to be replaced by “design” and “verify” so that it becomes
DMADV. The design of new processes or redesign of existing processes using DMADV is
known as “Design for Six Sigma” (DFSS) or “Six Sigma Design” (SSD).

The map of Six Sigma project flow is given in Figure

Thus, the very essence of Six Sigma lies in the following four factors:
1. Proper definition and scope of engineering or management problems
2. Conversion of an engineering or management problem into a statistical problem
3. Seeking a statistical solution to this problem
4. Conversion of the statistical solution into business or engineering solutions
The Six Sigma methodology relies heavily on the use of statistical tools and techniques, as well
as a structured approach to problem-solving and decision-making. It has been widely adopted
by organizations across various industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, finance, and
service sectors, to drive continuous improvement and achieve operational excellence.

III. Total productive maintenance.

TPM is a lean equipment maintenance strategy for maximizing overall equipment
effectiveness.
As lean has evolved, its potential impact has broadened. The philosophy that once was limited
to the shop floor has found its way into all facets of an organization. Resources freed by lean
can be reallocated to improve society at large and, in turn, the sustainability of an organization.
Total productive maintenance (TPM) is a concept developed by the Japan Institute of Plant
Maintenance (JIPM) Tokyo in the late 1960s. TPM is the key for the operational excellence of
many Japanese companies.
TPM is a maintenance programme that involves a newly-defi ned concept for maintaining
plants and equipment. The goal of the TPM programme is to markedly increase production,
while at the same time increasing employee morale and job satisfaction. The TPM programme
closely resembles the popular TQM programme. Many of the same tools such as employee
empowerment, benchmarking, documentation, etc. are used to implement and optimize TPM.
All manufacturing organizations possess industrial equipment for various processes in the
production of goods. Similarly services organizations also use various gadgets such as
computers, printers, facsimiles, photocopies, etc. to aid their daily operations. Maintenance of
facilities and equipment is done to ensure that these are in good working condition at any point
of time. If breakdowns occur, necessary repairs should be conducted in order to bring them
back into running condition as early as possible. Maintenance management involves planning,
organizing and controlling maintenance activities such that the overall maintenance cost is
minimized.
TPM is an approach with the core objective of organizing a workplace to prevent all losses and
achieve zero defects, zero breakdowns, zero accidents and zero pollution in the entire
production system lifecycle.
This is done by involving all the employees and covering the entire organization in the form of
small competing teams to establish a culture for maximizing production efficiency. It strives
to maintain optimum equipment conditions in order to prevent unexpected breakdowns, speed
losses and quality defects arising from process activities.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a comprehensive approach to equipment and
production maintenance that aims to achieve maximum equipment effectiveness and
productivity. The goal of TPM is to minimize downtime, defects, and accidents while
maximizing efficiency and extending the life of equipment. TPM involves everyone in the
organization, from top management to floor operators, and emphasizes proactive and
preventive maintenance to ensure that every piece of equipment is always in optimal operating
condition.
Objectives of TPM
The main objectives of TPM are:
• TPM aims to maximize overall equipment effectiveness (OEE).
• TPM establishes a thorough system of planned maintenance (PM) for the equipment’s entire
lifespan.
• TPM should be implemented by cross-functional teams from various departments.
• TPM involves every single employee from the top management to workers on the shop floor.
• TPM is based on the promotion of planned maintenance through autonomous small group
activities
Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)
TPM strives to achieve OEE by maximizing output while minimizing input. The input consists
of labour, machine and materials while the output consists of production (P), quality (Q), cost
(c), delivery (D), safety, health and environment (S) and morale (M). TPM strives to maximize
output (PQCDSM) by maintaining ideal operating conditions and running equipment eff
ectively. To achieve OEE, TPM concentrates on eliminating “six big losses.” Figure shows the
OEE model.
Six Big Losses
The six big losses can be grouped under three main heads—availability (downtime),
performance rate (speed losses) and quality rate (defects).
Availability (downtime): Downtime results because of
1. Equipment failure from breakdowns.
2. Setup and adjustment from exchange of die, tool changes.
Performance rate (speed losses): Speed losses result on account of:

1. Idling and minor stoppages due to abnormal operation of sensors, blockage of work on
chutes, etc.
2. Reduced speed due to discrepancies between the designed and the actual speed of equipment.
Quality rate (defects): Defects arise due to:
1. Process defects due to scraps and quality defects to be repaired.
2. Reduced yield from machine startup to stable production.
Overall Equipment Effectiveness = Availability × Performance Efficiency × Quality Rate
OEE = A × PE × QR
Quality rate (QR) is a measure that indicates the equipment’s ability to produce non-defective
products.
It is defi ned as:

TPM is built around the following eight pillars, which collectively address all aspects of
maintenance and production efficiency. The eight pillars of TPM are:
1. Jishu Hozen (Autonomous Maintenance) 7. Safety, health and environment
2. Kobetsu Kaizen (Focused Improvement) 8. Pillar 8—Office TPM

3. Planned maintenance
4. Hinshitsu Hozen (Quality Maintenance)
5. Education and training
6. Development management
1. Autonomous Maintenance: This empowers operators to perform basic maintenance tasks
(cleaning, lubricating, and inspecting) on their equipment. It helps in early identification of
potential issues and reduces the dependency on specialized maintenance teams.

2. Planned Maintenance: It involves scheduling maintenance tasks based on predictive and

preventive strategies rather than reacting to equipment failure. This helps in optimizing
maintenance routines and reducing unplanned downtime.

3. Quality Maintenance: Focuses on eliminating defects and achieving zero defects. It

involves using equipment in a way that prevents the production of defects and incorporates
quality management practices into maintenance activities.

4. Focused Improvement: Also known as Kobetsu Kaizen, this pillar aims at systematic
problem-solving methodologies to identify and eliminate losses and inefficiencies in a focused
manner.

5. Early Equipment Management: Involves designing and installing equipment to be

maintenance-friendly from the start, thereby reducing its lifecycle cost and improving its
efficiency and reliability.

6. Training and Education: Ensures that all employees have the skills and knowledge
necessary to participate in TPM activities. This includes training operators in basic
maintenance skills and educating maintenance staff in advanced techniques.

7. Safety, Health, and Environment: Aims to create a safe and healthy working environment
by integrating safety and environmental considerations into the TPM activities.

8. TPM in Administration: Extends TPM practices beyond the production floor to

administrative and support functions, such as sales, HR, and procurement, to improve
efficiency and effectiveness across the entire organization.
Implementing TPM requires a cultural shift within the organization, where maintenance
becomes a shared responsibility, and continuous improvement in equipment and process
performance is a common goal. The benefits of TPM include increased equipment availability,
reduced maintenance costs, improved safety, higher quality products, and greater employee
satisfaction and involvement.
Just in time (JIT): Just-In-Time (JIT) is a management philosophy and inventory strategy that
aims to increase efficiency and reduce waste by receiving goods only as they are needed in the
production process, thereby reducing inventory costs. This approach requires precise planning
and coordination with suppliers to ensure that materials and components arrive exactly when
they are needed, not earlier or later. JIT is a key component of lean manufacturing practices
and can significantly improve a company's return on investment, quality, and efficiency.
JIT is a philosophy of producing products on order. JIT means that the product should be
delivered “in-time.” The core principles that help to speed up the production in the just-in time
process are as follows:
• Use of multiple small machines
• Group technology
• Production smoothing
• Labour balancing
• Set-up reduction
• Standard working
• Visual controls
• Minimizing inventory, minimizing work in process and synchronizing production.

Key Principles of JIT

Eliminate Waste: JIT focuses on eliminating all forms of waste, including overproduction,
waiting time, unnecessary transport, excess inventory, over-processing, unnecessary motion,
and defects.

Continuous Improvement: Emphasizes the need for continuous efforts to improve products,
processes, and services to increase efficiency and eliminate waste.

Synchronization: Ensures that all elements of the production process, from supply to final
delivery, are perfectly synchronized to meet demand without delay or surplus.

Quality Management: Aims to improve quality to zero defect levels, as defects lead to waste
and inefficiency. High-quality standards reduce rework and scrap.

Flexibility: Encourages a flexible workforce and machinery setup, so that the production
process can quickly adapt to changes in demand without sustaining high levels of inventory.
Integrated Supply Chain: Requires a strong relationship with suppliers to ensure that
materials are delivered directly to the production lines just in time for assembly or processing.

Benefits of JIT
Reduced Inventory Costs: By keeping inventory levels low, companies can reduce storage
space and costs associated with holding goods.

Improved Quality: Continuous improvement and quality management aspects of JIT lead to
enhancements in product quality.

Increased Efficiency: JIT eliminates waste in the production process, leading to more efficient
operations and better utilization of resources.

Faster Throughput Times: Reducing lead times and focusing on efficiency can help speed up
the production cycle, allowing companies to respond more quickly to customer demands.

Greater Flexibility: Being able to quickly adapt to changes in demand helps companies stay
competitive in dynamic markets.

Challenges of JIT
Implementing JIT can be challenging, as it requires:
High Level of Coordination: With suppliers and within the production process.
Investment in Technology and Processes: To ensure timely delivery and quality control.
Cultural Shift: Employees and management may need to adopt new ways of thinking and
working.
Risk of Supply Chain Disruptions: A reliance on just-in-time deliveries makes the production
process more vulnerable to disruptions in the supply chain.
Despite these challenges, many companies have successfully implemented JIT to create more
responsive, efficient, and cost-effective operations.
Kanban is a methodology originating from Japanese manufacturing processes, particularly
Toyota's production system. A system of cascading production and delivery instructions from
downstream to upstream activities in which the upstream supplier does not produce until the
downstream customer signals a need for the product using a Kanban system. Kanban is a card
designed to prevent overproduction by ensuring that each stage of a process produces only as
much as the next stage needs. At its core, Kanban is about visualizing work, limiting work in
progress (WIP), and maximizing flow. It helps teams manage their work by visualizing the
work pipeline, setting work-in-progress limits, and continuously improving their processes.
The application of Kanban to just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing is particularly powerful because
JIT is all about producing goods only as needed, thus minimizing waste and inventory costs
while maximizing efficiency. Here's how Kanban is applied to JIT:
1. Visualizing Workflow: Kanban involves visualizing the entire workflow of a
production process or project. This means breaking down the process into its individual
steps and representing each step with a visual card or task on a Kanban board.
2. Limiting Work in Progress (WIP): One of the key principles of Kanban is limiting
the amount of work that can be in progress at any given time. This prevents overloading
of resources and ensures that work moves smoothly through the system. By limiting
WIP, teams can focus on completing tasks efficiently and effectively, reducing the risk
of bottlenecks and delays.
3. Pull System: Kanban operates on a pull system, where work is pulled into the system
only when there is capacity to handle it. In the context of JIT, this means that production
is triggered based on actual customer demand rather than forecasted demand. This helps
minimize inventory levels and reduces the risk of overproduction.
4. Continuous Improvement: Kanban encourages continuous improvement through
regular reflection and adjustment of processes. By tracking key metrics such as lead
time and cycle time, teams can identify areas for improvement and implement changes
to optimize workflow and reduce waste.
By applying Kanban principles to JIT manufacturing, organizations can achieve greater
efficiency, reduce waste, and improve overall productivity. Kanban provides a flexible
framework for managing work that aligns well with the principles of JIT manufacturing,
making it a powerful tool for organizations seeking to streamline their production processes.
Lean manufacturing paradigms.
Manufacturing paradigms have evolved significantly over the years as industries strive for
greater efficiency, quality, flexibility, and sustainability. These paradigms reflect the
methodologies and philosophies that drive manufacturing processes, technology adoption, and
organizational practices. Understanding these paradigms helps in recognizing the shifts in
manufacturing strategies and technologies over time.
LEAN

Lean is a business philosophy that was first developed by Taiichi Ohno in the 1990s with
particular focus on manufacturing fi rms. It is applied in various organizations to improve their
business and reduce waste. It is a concept applied to remove muda. There are seven types of
waste—overproduction, wasting time, resources, transportation, processing, inventory and
motion. The elimination of waste improves quality while reducing costs and the time required
for producing goods.
Fundamental Lean Management Principles
The five fundamental lean management principles are:
1. Specify what creates value from the customer’s perspective
2. Identify all the steps in the process chain
3. Make those processes fl ow
4. Make only what is pulled by the customer
5. Strive for perfection by continually removing wastes
Lean is the result of the involvement of all the departments of the organization.
Building Blocks of Lean

5 S: A system for workplace organization and standardization. The fi ve steps that go into this
technique all start with the letter S in Japanese (seiri, seiton, seiso, seiketsu and shitsuke). These
five terms are loosely translated as sort, set in order, shine, standardize and sustain.
Visual controls: The placement in plain view of all necessary information, tooling parts
production activities and indicators so everyone involved can understand the status of the
system at a glance.
Streamlined layout: A layout designed according to optimum operational sequence.
Standard work: Consistent performance of a task, according to prescribed methods without
waste and focused on human movement (ergonomics).
Batch-size reduction: If one piece fl ow is not appropriate, reduce the batch to the smallest
size possible.
Teams: In the lean environment, the emphasis is on working in teams, be they process
improvement teams or daily work teams.
Quality at the source: This refers to inspection and process control by employees so that they
are certain that the product or information is passed on to the next stage or the process is of
acceptable quality.

Point of use storage: Raw materials, parts information, tooling work standards, supplies,
procedures, etc. are stored where needed.
Quick changeover: The ability to change tooling and fi xtures rapidly (usually in minutes) so
multiple products in smaller batches can be run on the same equipment.
Pull/kanban: A system of cascading production and delivery instructions from downstream to
upstream activities in which the upstream supplier does not produce until the downstream
customer signals a need for the product using a Kanban system. Kanban is a card designed to
prevent overproduction by ensuring that each stage of a process produces only as much as the
next stage needs.
Cellular/flow: Physically linking and arranging manual and machine process steps into the
most effi - cient combination to maximize the value added while minimizing waste. The aim is
to create a single piece flow.
Total productive maintenance (TPM): A lean equipment maintenance strategy for aximizing
overall equipment effectiveness.
As lean has evolved, its potential impact has broadened. The philosophy that once was limited
to the shop floor has found its way into all facets of an organization. Resources freed by lean
can be reallocated to improve society at large and, in turn, the sustainability of an organization.
Here are some key manufacturing paradigms:
1. Craft Production

The earliest manufacturing paradigm, craft production involves handcrafting products or parts.
It is characterized by skilled artisans individually crafting products to meet specific customer
needs, resulting in high-quality, customized products but with low production efficiency and
high costs.
2. Mass Production
Popularized by Henry Ford in the early 20th century, mass production involves the manufacture
of large quantities of standardized products through the use of specialization, mechanization,
and assembly lines. This paradigm significantly increases production efficiency and reduces
costs but lacks flexibility in product variation and customization.
3. Lean Manufacturing
Originating from the Toyota Production System, lean manufacturing focuses on waste
reduction, continuous improvement (Kaizen), and delivering maximum value to the customer.
It emphasizes efficiency by eliminating non-value-adding activities, improving quality, and
reducing production times and costs.

4. Agile Manufacturing
Agile manufacturing is a paradigm that emphasizes flexibility and adaptability to rapidly
respond to market changes and customer demands. It involves using technology, innovative
methods, and a flexible workforce to quickly adjust production processes and product designs.
5. Just-In-Time (JIT) Production

Closely associated with lean manufacturing and pioneered by Toyota, JIT focuses on reducing
inventory costs and increasing efficiency by producing and delivering products just in time to
be sold or assembled. It requires precise coordination and strong supplier relationships.
6. Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)
FMS involves using programmable equipment and automated systems to produce a variety of
products in varying volumes with minimal manual intervention. It combines the efficiency of
mass production with the flexibility to adapt to changing production demands.
7. Custom Mass Production (Mass Customization)
This paradigm combines the efficiency of mass production with the personalization of craft
production. It uses flexible manufacturing systems and modular designs to produce customized
products at mass production costs and speeds.
8. Digital Manufacturing
Digital manufacturing leverages digital technologies (e.g., IoT, AI, robotics, and additive
manufacturing) to enhance various aspects of the manufacturing process, including design,
simulation, production, and supply chain management. It aims to increase efficiency, reduce
lead times, and enable more complex and customized production.
9. Sustainable Manufacturing
Sustainable manufacturing focuses on minimizing negative environmental impacts, conserving
energy and natural resources, and ensuring social responsibility throughout the product
lifecycle. It involves adopting practices and technologies that are environmentally friendly and
economically sound.
10. Industry 4.0
The latest manufacturing paradigm, Industry 4.0, represents the fourth industrial revolution. It
integrates advanced digital technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), cyber-physical
systems, big data analytics, and artificial intelligence, to create smart factories. Industry 4.0
aims for higher operational efficiency, customization, and automation, enabling real-time data
analysis and decision-making.
These paradigms are not mutually exclusive and can coexist within different parts of the same
organization or across different sectors. The evolution of manufacturing paradigms reflects the
ongoing pursuit of improved efficiency, quality, flexibility, and sustainability in the face of
changing technological, economic, and social landscapes.