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The document outlines the fundamentals of climate change, detailing the definitions of climate and weather, key components of climate, and factors influencing it. It discusses the Earth's climate system, natural and anthropogenic causes of climate change, and the mechanisms of global warming, including greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, it highlights the impacts of global warming on temperatures, ice melting, sea levels, ecosystems, agriculture, and human health.

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services

d State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

CLIMATE CHANGE b) Altitude: Higher altitudes generally have cooler temperatures and distinct weather
patterns.
c) Ocean Currents: Ocean currents can warm or cool coastal regions, affecting local
Chapter-1| Fundamentals of Climate Change climates. For instance, the Gulf Stream warms Western Europe.
1.1 Climate d) Proximity to Water Bodies: Areas near large lakes or oceans tend to have milder
Climate refers to the long-term patterns and averages of weather conditions in a climates with less temperature variation.
particular region over a significant period, typically 30 years or more. It encompasses e) Topography: Mountains can block air masses, creating distinct climatic zones on
various atmospheric elements such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and their windward and leeward sides.
atmospheric pressure. 1.4 Types of Climates:
Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific place at a specific a) Tropical: Found near the equator, characterized by warm temperatures year-round
time. It includes variables such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind speed, and and significant rainfall.
atmospheric pressure, which can change from minute to minute, hour to hour, and day
b) Dry: Includes deserts and steppe climates, with low precipitation and significant
to day. Weather is what we experience daily—sunny, cloudy, rainy, hot, or cold—and is
temperature variations between day and night.
distinct from climate, which represents the average weather conditions over a longer
c) Temperate: Found in mid-latitude regions with moderate temperature ranges and
period.
distinct seasons.
1.2 Key Components of Climate:
d) Continental: Characterized by greater temperature extremes and found in interior
a) Temperature: Average temperature and seasonal variations are critical indicators of regions of continents.
a region's climate.
e) Polar: Located near the poles, with cold temperatures year-round and limited
b) Precipitation: This includes the average amount and seasonal distribution of rain, precipitation, mostly as snow.
snow, or other forms of moisture.
1.5 Components of Earth's Climate System
c) Humidity: The level of moisture in the air, which can affect human comfort, plant
The Earth's climate system is a complex interaction of various components that regulate
growth, and weather patterns.
the planet's climate and its changes over time. These components include the
d) Wind: Patterns of wind direction and speed that influence climate, including trade
atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, each playing a
winds, monsoons, and jet streams.
crucial role in the overall climate system.
e) Atmospheric Pressure: The weight of the atmosphere above a location, which
1.5.1. Atmosphere
affects weather and climate patterns.
• Description: The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth. It plays
1.3 Factors Influencing Climate: a significant role in regulating temperature through the greenhouse effect and
a) Latitude: Proximity to the equator significantly affects climate. Regions near the distributing heat around the planet.
equator experience tropical climates, while polar regions have colder climates. • Key Gases: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace gases like carbon dioxide,
methane, and water vapor.

Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

• Functions: 1.5.5 Biosphere
➢ Traps heat through greenhouse gases. • Description: The biosphere encompasses all living organisms on Earth, including
➢ Distributes solar energy via wind and weather patterns. plants, animals, and microorganisms.

➢ Protects life by filtering harmful solar radiation. • Functions:

1.5.2 Hydrosphere ➢ Regulates the carbon cycle through processes like photosynthesis and

• Description: This includes all water bodies on Earth such as oceans, seas, rivers, respiration.

lakes, and underground water. ➢ Influences the water cycle through transpiration and organic matter

• Functions: decomposition.

➢ Stores and transfers heat across the globe through ocean currents. ➢ Affects land surface reflectivity and heat absorption.

➢ Influences weather and climate through the water cycle (evaporation,

condensation, precipitation).
➢ Oceans act as a carbon sink, absorbing significant amounts of CO₂.
1.5.3 Cryosphere
• Description: The cryosphere consists of all frozen water on Earth, including
glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and sea ice.
• Functions:
➢ Reflects solar radiation, helping to cool the planet (albedo effect).
➢ Stores freshwater in the form of ice.
➢ Contributes to sea-level changes when ice melts.
1.5.4 Lithosphere
• Description: The lithosphere is the rigid outer layer of the Earth, including the .

crust and upper mantle. It influences the climate system through geological 1.6 Causes of Climate Change
processes. Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the Earth's climate,
• Functions: particularly an increase in global temperatures, known as global warming. These
➢ Affects atmospheric CO₂ levels through volcanic activity and weathering of changes are driven by both natural processes and human activities. The causes of
rocks. climate change can be broadly categorized into natural causes and anthropogenic

➢ Influences the distribution of land and sea, which affects wind patterns and (human-induced) causes.

ocean currents. 1.7 Natural Causes of Climate Change

➢ Stores carbon in soils and fossil fuels. 1.7.1 Volcanic Eruptions

Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

• Mechanism: Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of ash, sulfur dioxide (SO₂), • Impact: Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse
and other gases into the atmosphere. effect and global warming.
• Impact: Sulfur dioxide can form sulfate aerosols that reflect sunlight, temporarily 1.8.2 Land Use Changes
cooling the Earth's surface. However, volcanic CO₂ emissions can contribute to • Mechanism: Urbanization, deforestation, and agriculture alter the land surface,
long-term warming. affecting how sunlight is absorbed or reflected.
1.7.2 Solar Variability • Impact: Deforestation reduces carbon sequestration, while urbanization increases
• Mechanism: Changes in the Sun's energy output can influence the Earth's climate. heat absorption (urban heat island effect).
• Impact: Periods of high solar activity can increase temperatures, while low solar 1.8.3 Industrial Processes
activity can lead to cooler periods (e.g., the Little Ice Age). • Mechanism: Certain industrial activities release potent greenhouse gases like
1.7.3 Orbital Changes (Milankovitch Cycles) fluorinated gases, used in refrigeration and industrial applications.
• Mechanism: Variations in the Earth's orbit, axial tilt, and precession affect the • Impact: These gases, though present in smaller quantities, have a much higher
distribution and intensity of solar radiation received by the Earth. global warming potential than CO₂.
• Impact: These cycles are associated with the natural glacial and interglacial 1.8.4 Aerosols and Particulate Matter
periods in Earth's history. • Mechanism: Human activities release aerosols and particulates that can influence
1.7.4 Ocean Currents cloud formation and atmospheric reflectivity.
• Mechanism: Ocean currents distribute heat around the planet. Changes in these • Impact: Some aerosols, like black carbon (soot), absorb heat and contribute to
currents can lead to climate shifts. warming, while others, like sulfates, reflect sunlight and have a cooling effect.
• Impact: Events like El Niño and La Niña significantly affect weather patterns and 1.8.5 Waste Management
global temperatures. • Mechanism: Decomposition of organic waste in landfills produces methane, a
1.8 Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change potent greenhouse gas.

1.8.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions • Impact: Inadequate waste management practices can significantly contribute to

• Key Gases: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and methane emissions.

fluorinated gases. 1.9 Global Warming: A Detailed Explanation

• Sources: Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature
➢ Fossil Fuel Combustion: Burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy and due to human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases. This phenomenon
transportation is the largest source of CO₂ emissions. is a significant aspect of climate change, leading to various environmental and socio-

➢ Deforestation: Reduces the number of trees that absorb CO₂, increasing economic impacts.

atmospheric CO₂ levels.

➢ Agriculture: Livestock produce methane, and the use of synthetic fertilizers
releases nitrous oxide.

Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

• Fluorinated Gases: Synthetic gases used in industrial applications, with a high global
warming potential (GWP).

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF₆)
Nitrogen Trifluoride (NF₃)

• Water vapor is the most abundant and significant greenhouse gas in Earth's
atmosphere, playing a crucial role in the greenhouse effect. Its impact on global
warming is significant, although it is different from other greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) due to its unique properties and behavior in the
atmosphere.
1.10 Causes of Global Warming Differences from Other Greenhouse Gases
1.10.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: • Control by Temperature: Water vapor concentrations are controlled by
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): The most significant greenhouse gas, primarily released temperature. As the planet warms due to CO₂ and other gases, water vapor increases,
through burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) for energy, transportation, and which then enhances warming.
industry. It stops long waves radiation from escaping, thereby trapping heat and • Human Influence: Unlike CO₂ and CH₄, which are directly emitted by human
raising earth temperature. activities, water vapor's increase in the atmosphere is a consequence of warming
• 9-26% of greenhouse effect is due to CO₂ and burning fossil fuels is the major reason driven by these gases.
for its release. 1.102 Deforestation:
• Methane (CH₄): It is the second largest greenhouse gas causing global warming. ➢ Trees act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO₂ from the atmosphere. Deforestation
• It is emitted from agricultural practices (especially livestock), landfills, and the reduces this capacity, increasing atmospheric CO₂ levels and contributing to
extraction of fossil fuels, paddy fields, Marshes and swamp, Destruction of wetlands, warming.
Animal husbandry, Reservoir of hydropower project, Sewage treatment, 1.10.3 Industrial Activities:
Decomposition of organic matter. ➢ Industrial processes emit various greenhouse gases, including CO₂ and methane,
• Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): Produced from agricultural activities, industrial processes, and contributing to the overall increase in atmospheric concentrations.
combustion of organic matter and fossil fuels. 1.10.4 Agriculture:
• Ozone in the Troposphere (Bad Ozone) Tropospheric ozone acts as a greenhouse ➢ Agricultural practices, including rice production, livestock rearing, and the use
gas, contributing to the warming of the Earth's surface. It has a relatively short of synthetic fertilizers, contribute to emissions of methane and nitrous oxide.
atmospheric lifetime compared to other greenhouse gases like CO₂ but has a 1.10.5 Urbanization:
significant warming effect during its presence.

Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

➢ The expansion of urban areas leads to the replacement of natural landscapes ➢ Changing climates disrupt ecosystems, leading to habitat loss, changes in
with heat-absorbing materials like concrete and asphalt, contributing to species distribution, and increased extinction risks for many plants and animals.
localized warming (urban heat islands). f) Impact on Agriculture:
1.11 Mechanism of Global Warming ➢ Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns affect crop yields, posing

The Earth's atmosphere naturally contains greenhouse gases that trap heat, keeping the challenges for food security, particularly in vulnerable regions.

planet warm enough to sustain life. This natural process is known as the greenhouse g) Human Health Risks:
effect. However, human activities have increased the concentration of these gases, ➢ Increased heat-related illnesses, the spread of vector-borne diseases, and the
enhancing the greenhouse effect and leading to global warming. The process can be impacts of air pollution are significant health risks associated with global
outlined as follows: warming.
a) Solar Radiation: The Sun emits energy that reaches the Earth’s surface. 1.13 Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a metric used to compare the relative impact
b) Absorption and Re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs this energy and re- of different greenhouse gases on global warming over a specific time horizon. It quantifies how
radiates it as infrared heat. much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide (CO₂), which is
c) Trapping of Heat: Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap some of this heat, the baseline with a GWP of 1. GWP is crucial for understanding the contributions of various
preventing it from escaping into space, thus warming the Earth. gases to climate change and for formulating climate policies.

1.12 Impacts of Global Warming Key Aspects of Global Warming Potential

a) Rising Temperatures: a) Definition:

➢ Average global temperatures have increased, leading to more frequent and ➢ GWP is defined as the cumulative warming effect over a given time horizon

severe heatwaves, impacting human health, agriculture, and natural ecosystems. (usually 20, 100, or 500 years) of one-unit mass of a greenhouse gas relative to

b) Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels: one-unit mass of CO₂.

➢ Glaciers and polar ice caps are melting at an accelerated rate, contributing to b) Time Horizon:

sea-level rise, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems. ➢ GWP values can vary significantly depending on the time horizon chosen.

c) Extreme Weather Events: Common time horizons are:

➢ Global warming leads to more intense and frequent weather events, including ➢ 20 years (GWP20): Emphasizes short-term climate effects.

hurricanes, droughts, floods, and wildfires, causing widespread damage and ➢ 100 years (GWP100): The most commonly used timeframe in climate policies

displacement. and assessments.

d) Ocean Acidification: ➢ 500 years (GWP500): Focuses on long-term impacts.

➢ Increased CO₂ absorption by the oceans leads to acidification, which affects c) Factors Influencing GWP:

marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons. ➢ Radiative Efficiency: The ability of a gas to absorb and emit infrared radiation.

e) Loss of Biodiversity: ➢ Atmospheric Lifetime: The duration a gas remains in the atmosphere before it
is removed through chemical reactions or other processes.

Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

Examples of GWP Values c) Generates wind currents
d) Produces volcanic eruptions
a) Carbon Dioxide (CO₂):
3. Which component of the climate system is directly involved in the carbon cycle?
➢ GWP: 1 (baseline for comparison).
a) Hydrosphere
➢ Significance: CO₂ is the most prevalent greenhouse gas emitted by human b) Lithosphere
c) Biosphere
activities, with a long atmospheric lifetime.
d) All of the above
b) Methane (CH₄):
4. What is the primary driver of Earth's climate?
➢ GWP100: Approximately 28-36. a) Volcanic eruptions
b) Solar radiation
➢ Significance: Methane has a shorter atmospheric lifetime (~12 years) but is c) Ocean currents
much more effective at trapping heat than CO₂ over short timescales. d) Human activities
c) Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): 5. Which of the following best describes the role of the hydrosphere in the climate
system?
➢ GWP100: Approximately 298.
a) Stores and transports heat and moisture
➢ Significance: N₂O has a long atmospheric lifetime (~114 years) and a high b) Generates Earth's magnetic field
c) Creates tectonic movements
radiative efficiency, making it a potent greenhouse gas.
d) Absorbs and stores carbon dioxide exclusively
d) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs):
6. Which of the following is a primary natural cause of climate change?
➢ GWP100: Varies significantly depending on the specific compound, ranging a) Human industrial activities
b) Volcanic eruptions
from hundreds to thousands.
c) Deforestation
➢ Significance: HFCs are used in refrigeration and air conditioning, and they have d) Use of fossil fuels
a high GWP despite their relatively short atmospheric lifetimes. 7. Which greenhouse gas is primarily responsible for human-induced climate change?
a) Oxygen
e) Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF₆):
b) Nitrogen
➢ GWP100: Approximately 23,500. c) Carbon dioxide
d) Argon
➢ Significance: SF₆ is used in electrical insulation and has an extremely high GWP
due to its long atmospheric lifetime (over 3,000 years). 8. What human activity is the largest source of methane emissions?
a) Burning fossil fuels
b) Agriculture
c) Deforestation
QUESTIONS
d) Industrial waste
1.Which of the following is a primary component of Earth's climate system?
9. Which sector is the largest contributor to global carbon dioxide emissions?
a) Atmosphere
a) Transportation
b) Biosphere
b) Energy production
c) Cryosphere
c) Agriculture
d) All of the above
d) Forestry
2. What role does the cryosphere play in the Earth's climate system?
10. What effect does deforestation have on the climate?
a) Absorbs heat and warms the planet
a) Increases CO₂ absorption
b) Reflects solar radiation and regulates temperature
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Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

b) Reduces atmospheric CO₂ levels d) All of the above: Correct. Earth's climate system includes the atmosphere, biosphere,
c) Releases stored carbon dioxide cryosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
d) Increases oxygen levels
2.Answer: b) Reflects solar radiation and regulates temperature
11.What is the primary cause of global warming? Explanation of Options:
a) Increased solar activity
a) Absorbs heat and warms the planet: Incorrect. The cryosphere reflects sunlight,
b) Deforestation
reducing warming.
c) Increased greenhouse gas emissions
d) Volcanic eruptions b) Reflects solar radiation and regulates temperature: Correct. The cryosphere reflects
solar radiation, which helps regulate Earth's temperature.
12. Which greenhouse gas has the highest global warming potential (GWP) over a 100-
year period? c) Generates wind currents: Incorrect. Wind currents are primarily influenced by
a) Carbon dioxide atmospheric conditions.
b) Methane
c) Nitrous oxide d) Produces volcanic eruptions: Incorrect. Volcanic eruptions are geological, not related to
d) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) the cryosphere.

13. What is the role of the oceans in global warming? 3. Answer: d) All of the above
a) They only absorb CO₂ Explanation of Options:
b) They release oxygen a) Hydrosphere: Correct, but part of a larger system.
c) They act as a heat sink
d) They have no effect b) Lithosphere: Correct, but part of a larger system.

14. Which of the following is a consequence of global warming? c) Biosphere: Correct, but part of a larger system.
a) Decreased sea levels d) All of the above: Correct. The carbon cycle involves exchanges between the hydrosphere,
b) Increased ice sheet growth lithosphere, and biosphere.
c) More frequent extreme weather events
d) Global cooling 4.Answer: b) Solar radiation
Explanation of Options:
15. Which international agreement aims to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to
combat global warming? a) Volcanic eruptions: Incorrect. They influence climate but are not the primary driver.
a) Kyoto Protocol b) Solar radiation: Correct. Solar energy is the primary source driving Earth's climate.
b) Montreal Protocol
c) Paris Agreement c) Ocean currents: Incorrect. They distribute heat but are influenced by solar radiation.
d) Basel Convention d) Human activities: Incorrect. They affect climate change, but not the primary driver of
climate.

SOLUTIONS 5. Answer: a) Stores and transports heat and moisture

Explanation of Options:
1.Answer: d) All of the above
Explanation of Options: a) Stores and transports heat and moisture: Correct. The hydrosphere plays a key role in
regulating Earth's climate through heat and moisture transport.
a) Atmosphere: Correct, but not the only component.
b) Generates Earth's magnetic field: Incorrect. This is related to the Earth's core, not the
b) Biosphere: Correct, but not the only component. hydrosphere.
c) Cryosphere: Correct, but not the only component. c) Creates tectonic movements: Incorrect. Tectonic movements are geological processes.

Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change Chapter-1 | Fundamentals of Climate Change

d) Absorbs and stores carbon dioxide exclusively: Incorrect. The hydrosphere does absorb b) Reduces atmospheric CO₂ levels: Incorrect. It increases CO₂ levels.
CO2, but not exclusively.
c) Releases stored carbon dioxide: Correct. Trees store carbon, and deforestation releases
6.Answer: b) Volcanic eruptions this CO₂.
Explanation of Options:
d) Increases oxygen levels: Incorrect. Deforestation reduces oxygen production.
a) Human industrial activities: Incorrect. This is an anthropogenic cause.
11.Answer: c) Increased greenhouse gas emissions
b) Volcanic eruptions: Correct. Natural events like volcanic eruptions release large amounts Explanation of Options:
of greenhouse gases.
a) Increased solar activity: Incorrect. While solar activity affects the climate, it is not the
c) Deforestation: Incorrect. This is a human-induced cause. primary cause of current global warming.
d) Use of fossil fuels: Incorrect. This is an anthropogenic cause. b) Deforestation: Incorrect. It contributes to global warming but is not the primary cause.
7.Answer: c) Carbon dioxide c) Increased greenhouse gas emissions: Correct. The main driver of global warming is the
Explanation of Options: rise in greenhouse gases like CO₂ and methane.
a) Oxygen: Incorrect. Oxygen is not a greenhouse gas. d) Volcanic eruptions: Incorrect. They have a short-term cooling effect, not long-term
warming.
b) Nitrogen: Incorrect. Nitrogen is the major component of air but not a greenhouse gas.
12.Answer: d) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
c) Carbon dioxide: Correct. CO₂ from burning fossil fuels is a major contributor to climate
Explanation of Options:
change.
a) Carbon dioxide: Incorrect. CO₂ has the lowest GWP compared to other gases listed.
d) Argon: Incorrect. Argon is an inert gas and does not contribute to climate change.
b) Methane: Incorrect. Methane has a higher GWP than CO₂ but lower than HFCs.
8.Answer: b) Agriculture
Explanation of Options: c) Nitrous oxide: Incorrect. It has a higher GWP than CO₂ and methane but lower than
HFCs.
a) Burning fossil fuels: Incorrect. This primarily emits CO₂, not methane.
d) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): Correct. HFCs have the highest GWP among the listed
b) Agriculture: Correct. Methane emissions come largely from livestock and rice paddies.
gases.
c) Deforestation: Incorrect. This primarily affects CO₂ levels.
13.Answer: c) They act as a heat sink
d) Industrial waste: Incorrect. It contributes less to methane emissions compared to Explanation of Options:
agriculture.
a) They only absorb CO₂: Incorrect. Oceans also absorb heat, not just CO₂.
9.Answer: b) Energy production
b) They release oxygen: Incorrect. While oceans contribute to oxygen production, this is not
Explanation of Options:
related to global warming.
a) Transportation: Incorrect. It is a major source, but not the largest.
c) They act as a heat sink: Correct. Oceans absorb and store heat, playing a critical role in
b) Energy production: Correct. Burning fossil fuels for energy is the largest source of CO₂ regulating the Earth’s temperature.
emissions.
d) They have no effect: Incorrect. Oceans have a significant impact on global warming.
c) Agriculture: Incorrect. It contributes to methane and nitrous oxide emissions.
14.Answer: c) More frequent extreme weather events
d) Forestry: Incorrect. It mainly affects carbon storage, not direct emissions. Explanation of Options:
10.Answer: c) Releases stored carbon dioxide a) Decreased sea levels: Incorrect. Global warming leads to rising sea levels.
Explanation of Options:
b) Increased ice sheet growth: Incorrect. It causes ice sheet melting, not growth.
a) Increases CO₂ absorption: Incorrect. Deforestation reduces CO₂ absorption.
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c) More frequent extreme weather events: Correct. Global warming results in more severe CLIMATE CHANGE
storms, droughts, and heatwaves.
d) Global cooling: Incorrect. The overall trend is global warming, not cooling.
15.Answer: c) Paris Agreement Chapter-2| Impacts of Climate Change
Explanation of Options:
2.1 Impact of Climate Change
a) Kyoto Protocol: Incorrect. It was an earlier agreement but is now replaced by the Paris
Agreement. Climate change refers to long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and
b) Montreal Protocol: Incorrect. It deals with ozone-depleting substances, not greenhouse other elements of the Earth's climate system. These changes are primarily driven by
gases. human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial
c) Paris Agreement: Correct. This agreement aims to limit global temperature rise by processes that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The impacts of climate
reducing emissions.
change are profound and multifaceted, affecting ecosystems, economies, and human
d) Basel Convention: Incorrect. It deals with hazardous waste, not global warming
health globally.

a) Rising Temperatures

• Global Warming: The Earth's average temperature has risen significantly over the
past century, leading to more frequent and intense heatwaves.

• Effects:
How to connect?
➢ Increased risk of heat-related illnesses and mortality.
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➢ Reduced agricultural yields in heat-sensitive regions.
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Chapter - 01 | Dr . Jaspal Singh ➢ Melting of glaciers and polar ice, contributing to sea-level rise.
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b) Sea Level Rise
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➢ Coastal flooding and erosion threaten low-lying areas and islands.

➢ Saltwater intrusion into freshwater systems.

➢ Displacement of communities and loss of habitat for coastal ecosystems.

c) Extreme Weather Events

• Increased Frequency and Intensity: Climate change is linked to more severe

storms, hurricanes, droughts, and heavy rainfall.
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Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change

• Effects:

➢ Destruction of infrastructure and homes. g) Impact on Water Resources

➢ Loss of lives and economic disruption. • Altered Water Availability: Changes in precipitation and melting glaciers affect
water supply.
➢ Increased risk of wildfires due to prolonged droughts and higher temperatures.
• Effects:
d) Impact on Ecosystems
➢ Increased risk of water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions.
• Habitat Changes: Many species face habitat loss as temperatures rise, and ➢ More intense and frequent flooding, contaminating water supplies.
ecosystems shift.
➢ Stress on water infrastructure and management systems.
• Effects: h) Economic Impacts
➢ Migration of species to cooler areas, disrupting existing ecosystems. • Cost of Adaptation and Mitigation: Climate change imposes significant economic

➢ Coral bleaching due to warmer oceans, threatening marine biodiversity. costs on societies.
• Effects:
➢ Increased extinction risk for species unable to adapt or migrate.
➢ Damage to infrastructure from extreme weather events.
e) Impact on Agriculture
➢ Increased insurance costs and loss of property value in high-risk areas.
• Changes in Crop Yields: Shifts in growing seasons, precipitation patterns, and ➢ Investment needed for climate-resilient infrastructure and technologies.
increased pests and diseases affect agricultural productivity. i) Impact on Human Security
• Effects: • Displacement and Migration: Climate change acts as a "threat multiplier,"
➢ Reduced food security, especially in vulnerable regions. exacerbating existing social and political tensions.
• Effects:
➢ Increased costs for irrigation and pest control.
➢ Increased displacement of populations due to extreme weather and sea-level rise.
➢ Economic strain on farmers and agricultural communities.
➢ Heightened risk of conflict over scarce resources like water and arable land.
f) Health Impacts
➢ Strain on national and international aid systems.
• Increased Health Risks: Climate change exacerbates health problems by affecting j) Impact on Energy Systems
the quality of air, water, and food. • Disruption of Energy Supply: Climate change affects the availability and reliability
• Effects: of energy resources.

➢ Respiratory issues due to poor air quality and higher pollen levels. • Effects:
➢ Reduced efficiency of power plants due to higher temperatures.
➢ Spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue as warmer temperatures
➢ Increased demand for cooling, stressing energy grids.
expand the range of disease-carrying insects.
➢ Disruption of oil and gas production in extreme weather conditions.
➢ Malnutrition due to food supply disruptions.

Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change

2.3 Factors Affecting Ozone Formation

2.2 Ozone Layer Depletion • Solar Radiation: The amount and intensity of UV light from the Sun are critical for

Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning and reduction of the ozone (O₃) ozone formation. Ozone concentration varies with latitude, altitude, and time of year.

concentration in the Earth's stratosphere. The ozone layer, located about 15-35 kilometers • Altitude: Ozone formation is most efficient in the stratosphere, particularly between
above the Earth's surface, plays a crucial role in protecting life by absorbing the majority 15 and 35 kilometers above the Earth's surface.
of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Depletion of this layer results in increased • Pollutants: In the troposphere, the presence of pollutants like NOₓ and VOCs
UV radiation reaching the Earth, leading to various environmental and health issues. enhances ozone formation, leading to ground-level ozone pollution.
The formation of ozone in the stratosphere occurs through a series of photochemical
2.4 Structure and Function of the Ozone Layer
reactions known as the Chapman cycle. This process involves the interaction of oxygen
• Composition: The ozone layer contains high concentrations of ozone molecules,
molecules (O₂) and ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun.
which are composed of three oxygen atoms (O₃).
2.2.1 Step-by-Step Process:
• Function: It absorbs and filters out the Sun's UV-B and UV-C radiation, which are
a) Photodissociation of Oxygen Molecules:
harmful to living organisms. This protective shield prevents excessive UV radiation
➢ When high-energy UV-C radiation (wavelengths less than 240 nm) from the Sun from damaging DNA in living cells, reducing the risk of skin cancer, cataracts, and
strikes an oxygen molecule (O₂), it splits into two individual oxygen atoms (O). other health issues.
➢ Reaction: O2+UV-C→2O 2.5 Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
b) Formation of Ozone:
2.5.1 Human-Made Chemicals:
➢ Each free oxygen atom (O) can then collide with another oxygen molecule (O₂)
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam-
in the presence of a third molecule (M) that carries away excess energy, resulting
blowing agents, and aerosol propellants. CFCs release chlorine atoms when broken
in the formation of ozone (O₃).
down by UV radiation, which then destroy ozone molecules.
➢ Reaction: O+O2+M→O3+M
• Halons: Used in fire extinguishers, release bromine atoms, which are even more
c) Destruction of Ozone: destructive to ozone than chlorine.
➢ Ozone molecules can absorb UV-B and UV-C radiation, causing them to split • Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl₄) and Methyl Chloroform (CH₃CCl₃): Used as
back into an oxygen molecule (O₂) and a free oxygen atom (O). solvents and cleaning agents.
➢ Reaction: O3+UV-B/UV-C→O2+O • Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Used as transitional substitutes for CFCs but
d) Cycle Continuation: still contribute to ozone depletion.

➢ The free oxygen atom (O) can again react with an oxygen molecule (O₂) to form 2.5.2 Natural Causes:
ozone (O₃), continuing the cycle. ➢ Volcanic Eruptions: Emit large quantities of particles and gases that can
temporarily affect ozone levels.
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➢ Solar Variability: Changes in solar radiation can influence ozone concentration. 2.8 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion
2.6. Mechanism of Ozone Depletion 2.8.1 Increased UV Radiation:

a) Release of Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS): • Higher UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface leads to:

➢ ODS released into the atmosphere eventually reach the stratosphere. ➢ Health Impacts: Increased risk of skin cancers, cataracts, and other eye damage,

b) Photodissociation: as well as suppression of the immune system.

➢ UV radiation breaks down ODS, releasing chlorine and bromine atoms. ➢ Environmental Impacts: Damage to aquatic ecosystems, particularly
phytoplankton, which form the base of the marine food chain. Harm to terrestrial
c) Destruction of Ozone:
plant life, affecting crop yields and forest health.
➢ A single chlorine or bromine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules in
2.8.2 Climate Effects:
a catalytic cycle, where the atoms are regenerated and continue to destroy more
ozone. • Changes in ozone concentration can influence atmospheric temperature and
circulation patterns, contributing to climatic changes.
d) Seasonal Ozone Hole Formation:
2.9 Measures to Mitigate Ozone Layer Depletion
➢ In polar regions, particularly over Antarctica, conditions are ideal for ozone
depletion in spring (September to November). This leads to the formation of the 2.9.1 International Agreements:
"ozone hole." • Montreal Protocol (1987): An international treaty designed to phase out the

2.7 What is the Ozone Hole production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances. It has been highly
successful in reducing ODS emissions and promoting recovery of the ozone layer.
• The ozone hole is not an actual hole but a substantial depletion of ozone in the
stratosphere, primarily over the Antarctic region. It is characterized by a decrease in 2.9.2 Alternatives to ODS:

the ozone concentration to levels significantly lower than normal. It can also be also • Development and use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other substances with
be stated “Ozone Hole” is an area where ozone concentration drops to an average to lower ozone-depleting potential. However, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases, so
about 100 Dobson Unit . their use is also being controlled under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal

• The Dobson Unit is the most common unit for measuring ozone concentration. One Protocol.

Dobson Unit is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a 2.9.3 Monitoring and Research:
layer of pure ozone 0.01 millimeters thick at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius and • Ongoing scientific monitoring of the ozone layer and research into the effects of UV
a pressure of 1 atmosphere radiation help guide policy and measure recovery progress.
• The term is used to describe the region where the ozone layer has been severely
2.10 Recovery of the Ozone Layer
reduced, leading to a thinner ozone shield.
• Current Status: There are signs of recovery due to the successful implementation of
the Montreal Protocol. Full recovery is expected by the middle of the 21st century,

Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change

assuming continued compliance and no significant new sources of ozone-depleting 2.12.2 Coral Reefs:
substances. • Coral reefs are particularly vulnerable as ocean acidification reduces their
• Challenges: Potential delays in recovery due to illegal production and use of CFCs, calcification rates, leading to slower growth and increased susceptibility to erosion
or the impact of climate change on ozone recovery and bleaching.

2.11 Ocean acidification 2.12.3 Marine Food Web:

Ocean acidification refers to the ongoing decrease in the pH of Earth's oceans, primarily • Many marine species, including commercially important fish, depend on calcifying

caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. This process has organisms for food. The decline in these organisms can disrupt the entire food web.

significant implications for marine life, ecosystems, and human industries dependent on 2.12.4 Physiological Stress:
the ocean.
• Ocean acidification can affect the behavior, reproduction, and growth of marine
Causes of Ocean Acidification species, leading to changes in biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics.

a) Increase CO2 Emission: 2.13 Economic and Social Impacts

• Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and cement a) Fisheries and Aquaculture:
production, release large amounts of Cao2 into the atmosphere.
• Declining populations of shellfish and other marine organisms can negatively impact
• Approximately 30% of this CO2 is absorbed by the atmosphere. fisheries and aquaculture industries, which are vital sources of food and income for

b) CO2 Dissolution in Ocean Water: millions of people worldwide.

• When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). b) Tourism:

• Reaction: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 • Coral reefs attract millions of tourists each year. Damage to these ecosystems can
lead to a decline in tourism revenue for coastal communities.
c) Formation of Hydrogen lons:
c) Coastal Protection:
• Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3–) and hydrogen ion(H+).
• Healthy coral reefs act as natural barriers, protecting coastlines from storms and
• Reaction H2CO3 → HCO3 + H+
erosion. Degraded reefs can lead to increased vulnerability to natural disasters.
• There increase in hydrogen ions lowers the pH of seawater, making it more acidic.
2.14 Climate Change Impacts on Cloud Cover
2.12. Impact on Marine Life
a) Altered Cloud Formation:
2.12.1 Calcifying Organisms:
➢ Warmer temperatures increase the evaporation of water, potentially leading to
• Organisms such as corals, mollusks, and some plankton rely on carbonate ions to
more cloud formation. However, the type and altitude of clouds formed can vary
form calcium carbonate shells and skeletons.
based on local conditions and atmospheric stability.
• As carbonate ion concentration decreases, these organisms struggle to build and
maintain their shells, leading to weaker structures and increased mortality.
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b) Changes in Cloud Altitude:Climate change may cause an upward shift in cloud height, 2.15.2 Expansion of the Hadley Cell:
especially in tropical regions. Higher clouds are less effective at reflecting sunlight and • Hadley Cell Expansion: Warming is causing the Hadley cells (the tropical
more efficient at trapping heat, contributing to a warming feedback loop.
circulation systems) to expand poleward. This expansion can lead to drier conditions
c) Distribution Shifts: in the subtropics and a shift in the location of tropical rain belts, affecting regions

➢ The geographic distribution of clouds is changing. For example, subtropical dependent on consistent rainfall.

regions may experience fewer clouds, leading to more direct sunlight and 2.15.3 Shift in Trade Winds:
warming. Conversely, polar regions may see increased cloud cover, which can • Weakened Trade Winds: In some regions, such as the Pacific Ocean, trade winds
either warm or cool the region depending on the cloud type and season. have weakened due to climate change. This weakening affects ocean currents and
d) Cloud Reflectivity (Albedo): can contribute to phenomena like El Niño, disrupting global weather patterns.

➢ Changes in the characteristics of clouds, such as thickness and water content, can 2.15.4 Polar Vortex Alterations:
affect their reflectivity. Thicker clouds with more water content tend to reflect • Weaker Polar Vortex: The warming of the Arctic can weaken the polar vortex,
more sunlight, potentially offsetting some warming. allowing cold air to spill southward into mid-latitudes. This results in unusually cold
e) Cloud Feedback Mechanisms: winters in some regions.

➢ Positive Feedback: Reduced cloud cover in certain areas can lead to increased 2.15.5 Changes in Monsoonal Winds:
solar radiation absorption, further warming the surface and reducing cloud • Monsoon Intensity: Climate change can alter monsoon systems by changing the
formation. timing, duration, and intensity of monsoonal winds. This affects agricultural cycles
➢ Negative Feedback: In other regions, increased cloud cover might enhance and water availability in monsoon-dependent regions.
reflectivity, cooling the surface and potentially offsetting warming.
Questions
2.15. Impact on Wind Belts Q1. Which of the following is a direct impact of climate change on sea levels?
2.15.1 Disruption of the Jet Streams: a) Increased sea ice formation

• Polar Jet Stream: The warming Arctic reduces the temperature gradient between the b) Rising sea levels

poles and the equator, weakening the polar jet stream. A weakened jet stream can c) Decreased ocean salinity

lead to more stagnant weather patterns, causing prolonged heatwaves or cold spells. d) Stabilized coastal ecosystems

• Subtropical Jet Stream: Changes in temperature and pressure patterns can shift the Q2. How does climate change affect weather patterns?

position and strength of the subtropical jet stream, impacting weather systems a) More predictable weather

globally. b) Increased frequency of extreme weather events

c) Decrease in global temperatures
d) Stabilization of precipitation patterns

Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change

Q.3 What is one of the primary effects of climate change on biodiversity? Q9. What is the phenomenon of the "ozone hole"?
a) Expansion of habitats a) A decrease in ozone concentration over tropical regions
b) Increased species extinction b) A seasonal thinning of the ozone layer over polar regions
c) Reduced migration of species c) Permanent destruction of the ozone layer globally
d) Stability in ecosystems d) Increase in ozone concentration over industrial areas

Q4. Which human health impact is linked to climate change? Q10. Which international agreement aims to reduce substances that deplete the ozone layer?
a) Reduced risk of heatwaves a) Kyoto Protocol
b) Increased spread of vector-borne diseases b) Paris Agreement
c) Decreased air pollution c) Montreal Protocol
d) Lower incidence of respiratory diseases d) Rio Declaration

Q5. How does climate change impact agriculture? Q11. What is the primary cause of ocean acidification?
a) Increased crop yields globally a) Excess nitrogen runoff
b) Reduced water stress b) Increased carbon dioxide absorption
c) More frequent crop failures c) Melting polar ice caps
d) Enhanced soil fertility universally d) Decreased salinity of ocean water

Q6. Which chemical compounds are primarily responsible for ozone layer depletion? Q12. What chemical reaction occurs in the ocean due to increased CO₂ levels?
a) Carbon dioxide a) Formation of calcium carbonate
b) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) b) Formation of carbonic acid
c) Methane c) Decomposition of organic matter
d) Nitrous oxide d) Increase in dissolved oxygen

Q.7 What part of the Earth's atmosphere contains the ozone layer? Q13. Which marine organisms are most directly affected by ocean acidification?
a) Troposphere a) Fish
b) Stratosphere b) Coral reefs
c) Mesosphere c) Jellyfish
d) Thermosphere d) Marine mammals

Q8. What is the primary function of the ozone layer? Q14. What is one of the key consequences of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems?
a) Absorbing infrared radiation a) Enhanced photosynthesis in marine plants
b) Blocking harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation b) Disruption of calcium carbonate shell formation
c) Regulating atmospheric pressure c) Increase in sea surface temperature
d) Facilitating the greenhouse effect d) Decrease in ocean salinity

Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change

Q15. How does ocean acidification impact the food chain? c) Reduced migration of species: Incorrect. Many species are forced to migrate due to
a) It increases the population of top predators. changing climates.
b) It reduces the population of calcifying organisms. d) Stability in ecosystems: Incorrect. Ecosystems are becoming more unstable.
c) It leads to higher oxygen levels for all marine life.
4. Answer: b) Increased spread of vector-borne diseases
d) It promotes the growth of deep-sea fish species.
Explanation of Options:
Solutions a) Reduced risk of heatwaves: Incorrect. Heatwaves are becoming more frequent and
1. Answer: b) Rising sea levels severe.
Explanation of Options:
b) Increased spread of vector-borne diseases: Correct. Warmer temperatures expand the
a) Increased sea ice formation: Incorrect. Climate change leads to the melting of sea ice. habitats of disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes.
b) Rising sea levels: Correct. Melting ice and thermal expansion cause sea levels to rise. c) Decreased air pollution: Incorrect. Air pollution often worsens with climate change.
c) Decreased ocean salinity: Incorrect. While some regions may see changes in salinity, d) Lower incidence of respiratory diseases: Incorrect. Respiratory diseases may increase
rising sea levels are more direct. due to worsened air quality.
d) Stabilized coastal ecosystems: Incorrect. Coastal ecosystems are destabilized by rising 5. Answer: c) More frequent crop failures
sea levels. Explanation of Options:
2. Answer: b) Increased frequency of extreme weather events a) Increased crop yields globally: Incorrect. Crop yields may decline due to extreme
Explanation of Options: weather.
a) More predictable weather: Incorrect. Climate change makes weather less predictable. b) Reduced water stress: Incorrect. Water stress often increases due to droughts and
b) Increased frequency of extreme weather events: Correct. Climate change leads to more changing precipitation.
severe storms, droughts, and heatwaves. c) More frequent crop failures: Correct. Climate change leads to extreme weather, affecting
c) Decrease in global temperatures: Incorrect. Global temperatures are increasing. crop productivity.

d) Stabilization of precipitation patterns: Incorrect. Precipitation patterns are becoming d) Enhanced soil fertility universally: Incorrect. Soil fertility can be degraded by changing
more erratic. climates.

3. Answer: b) Increased species extinction 6. Answer: b) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Explanation of Options: Explanation of Options:

a) Expansion of habitats: Incorrect. Many habitats are shrinking due to climate change. a) Carbon dioxide: Incorrect. CO₂ is a greenhouse gas, not a major cause of ozone depletion.

b) Increased species extinction: Correct. Climate change threatens species with habitat loss b) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Correct. CFCs release chlorine atoms in the stratosphere,
and changing conditions. which break down ozone molecules.

Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change

c) Methane: Incorrect. Methane contributes to global warming but not directly to ozone c) Permanent destruction of the ozone layer globally: Incorrect. The ozone layer can
depletion. recover if harmful emissions are reduced.

d) Nitrous oxide: Incorrect. While nitrous oxide can impact the ozone layer, CFCs are the d) Increase in ozone concentration over industrial areas: Incorrect. This is not related to
primary cause. the "ozone hole" phenomenon.

7. Answer: b) Stratosphere 10. Answer: c) Montreal Protocol

Explanation of Options: Explanation of Options:

a) Troposphere: Incorrect. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. a) Kyoto Protocol: Incorrect. The Kyoto Protocol focuses on reducing greenhouse gas

b) Stratosphere: Correct. The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere, where it absorbs emissions.

harmful UV radiation. b) Paris Agreement: Incorrect. The Paris Agreement addresses climate change, not ozone

c) Mesosphere: Incorrect. The mesosphere is above the stratosphere and does not contain depletion specifically.

significant ozone. c) Montreal Protocol: Correct. The Montreal Protocol was established to phase out the

d) Thermosphere: Incorrect. The thermosphere is the outer layer of the atmosphere. production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances.

8. Answer: b) Blocking harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation d) Rio Declaration: Incorrect. The Rio Declaration focuses on sustainable development.

Explanation of Options: 11. Answer: b) Increased carbon dioxide absorption

a) Absorbing infrared radiation: Incorrect. This is the function of greenhouse gases, not the Explanation of Options:

ozone layer. a) Excess nitrogen runoff: Incorrect. Nitrogen runoff contributes to eutrophication, not

b) Blocking harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation: Correct. The ozone layer protects life on ocean acidification.

Earth by absorbing most of the Sun's harmful UV radiation. b) Increased carbon dioxide absorption: Correct. Oceans absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere,

c) Regulating atmospheric pressure: Incorrect. Atmospheric pressure is influenced by other leading to acidification.

factors. c) Melting polar ice caps: Incorrect. This affects sea levels but not directly related to ocean

d) Facilitating the greenhouse effect: Incorrect. The ozone layer is not directly involved in acidification.

the greenhouse effect. d) Decreased salinity of ocean water: Incorrect. Salinity changes do not cause acidification.

9. Answer: b) A seasonal thinning of the ozone layer over polar regions 12. Answer: b) Formation of carbonic acid
Explanation of Options: Explanation of Options:

a) A decrease in ozone concentration over tropical regions: Incorrect. The "ozone hole" a) Formation of calcium carbonate: Incorrect. Increased CO₂ reduces carbonate ions,
refers specifically to polar regions. hindering calcium carbonate formation.

b) A seasonal thinning of the ozone layer over polar regions: Correct. The "ozone hole" is b) Formation of carbonic acid: Correct. CO₂ reacts with water to form carbonic acid,
most pronounced over Antarctica during spring. lowering pH.

Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change Chapter-2 | Impacts 0f Climate Change

c) Decomposition of organic matter: Incorrect. This is unrelated to the immediate chemical d) It promotes the growth of deep-sea fish species: Incorrect. Acidification primarily
reaction of CO₂ in water. affects surface and shallow waters.

d) Increase in dissolved oxygen: Incorrect. Increased CO₂ does not increase oxygen levels.

13. Answer: b) Coral reefs

Explanation of Options:

a) Fish: Incorrect. Fish are indirectly affected by habitat changes due to acidification.

b) Coral reefs: Correct. Acidification reduces the availability of carbonate ions, essential for How to connect?
coral growth.
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c) Jellyfish: Incorrect. Jellyfish are less affected by changes in carbonate chemistry.
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d) Marine mammals: Incorrect. They are affected more by changes in food supply than by
02 | Dr . Jaspal Singh Sir
acidification itself.
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14. Answer: b) Disruption of calcium carbonate shell formation uppsc-ae-2024-non-technical/TX7E53JR
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a) Enhanced photosynthesis in marine plants: Incorrect. Ocean acidification can hinder
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b) Disruption of calcium carbonate shell formation: Correct. Acidification reduces
carbonate ions, crucial for shell-building organisms.

c) Increase in sea surface temperature: Incorrect. This is a result of global warming, not
directly of acidification.

d) Decrease in ocean salinity: Incorrect. Acidification does not directly affect salinity.

15. Answer: b) It reduces the population of calcifying organisms.

Explanation of Options:

a) It increases the population of top predators: Incorrect. Acidification negatively affects

prey species, impacting predators.

b) It reduces the population of calcifying organisms: Correct. Calcifying organisms

struggle to form shells, disrupting the food chain.

c) It leads to higher oxygen levels for all marine life: Incorrect. Acidification does not
increase oxygen levels.

Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change

CLIMATE CHANGE • Natural sinks - Oceans, forests, soil etc.

• Artificial sinks - Depleted oil reserves, un-mineable mines, etc.

Carbon Sink
Chapter-3| Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change
Unlike black and brown carbon that contribute to atmospheric green house gases, green
3.1 Mitigating Climate Change:
and blue carbon sequestrate the atmosphere green house gases.
Mitigating climate change involves a combination of strategies aimed at reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing carbon sinks, and adapting to inevitable changes. Blue Carbon
The goal is to limit the increase in global average temperature and minimize the impacts • If is the carbon captured by the world’s oceans
of climate change on ecosystems, human health, and economies.
• and coastal ecosystems.
a) Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions • This carbon is captured by living organisms in oceans is stored in the form of
• Transition to Renewable Energy: Shifting from fossil fuels to renewable energy aquatic biomass Bue carbon ecosystem act as the major sink for
sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal reduces carbon emissions • Blue carbon ecosystem act as the major sink for capturing atmospheric carbon and
significantly. reducing warming effects.
• Energy Efficiency: Enhancing energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, and
Green Carbon
industries can lower energy consumption and emissions. This includes using
energy-efficient appliances, improving insulation, and adopting energy-saving If is the Carbon captured into terrestrial plant biomass in photosynthesis and stored in
practices. the plants and soil of natural ecosystems and is a vital part of the global carbon cycle.
• Carbon Pricing: Implementing carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems can create The Blue Carbon Initiative
economic incentives for reducing emissions by putting a price on carbon emissions.
The Blue carbon initiative is the first integrated program with a comprehensive and
b) Enhancing Carbon Sequestration
coordinated global agenda focused on mitigating climate change through the
• Forestation and Reforestation: Planting new forests (afforestation) and restoring
conservation and restoration of coastal marine ecosystems.
degraded forests (reforestation) increase the absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere.
Carbon Credit
• Soil Carbon Sequestration: Agricultural practices such as no-till farming, cover
cropping, and agroforestry can enhance the carbon storage capacity of soils. A carbon credit is a tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one ton
• Blue Carbon Ecosystems: Protecting and restoring coastal ecosystems like of carbon or carton dioxide equivalent (CO2).
mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses that store significant amounts of carbon. Earning carbon credits: An organization, which produces one ton less of carbon or
Carbon Sequestration carbon dioxide equivalent than the standard level of carbon emission allowed for its

Carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS or carbon sequestration, describes the outfit or activity, earns a carbon credit.

technologies designed to tackle global warming by capturing CO₂ at power stations, Carbon Offsetting
industrial sites or even directly from the air and permanently storing is underground.
Sinks: an area that absorbs carbons. Pumping carbon into 'carbon sinks' may carry out
carbon sequestration
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• Carbon offset are credits for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions made at • This will help in achieving higher yields, more carbon in the soil and greater
another location, such as wind farms, which create renewable energy and reduce resilience to droughts and heat.
the need for fossil fuel powered energy.
d) Green Economy
• Carbon offsets are quantified and sold in metric tones of carbon dioxide equivalent
• The 'Green economy' can be considered synonymous to a 'sustainable' economy.
(CO2).
• Green economy focuses specifically on the fundamental changes that are required
Carbon Tax
to ensure that economic systems are made more sustainable.
• Carton tax is the potential alternative to the cap and trade method currently used by • Green economy focuses on the ways to overcome the deeply rooted causes of
the protocol. This tax is based on the amount of carbon contained m a fuel such as unsustainable economic development.
coal etc.
e) Carbon Footprint
• This tax is based on the amount of carbon contained in a fuel such as coal etc.
• It is defined as the sum of all emissions of greenhouse gases (particularly carbon
• The aim of this tax is to cause less fossil fuel use hopefully cause an incentive to
dioxide) produced through burning of fossil fuels to support (directly/indirectly)
use and hopefully cause an incentive to use other sources of energy.
human activities.
Carbon Engineering
• It is expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide.
• Climate engineering commonly referred to as geoengineering is the deliberate and • It is also the measure of the impact of human activities on the environment,
large-scale intervention in the Earth's climatic system with the aim of affecting particularly the climate change, in a given time frame.
adverse global warming It consists of two parts:
• Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types a) Primary footprint: It is a measure of direct emissions of CO2 from the burning of
carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management fossil fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation (e.g. car and
• Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of aircraft).
the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere. b) Secondary footprint. It is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from the whole
• Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by lifecycle of products that are used and are associated with their manufacture and
causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation. breakdown.
Thus, the total amount of CO2 release is associated with the carbon footprint of the
c) Climate-Smart Agriculture
individuals and business houses, belonging to that particular country
• While agriculture is the sector most vulnerable to climate change, it is also a
f) Adopting Low-Carbon Technologies
major cause, directly accounting for about 14 percent of greenhouse gas
emissions (IPCC 2007). • Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Capturing CO₂ emissions from industrial
• It is possible for agriculture to actually sequester or absorb carbon into the soil processes or power plants and storing it underground prevents it from entering the

rather than emitting it. This can be done without the trade off with productivity atmosphere.

and yields. • Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles: Transitioning to electric and hydrogen-powered
vehicles reduces emissions from the transportation sector.

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Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change

g) Policy and Governance Types of Adaptation Strategies

• International Agreements: Participating in global initiatives like the Paris Adaptation strategies can be categorized into several types:
Agreement, which commits countries to reducing their emissions and adapting to • Structural/Physical Adaptation: Involves engineering and infrastructural
climate impacts. solutions.
• National Legislation: Governments can pass laws and regulations that mandate ➢ Flood Defenses: Building sea walls, levees, and storm surge barriers to protect
emissions reductions, promote renewable energy, and protect natural carbon sinks. coastal areas from rising sea levels and storm surges.
➢ Climate-Resilient Buildings: Designing buildings that can withstand extreme
h) Behavioural and Societal Changes
weather conditions, such as hurricanes, floods, and heatwaves.
• Lifestyle Changes: Encouraging individuals to adopt low-carbon lifestyles, such as
➢ Water Storage and Conservation: Developing reservoirs, rainwater
reducing meat consumption, using public transportation, and reducing waste.
harvesting systems, and efficient irrigation techniques to manage water
• Education and Awareness: Raising public awareness about climate change and its
resources.
impacts can lead to more support for mitigation policies and sustainable practices.
• Ecosystem-Based Adaptation: Uses biodiversity and ecosystem services to reduce
3.2 Adapting to Climate Impacts vulnerability.

• Resilient Infrastructure: Building infrastructure that can withstand extreme ➢ Restoration of Wetlands: Wetlands can act as natural buffers against floods

weather events helps communities adapt to climate change. and help in water purification.

• Water Resource Management: Implementing efficient water use practices and ➢ Agroforestry: Integrating trees into agricultural landscapes to reduce soil

infrastructure to cope with changing precipitation patterns and water availability. erosion, improve water retention, and provide shade.

• Agricultural Adaptation: Developing drought-resistant crops and adopting ➢ Coral Reef Protection: Healthy coral reefs can mitigate wave energy and

sustainable farming practices to ensure food security under changing climate protect coastal areas.

conditions. • Social Adaptation: Involves changes in behavior, institutions, and societal systems.
➢ Community-Based Disaster Risk Management: Engaging local communities
Adaptation to Climate Change
in disaster preparedness and response planning.
Adapting to climate change involves adjusting systems, practices, and policies to ➢ Health Systems Strengthening: Enhancing healthcare infrastructure to deal
minimize the negative impacts of climate change and take advantage of potential with climate-induced health issues such as heat stress, vector-borne diseases,
opportunities. Unlike mitigation, which aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and respiratory problems.
adaptation focuses on managing the risks posed by a changing climate. • Policy and Institutional Adaptation: Involves developing and implementing

Understanding Adaptation policies and regulations.

➢ Urban Planning and Zoning: Implementing land-use planning to avoid
Adaptation is a proactive and reactive process, encompassing strategies and actions that
development in high-risk areas such as floodplains.
help communities, ecosystems, and economies cope with current and anticipated climate
➢ Climate-Responsive Agriculture Policies: Encouraging crop diversification,
impacts. It is critical for enhancing resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate-
insurance schemes, and research on climate-resilient crops.
related hazards such as floods, droughts, heatwaves, and rising sea levels.

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Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change

Sectoral Approaches to Adaptation • Early Warning Systems: Technologies for real-time monitoring and alerting
communities about impending climate hazards.
Different sectors require tailored adaptation strategies:
• Innovative Solutions: Development of smart grids, climate-resilient seeds, and
• Water Resources: Improving water-use efficiency, developing drought-tolerant
water-saving technologies.
crops, and enhancing water recycling systems.
• Agriculture: Shifting planting dates, adopting conservation agriculture, and using
climate-resilient crop varieties. Questions
• Health: Establishing early warning systems for heatwaves, improving disease
surveillance, and enhancing public health infrastructure. Q1. Which of the following is a primary strategy for mitigating climate change?
• Infrastructure: Retrofitting existing infrastructure to withstand climate extremes, A) Increasing deforestation
and designing new infrastructure with future climate scenarios in mind. B) Transitioning to renewable energy

Challenges to Adaptation C) Enhancing fossil fuel extraction

D) Reducing energy efficiency
Several challenges can hinder effective adaptation:
• Lack of Data and Information: Inadequate climate data and forecasting can make Q2. What is the purpose of carbon pricing in climate change mitigation?

it difficult to plan and implement adaptation measures. A) To increase the use of fossil fuels
• Financial Constraints: Adaptation often requires significant investment, which B) To provide subsidies for coal industries
may be difficult for developing countries to secure. C) To create economic incentives for reducing carbon emissions
• Institutional Barriers: Weak governance, lack of coordination among agencies, D) To discourage renewable energy investments
and insufficient policy frameworks can impede adaptation efforts. Q3. Which of the following is an example of carbon sequestration?
• Social Inequities: Vulnerable populations may have limited capacity to adapt due
A) Planting trees
to poverty, lack of access to resources, and social marginalization.
B) Burning fossil fuels
Global and Regional Initiatives C) Increasing industrial emissions
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): D) Expanding urban areas
Supports adaptation through mechanisms like the Adaptation Fund and the Green Q4. What role do energy-efficient appliances play in climate change mitigation?
Climate Fund. A) They increase energy consumption
• National Adaptation Plans (NAPs): Help countries assess their vulnerabilities and
B) They reduce energy demand and emissions
develop strategies to reduce risks associated with climate change.
C) They have no impact on emissions
The Role of Technology in Adaptation D) They are more expensive and less effective
• Climate Modeling: Advanced climate models provide data for forecasting and Q5. Which international agreement focuses on reducing global greenhouse gas emissions?
planning. A) Kyoto Protocol
B) Paris Agreement
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Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change
C) Montreal Protocol D) It increases urban congestion
D) Basel Convention Q11. What is the main goal of climate change adaptation?
Q6. How does reforestation help in mitigating climate change? A) To reduce greenhouse gas emissions
A) By increasing carbon emissions B) To prevent natural disasters entirely
B) By reducing biodiversity C) To adjust systems and practices to minimize harm from climate impacts
C) By capturing atmospheric CO₂ D) To ignore the effects of climate change
D) By decreasing soil fertility Q12. Which of the following is an example of climate change adaptation?
Q7. What is the impact of using electric vehicles on climate change mitigation? A) Building sea walls to protect coastal areas
A) They increase air pollution B) Installing solar panels
B) They reduce greenhouse gas emissions C) Phasing out coal power plants
C) They increase fossil fuel consumption D) Implementing a carbon tax
D) They have no impact on emissions Q13. What is a key factor in developing effective climate change adaptation strategies?
Q8. What does the term 'net-zero emissions' refer to in climate change mitigation? A) Ignoring local conditions
A) Stopping all emissions B) Focusing solely on short-term solutions
B) Balancing emitted and removed greenhouse gases C) Considering regional climate projections
C) Doubling greenhouse gas emissions D) Rejecting traditional knowledge
D) Ignoring emissions from developing countries Q14. How can agriculture adapt to climate change?
Q9. Which of the following sectors is critical for reducing emissions to mitigate climate A) By using climate-resilient crop varieties
change? B) By relying on outdated farming techniques
A) Agriculture C) By reducing crop diversity
B) Transportation D) By ignoring changes in weather patterns
C) Industry Q15. Which sector is critical for climate change adaptation in urban areas?
D) All of the above A) Transportation
Q10. Why is improving public transportation considered a climate change mitigation strategy? B) Energy
markdown C) Water management
Copy code D) All of the above
A) It increases individual car usage Q16. What role does ecosystem-based adaptation play in climate resilience?
B) It reduces the number of vehicles on the road A) It replaces all engineering solutions
C) It has no effect on emissions B) It focuses on restoring ecosystems to provide natural protection

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Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change
C) It only applies to rural areas Solutions
D) It is ineffective in urban settings
1. Answer: B) Transitioning to renewable energy
Q17. What is a common barrier to effective climate change adaptation?
Explanation:
A) Lack of awareness and information A) Increasing deforestation releases carbon stored in trees, contributing to climate change.
B) Excessive funding B) Transitioning to renewable energy reduces reliance on fossil fuels, decreasing greenhouse
C) Over-preparation for climate impacts gas emissions.
D) Universal agreement on adaptation methods C) Enhancing fossil fuel extraction increases emissions, worsening climate change.
Q18. Why is adaptive capacity important in climate change adaptation? D) Reducing energy efficiency increases energy consumption, leading to higher emissions.

A) It ensures immediate elimination of climate risks 2. Answer: C) To create economic incentives for reducing carbon emissions
B) It allows societies to cope with and adjust to climate impacts Explanation:
C) It decreases flexibility in response strategies A) Increasing fossil fuel use exacerbates climate change.
D) It focuses on short-term economic gains B) Subsidizing coal industries opposes mitigation efforts.

Q19. Which international framework supports adaptation efforts in developing countries? C) Carbon pricing makes emitting carbon more expensive, encouraging reductions in

A) Paris Agreement emissions.

D) Discouraging renewable energy investments would hinder mitigation efforts.
B) Kyoto Protocol
C) Montreal Protocol 3. Answer: A) Planting trees

D) Hague Convention Explanation:

Q20. What is the significance of climate-resilient infrastructure? A) Planting trees captures CO₂, aiding in climate change mitigation.

A) It is more vulnerable to extreme weather events B) Burning fossil fuels releases CO₂, contributing to climate change.
C) Increasing industrial emissions adds more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.
B) It can withstand and recover from climate impacts
D) Expanding urban areas often leads to deforestation and higher emissions.
C) It increases greenhouse gas emissions
4. Answer: B) They reduce energy demand and emissions
D) It is only necessary in tropical regions
Explanation:
A) Increasing energy consumption would lead to higher emissions.
B) Energy-efficient appliances use less energy, thereby reducing emissions.
C) Energy efficiency directly impacts emissions by lowering energy use.
D) While some energy-efficient appliances may have higher upfront costs, they are effective in
reducing emissions.

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Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change
C) Industry contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.

5.Answer: B) Paris Agreement D) All these sectors must adopt mitigation strategies to reduce emissions.

Explanation:
10. Answer: B) It reduces the number of vehicles on the road
A) The Kyoto Protocol was an earlier agreement with similar goals but is now succeeded by
Explanation:
the Paris Agreement.
A) Public transportation decreases, rather than increases, car usage.
B) The Paris Agreement aims to limit global warming by reducing emissions.
B) Reducing vehicle numbers lowers emissions and traffic congestion.
C) The Montreal Protocol focuses on ozone layer protection, not directly on climate change.
C) Improved public transportation significantly reduces emissions.
D) The Basel Convention addresses hazardous waste, not climate change.
D) Public transportation alleviates, rather than increases, urban congestion.
6. Answer: C) By capturing atmospheric CO₂
11. Answer: C) To adjust systems and practices to minimize harm from climate impacts
Explanation:
Explanation:
A) Reforestation reduces, rather than increases, carbon emissions.
A) Reducing emissions is a mitigation strategy, not adaptation.
B) Reforestation typically enhances biodiversity.
B) Preventing all natural disasters is unrealistic; adaptation focuses on minimizing harm.
C) Trees absorb CO₂, making reforestation a key mitigation strategy.
C) Adaptation involves adjusting to current or expected climate changes to reduce
D) Reforestation generally improves, rather than decreases, soil fertility.
vulnerability.
7. Answer: B) They reduce greenhouse gas emissions
D) Ignoring climate change increases vulnerability and risk.
Explanation:
12. Answer: A) Building sea walls to protect coastal areas
A) Electric vehicles (EVs) typically reduce air pollution compared to conventional vehicles.
Explanation:
B) EVs produce fewer emissions, particularly when powered by renewable energy.
A) Sea walls are built to protect against rising sea levels and storm surges, a direct adaptation
C) EVs reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
measure.
D) EVs have a significant positive impact on reducing emissions.
B) Solar panels reduce emissions (mitigation).
8. Answer: B) Balancing emitted and removed greenhouse gases
C) Phasing out coal power is a mitigation strategy.
Explanation: D) A carbon tax is a policy tool for mitigation, not adaptation.
A) Net-zero does not imply stopping all emissions, but balancing them.
13. Answer: C) Considering regional climate projections
B) Net-zero means achieving a balance between emissions produced and removed.
Explanation:
C) Doubling emissions is contrary to mitigation efforts.
A) Local conditions are crucial for effective adaptation.
D) Net-zero applies globally, including emissions from all countries.
B) Long-term solutions are necessary for sustained adaptation.
9. Answer: D) All of the above
C) Regional projections help tailor adaptation strategies to specific climate impacts.
Explanation: D) Traditional knowledge can enha
A) Agriculture contributes to methane and nitrous oxide emissions.
B) Transportation is a major source of CO₂ emissions.
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Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change Chapter-3 | Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change
C) Increased flexibility is a hallmark of strong adaptive capacity.

14. Answer: A) By using climate-resilient crop varieties D) Long-term resilience is prioritized over short-term gains.

Explanation: 19. Answer: A) Paris Agreement

A) Climate-resilient crops are better suited to changing conditions, such as drought or floods. Explanation:
B) Outdated techniques may not be effective under new climate conditions. A) The Paris Agreement includes provisions for adaptation, particularly for vulnerable
C) Crop diversity can improve resilience, not reduce it. developing countries.
D) Ignoring weather changes leads to increased vulnerability. B) The Kyoto Protocol focused more on mitigation.

15. Answer: D) All of the above C) The Montreal Protocol deals with ozone depletion, not climate adaptation.
D) The Hague Convention is unrelated to climate change.
Explanation:
A) Transportation systems must adapt to changing climate conditions like floods or heatwaves. 20. Answer: B) It can withstand and recover from climate impacts

B) Energy systems need to withstand extreme weather events. Explanation:

C) Water management is crucial for dealing with floods and water shortages. A) Climate-resilient infrastructure is designed to reduce vulnerability.
D) All sectors must integrate adaptation measures to ensure urban resilience. B) It ensures that infrastructure can endure and quickly recover from climate-induced stresses.

16. Answer: B) It focuses on restoring ecosystems to provide natural protection C) It is intended to reduce emissions and enhance resilience.
D) All regions can benefit from climate-resilient infrastructure, not just tropical areas.
Explanation:
A) Ecosystem-based adaptation complements engineering solutions, not replaces them.
B) Healthy ecosystems, like wetlands or forests, can mitigate climate impacts such as flooding. How to connect?
C) It applies to both rural and urban areas.
D) Urban settings can benefit from green spaces, reducing heat and improving air quality.
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18. Answer: B) It allows societies to cope with and adjust to climate impacts

Explanation:
A) Adaptive capacity aims to manage, not eliminate, risks.
B) It involves the ability to adjust and respond effectively to climate challenges.
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Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change

Climate Change b) Global Stocktake:

➢ Every five years, there is a global stocktake to assess the collective progress
towards achieving the agreement's goals.
Chapter-4| International Cooperation of Climate Change ➢ This process is intended to inform and enhance future NDCs.
4.1 Paris Agreement on Climate Change c) Transparency and Accountability:
The Paris Agreement is a landmark international treaty adopted at the 21st Conference ➢ A robust transparency framework has been established to track and report on
of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change progress made by countries.
(UNFCCC) in December 2015. It aims to address the global challenge of climate change ➢ This framework includes regular reporting and a technical expert review process
by enhancing global cooperation to mitigate its effects, adapt to its impacts, and mobilize to ensure accuracy and reliability.
necessary financial and technological resources. d) Loss and Damage:

Key Objectives of the Paris Agreement: ➢ Acknowledges the importance of addressing loss and damage associated with the

a) Limit Global Temperature Rise: adverse effects of climate change.

➢ The agreement encourages support for vulnerable countries facing irreversible
➢ The primary goal is to limit the global average temperature increase to well
impacts.
below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
e) Support Mechanisms:
➢ Efforts are encouraged to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C, which is
➢ The agreement emphasizes the need for developed countries to provide financial
seen as a safer threshold to avoid catastrophic climate impacts.
b) Enhance Adaptation and Resilience: resources to assist developing countries.
➢ Technology development and transfer are also promoted to help countries
➢ Strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.
implement their climate actions.
➢ Foster climate resilience and reduce vulnerability, especially in developing
countries and small island states that are most affected. Significance of the Paris Agreement:
c) Finance Flows Consistent with Climate Goals: • Universal Participation: For the first time, both developed and developing
➢ Align financial flows with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and countries committed to climate action under a common framework.
climate-resilient development. • Legal Framework: The agreement establishes legally binding obligations for
➢ Developed countries are expected to provide financial support to developing countries to prepare and communicate their climate actions but allows flexibility in
nations for both mitigation and adaptation efforts. how they achieve their targets.

Core Elements of the Paris Agreement: • Ambition Mechanism: The "ratchet mechanism" ensures that countries
progressively enhance their commitments to meet long-term climate goals.
a) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs):
• Adaptation Focus: By recognizing the importance of adaptation, the agreement
➢ Countries are required to prepare, communicate, and maintain successive NDCs
outlining their plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. highlights the need for both immediate and long-term strategies to manage climate

➢ NDCs are to be updated every five years, reflecting higher ambitions over time. risks.

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Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change

Challenges and Criticisms: ➢ Joint Implementation (JI): Allows a developed country to implement an

• Ambition Gap: Current NDCs are not sufficient to limit warming to 1.5°C or 2°C, emissions reduction project in another developed country, gaining credits in

creating an ambition gap that needs to be closed through stronger commitments. return.

• Implementation and Compliance: Ensuring that countries follow through on their • Monitoring and Reporting: Countries were required to submit annual reports on

commitments remains a challenge, with no punitive measures for non-compliance. their emissions and the measures taken to reduce them. Independent experts reviewed

• Equity and Justice: Developing countries argue that historical emitters (developed the progress.

nations) should bear a larger burden in addressing climate change and providing Criticism and Limitations:
financial support. • Some major emitters, including the United States, did not ratify the treaty or later
withdrew, citing economic concerns and the lack of binding commitments for
Some other treaties were also committed for mitigation climate change as developing nations.
• Developing nations were not bound by the Protocol's targets, which created concerns
follows.
about fairness and effectiveness in the global fight against climate change.
4.2 Kyoto Protocol:
4.3 Montreal Protocol:
Overview: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that commits industrialized
Overview: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an
countries and economies in transition (often referred to as Annex I countries) to reducing
international treaty aimed at phasing out the production and consumption of substances
their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The treaty was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on
that contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer, particularly chlorofluorocarbons
December 11, 1997, and entered into force on February 16, 2005. The Protocol was
(CFCs) and other ozone-depleting chemicals. It was signed on September 16, 1987, and
negotiated under the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on
entered into force on January 1, 1989. It is often regarded as one of the most successful
Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was established to address global climate change.
environmental agreements in history.
Key Features:
Key Features:
• Targeted Emission Reduction: The primary goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to
• Ozone Layer Protection: The goal of the Montreal Protocol is to protect the ozone
reduce GHG emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels, to be achieved between
layer by phasing out substances that harm it. These substances, mainly CFCs and
2008 and 2012 (the first commitment period). It was based on the principle of
halons, were used in air conditioning, refrigeration, and aerosol propellants.
common but differentiated responsibilities, meaning developed countries had
• Global Participation: The Protocol has near-universal participation, with almost
more substantial obligations due to their historical emissions.
every country on Earth having signed it, making it a widely accepted international
• Flexibility Mechanisms: To make achieving emissions reductions easier, the
treaty.
Protocol introduced flexibility mechanisms:
• Time-bound Reductions: The Montreal Protocol includes specific, time-bound
➢ Emissions trading: Allows countries that have emissions "credits" (reductions)
commitments for phasing out the use and production of ozone-depleting substances.
to sell them to other countries.
It established a schedule for developed countries to stop producing and consuming
➢ Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Enables developed countries to invest
these substances, followed by specific deadlines for developing countries.
in emissions-reduction projects in developing countries and receive credits for
• Amendments and Adjustments: The Protocol has been amended and adjusted over
doing so.
the years to accelerate the phase-out of chemicals and to include new substances as

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Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change
they are identified as ozone-depleting. Notably, in 1997, the Beijing Amendment Amendments and Developments:
added new chemicals, including hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). • In 1995, the Ban Amendment to the Basel Convention was adopted, which bans the
Successes: export of hazardous waste from developed countries to developing countries, even
• The Protocol has been successful in significantly reducing the use of ozone-depleting with the consent of the importing country.
chemicals. As a result, the ozone layer is expected to recover by mid-century if • The Convention also encourages waste minimization, cleaner production
current trends continue. technologies, and the development of environmentally sound disposal methods.
• It is considered a model for international cooperation on environmental protection 4.5 Role of International Organizations in Climate Change
due to its universal adoption and the successful phasing out of harmful substances. International organizations play a crucial role in addressing climate change by fostering
4.4 Basel Convention: cooperation, setting global standards, providing scientific assessments, and facilitating
Overview: The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of financial and technical support. Their efforts are essential for the coordinated global
Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal is an international treaty designed to reduce the response needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
movement of hazardous waste between countries, particularly from developed to A) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
developing nations. It was adopted in Basel, Switzerland, in 1989 and entered into force • Role: The UNFCCC is the primary international treaty for addressing climate
on May 5, 1992. change. Established in 1992, it provides a framework for negotiating specific
Key Features: international agreements (protocols) to mitigate climate change, adapt to its impacts,
• Control of Hazardous Waste: The Basel Convention seeks to prevent the export of and finance related actions.
hazardous waste from developed countries to less-developed countries, where • Key Contributions:
environmental regulations may be weaker. It establishes rules for the safe ➢ Facilitates annual Conference of the Parties (COP) meetings.
management of hazardous waste and requires parties to minimize the generation of ➢ Oversaw the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
hazardous waste and ensure proper disposal. ➢ Coordinates global efforts and monitors progress.
• Transboundary Movement: The treaty specifically regulates the movement of B) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
hazardous waste across international borders. Waste can only be exported if the a) Role: The IPCC is the leading body for the assessment of climate change science. It
importing country consents, and the export must meet environmental safety provides comprehensive scientific reports on climate change, its impacts, potential
standards. future risks, and options for adaptation and mitigation.
• Inventory and Monitoring: Countries that are parties to the Convention must create b) Key Contributions:
a national inventory of hazardous wastes and track their movement. They must ➢ Publishes Assessment Reports (ARs) that inform global policy.
report periodically on the quantity and nature of hazardous waste generated, ➢ Offers a scientific basis for international negotiations.
transported, and disposed of. ➢ Helps in understanding the science of climate change.
• Prior Informed Consent (PIC): Under the Convention, the export of hazardous
waste is only permitted if the receiving country has provided informed consent
regarding the import.

C) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

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Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change
• Role: UNEP promotes environmental sustainability and assists countries in G) Green Climate Fund (GCF)
developing and implementing environmental policies, including those addressing • Role: The GCF is a financial mechanism established within the UNFCCC
climate change. framework to assist developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to
• Key Contributions: counter climate change.
➢ Supports the implementation of the Paris Agreement. • Key Contributions:
➢ Produces the Emissions Gap Report, which evaluates the disparity between ➢ Provides funding for climate projects that reduce emissions and enhance
current commitments and the reductions needed to meet global temperature resilience.
targets. ➢ Aims to balance funding between adaptation and mitigation.
➢ Facilitates regional and global environmental cooperation. ➢ Supports projects that benefit vulnerable communities.
D) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) H) International Energy Agency (IEA)
• Role: WMO provides weather, climate, and water-related data and services. It plays • Role: The IEA focuses on energy policy and promotes reliable, affordable, and clean
a critical role in monitoring climate systems and producing climate models. energy.
• Key Contributions: • Key Contributions:
➢ Supports the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS). ➢ Provides policy advice and analysis on energy systems.
➢ Contributes to the IPCC’s work by providing climate data. ➢ Tracks global energy-related CO2 emissions.
➢ Facilitates international cooperation on climate observation and research. ➢ Supports clean energy transitions through technology collaboration and policy
E) World Bank Group recommendations.
• Role: The World Bank provides financial and technical assistance to developing I). Global Environment Facility (GEF)
countries for development projects that help mitigate climate change or adapt to its • Role: The GEF provides grants and funding for projects related to biodiversity,
impacts. climate change, international waters, and other environmental challenges.
• Key Contributions: • Key Contributions:
➢ Funds renewable energy and climate resilience projects. o Supports projects that address climate change mitigation and adaptation.
➢ Supports the Climate Investment Funds (CIFs), which help developing o Helps countries meet their obligations under international conventions.
countries transition to low-carbon economies. o Funds innovative approaches to climate challenges.
➢ Provides research and policy advice on climate-smart development. J) Regional Organizations
F) International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) a) Various regional organizations, such as the European Union (EU), African Union
a) Role: IRENA promotes the adoption and sustainable use of renewable energy (AU), and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), play significant
worldwide. roles in implementing climate policies tailored to regional needs.
b) Key Contributions: b) Key Contributions:
➢ Provides data and analysis on renewable energy deployment. ➢ Develop region-specific climate action plans.
➢ Supports policy frameworks to enhance the adoption of renewable technologies. ➢ Promote regional cooperation on climate resilience and energy transition.
➢ Facilitates technology transfer and capacity building. ➢ Mobilize regional resources and expertise for climate initiatives.

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Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change

Questions A) International Monetary Fund (IMF)

B) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
C) World Health Organization (WHO)
Q1. What is the primary goal of the Paris Agreement?
D) International Labour Organization (ILO)
A) To eliminate all carbon emissions by 2050
Q7. What is the main role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?
B) To limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels
A) To enforce environmental laws
C) To phase out fossil fuels by 2030
B) To provide financial assistance for renewable energy projects
D) To achieve net-zero emissions within five years
C) To assess scientific information related to climate change
Q2. How often are countries required to update their Nationally Determined Contributions
D) To regulate carbon trading markets
(NDCs) under the Paris Agreement?
Q8. Which organization is known for funding climate resilience projects in developing
A) Every year
countries?
B) Every five years
A) World Trade Organization (WTO)
C) Every ten years
B) International Energy Agency (IEA)
D) Only once after signing
C) Green Climate Fund (GCF)
Q3. What is the purpose of the global stocktake under the Paris Agreement?
D) World Bank Group
A) To monitor deforestation rates
Q9. The Emissions Gap Report, which evaluates the difference between current emission levels
B) To assess collective progress towards climate goals
and targets, is published by which organization?
C) To enforce penalties for non-compliance
A) UNEP
D) To allocate funding to renewable energy projects
B) UNFCCC
Q4. Which mechanism is used in the Paris Agreement to increase countries' climate ambitions
C) IPCC
over time?
D) World Bank
A) Ratchet mechanism
Q10. What is the primary focus of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)?
B) Cap-and-trade system
A) Managing global fossil fuel reserves
C) Carbon offsetting
B) Promoting sustainable use of renewable energy worldwide
D) Carbon pricing
C) Conducting climate change research
Q5. Which sector does the Paris Agreement emphasize for financial support to developing
D) Enforcing international energy regulations
countries?
A) Military development
B) Tourism industry
C) Climate change mitigation and adaptation
D) Real estate
Q6. Which of the following organizations is primarily responsible for international climate
change negotiations?

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change Chapter-4 | International Cooperation of Climate Change

Solutions D) Real estate isn't a primary focus of the agreement’s financial support mechanisms.
6. Answer: B) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
1. Answer: B) To limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels
Explanation: The UNFCCC is the key organization that oversees global climate change
Explanation:
negotiations and frameworks like the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.
A) The agreement doesn't set a target for eliminating all emissions by 2050.
7. Answer: C) To assess scientific information related to climate change
B) The main objective is to limit temperature rise to well below 2°C, with efforts to limit it to
Explanation: The IPCC evaluates the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts, and
1.5°C.
potential mitigation and adaptation strategies.
C) It doesn’t mandate the complete phase-out of fossil fuels by 2030.
8. Answer: C) Green Climate Fund (GCF)
D) Net-zero emissions are a long-term goal, not within five years.
Explanation: The GCF finances projects that help developing countries mitigate and adapt to
2. Answer: B) Every five years
climate change impacts.
Explanation:
9. Answer: A) UNEP
A) Annual updates are not required.
Explanation: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) publishes the Emissions
B) Countries must update their NDCs every five years to enhance ambition.
Gap Report, highlighting the gap between current emissions and the reductions needed to meet
C) Ten-year updates would be too infrequent to track progress effectively.
climate goals.
D) Continuous updates, not a one-time action, are essential for progress.
10.Answer: B) Promoting sustainable use of renewable energy worldwide
3. Answer: B) To assess collective progress towards climate goals
Explanation: IRENA supports countries in their transition to renewable energy, providing
Explanation:
data, analysis, and policy advice.
A) The stocktake assesses overall climate action, not just deforestation.
B) It is designed to review progress and inform future NDCs.
C) The agreement doesn’t impose penalties for non-compliance.
D) While funding is important, the stocktake focuses on progress assessment. How to connect?
4. Answer: A) Ratchet mechanism WhatsApp group link: https://chat.whatsapp.com/IieDnwsmogG9XrpIQknyTr
Explanation:
YouTube class link: https://www.youtube.com/live/PQF-_B-kCFI
A) The ratchet mechanism ensures countries progressively enhance their climate commitments.
B) Cap-and-trade is a market-based tool, not specific to the Paris Agreement. Subscription link(prelims): https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-sutra-batch-for-
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C) Carbon offsetting is a mitigation tool, not an ambition-raising mechanism.
D) Carbon pricing helps reduce emissions but isn’t the ratchet mechanism. Subscription link (mains): https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-sutra-batch-for-
uppsc-ae-2024-technical/CPC3EL1E
5. Answer: C) Climate change mitigation and adaptation
Explanation: Subscription link (Technical) by Dr. Jaspal Singh:
https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-batch-for-uppsc-ae-2025-technical/XGNHE6UO
A) Military development is unrelated to the agreement’s goals.
B) Tourism isn’t a focus of financial support under the agreement.
C) Financial support is intended to aid developing countries in both mitigation and adaptation
efforts.

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-6 | Solutions to Climate Change Chapter-6 | Solutions to Climate Change

CLIMATE CHANGE a) Climate-Resilient Infrastructure

• Designing infrastructure to withstand extreme weather events such as floods,
hurricanes, and heatwaves.
Chapter-6| Solutions to Climate Change b) Water Resource Management
Addressing climate change requires a multifaceted approach that includes mitigation, • Implementing sustainable water management practices to deal with changes in water
adaptation, policy interventions, and technological innovations. Below are detailed solutions availability due to altered precipitation patterns.
to combat climate change: c) Agricultural Adaptation
6.1 Mitigation Strategies • Developing drought-resistant crops and changing planting dates to align with new
Mitigation involves reducing the sources or enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases climate conditions.
(GHGs). Key mitigation strategies include: d) Coastal Protection
a) Renewable Energy Deployment • Constructing sea walls, restoring mangroves, and implementing managed retreat
• Solar and Wind Energy: Increasing the share of solar and wind energy reduces strategies to protect coastal areas from sea-level rise.
reliance on fossil fuels. e) Health Sector Adaptation
• Hydropower and Geothermal: Utilizing hydropower and geothermal energy for • Strengthening healthcare systems to deal with increased health risks such as heat-
electricity generation can significantly cut emissions. related illnesses and vector-borne diseases.
b) Energy Efficiency 6.3 Policy and Governance
• Buildings and Appliances: Implementing energy-efficient technologies in Effective policies and international cooperation are crucial for large-scale climate action.
buildings and household appliances reduces energy consumption. a) International Agreements
• Industrial Processes: Enhancing the efficiency of industrial processes can lower • Paris Agreement: Countries commit to reducing GHG emissions and enhancing
emissions from manufacturing. climate resilience.
c) Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) • Kyoto Protocol: A binding commitment for industrialized countries to reduce GHG
• Capturing CO2 emissions from power plants and industrial sources and storing them emissions.
underground prevents CO2 from entering the atmosphere. b) National Policies
d) Reforestation and Afforestation • Carbon Pricing: Implementing carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems to internalize
• Planting trees increases carbon sequestration, absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. the environmental cost of carbon emissions.
e) Reducing Methane Emissions • Renewable Energy Mandates: Policies that require a certain percentage of energy
• Methane has a higher global warming potential than CO2. Reducing emissions from to come from renewable sources.
agriculture, waste management, and fossil fuel production is critical. c) Local Governance
6.2 Adaptation Strategies • Municipalities implementing local climate action plans, promoting urban greening,
Adaptation involves making adjustments to natural or human systems in response to and improving public transportation systems to reduce emissions.
actual or expected climatic stimuli. Key adaptation strategies include:

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-6 | Solutions to Climate Change Chapter-6 | Solutions to Climate Change

6.4 Technological Innovations c) Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)

Technology plays a crucial role in providing new solutions for mitigating and adapting • Collaboration between governments and private entities to finance and implement

to climate change. climate projects.

a) Smart Grids 6.7 Research and Development

• Using smart grids to optimize energy use and integrate renewable energy sources Continuous research is necessary to understand climate dynamics and develop innovative
efficiently. solutions.
b) Electric Vehicles (EVs) a) Climate Modeling
• Transitioning from internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs reduces emissions • Developing more accurate climate models to predict future changes and inform
from the transportation sector. policy decisions.
c) Sustainable Aviation Fuels b) Renewable Energy Technologies
• Developing biofuels and synthetic fuels that produce lower emissions compared to • Investing in research to improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of renewable
traditional jet fuel. energy technologies.
d) Advanced Nuclear Energy c) Carbon Sequestration Technologies
• Small modular reactors and next-generation nuclear technologies offer low-emission Innovating methods to enhance natural and artificial carbon sequestration.
energy sources with enhanced safety.
6.5 Public Awareness and Education Questions
Educating the public about climate change and encouraging sustainable behavior changes Q1. Which of the following is a mitigation strategy for climate change?
are essential components of climate action. A) Building flood defenses
a) Behavioral Changes B) Developing renewable energy sources
• Encouraging energy conservation, waste reduction, and sustainable consumption
C) Providing disaster relief
patterns.
D) Enhancing emergency response systems
b) Community Engagement
• Involving communities in decision-making processes and empowering them to take Q2. What is the primary purpose of carbon pricing?

local climate action. A) To reduce deforestation

6.6 Financial Mechanisms B) To encourage the use of fossil fuels

Adequate funding is essential to support mitigation and adaptation efforts. C) To internalize the cost of carbon emissions
a) Green Climate Fund (GCF) D) To increase industrial production
• Provides financial support to developing countries for climate-related projects.
Q3. Which of the following is an adaptation strategy for climate change?
b) Private Sector Investment
A) Implementing carbon capture and storage (CCS)
• Mobilizing private sector funds through green bonds, climate funds, and sustainable
B) Developing drought-resistant crops
finance initiatives.
C) Installing solar panels
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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-6 | Solutions to Climate Change Chapter-6 | Solutions to Climate Change

D) Increasing industrial output A) It increases the use of fossil fuels

Q4. What is the role of the Green Climate Fund (GCF)? B) It reduces the demand for energy and associated emissions
A) To monitor global temperature changes C) It promotes deforestation
B) To finance projects in developing countries to combat climate change D) It lowers water consumption
C) To enforce environmental laws Q10. What role do forests play in mitigating climate change?
D) To conduct climate change research A) They increase greenhouse gas emissions

Q5. Which technology is used to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it B) They act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2
underground?
C) They reduce the need for renewable energy
A) Carbon sequestration
D) They enhance soil erosion
B) Geoengineering

C) Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

D) Photovoltaic cells Solutions
Q6. Which of the following is a key goal of the Paris Agreement?
A) To promote global trade 1. Answer: B) Developing renewable energy sources

B) To limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius Explanation: Developing renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and hydropower reduces

C) To reduce ozone depletion greenhouse gas emissions, making it a key mitigation strategy. Other options are primarily
adaptation strategies.
D) To increase fossil fuel subsidies
2. Answer: C) To internalize the cost of carbon emissions
Q7. How can urban planning help mitigate climate change?
Explanation: Carbon pricing, through mechanisms like carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems,
A) By expanding road networks
aims to make the cost of emitting carbon explicit, incentivizing businesses to reduce emissions.
B) By promoting urban sprawl
3. Answer: B) Developing drought-resistant crops
C) By enhancing public transportation and green spaces
Explanation: Adaptation strategies involve adjusting to the effects of climate change, such as
D) By reducing public transportation options developing crops that can withstand drought. CCS and solar panels are mitigation strategies.
Q8. Which sector is the largest contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions? 4. Answer: B) To finance projects in developing countries to combat climate change
A) Transportation Explanation: The GCF supports climate mitigation and adaptation projects in developing
B) Agriculture countries, helping them reduce emissions and build resilience.
C) Energy production 5. Answer: C) Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

D) Construction Explanation: CCS involves capturing CO2 emissions from sources like power plants and

Q9. What is the primary benefit of energy efficiency in combating climate change? storing it underground to prevent it from entering the atmosphere.
6. Answer: B) To limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius
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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-6 | Solutions to Climate Change

Explanation: The Paris Agreement aims to limit global temperature increases by reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, a critical step in combating climate change.
7. Answer: C) By enhancing public transportation and green spaces
Explanation: Sustainable urban planning includes improving public transportation, reducing
reliance on cars, and increasing green spaces, all of which can lower emissions.
8. Answer: C) Energy production
Explanation: Energy production, particularly from burning fossil fuels, is the largest source
of greenhouse gas emissions globally, making the shift to renewable energy crucial.
9. Answer: B) It reduces the demand for energy and associated emissions
Explanation: Energy efficiency reduces energy consumption and the emissions associated
with energy production, making it a key mitigation measure.
10. Answer: B) They act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2
Explanation: Forests absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, helping to offset emissions and
mitigate climate change impacts.

How to connect?
WhatsApp group link: https://chat.whatsapp.com/IieDnwsmogG9XrpIQknyTr

YouTube class link: https://www.youtube.com/live/nYykaLNKgYo

Subscription link(prelims): https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-sutra-batch-for-

uppsc-ae-2024-non-technical/TX7E53JR

Subscription link (mains): https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-sutra-batch-for-

uppsc-ae-2024-technical/CPC3EL1E

Subscription link (Technical) by Dr. Jaspal Singh:

https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-batch-for-uppsc-ae-2025-technical/XGNHE6UO

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