CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the measures undertaken and the resultant outcomes to improve solid

waste management (SWM). An in depth purview of the current situation and the issues

linked to SWM at the global, local and regional levels are dealt with comprehensively, with

particular reference to environmental and public health concerns. The regulations, laws, and

policies governing SWM are analyzed and discussed in detail. The formulation of the metrics

to access performance of urban and rural villages in terms of SWM and impact on water and

soil quality is examined and benchmarking applied to evaluate the urban situation versus the

rural villages.

According to World Health Organization (WHO)1, a simple definition of waste would be any

residues or byproducts that are of no use. The term "solid waste" refers to any non-liquid

waste material that is produced as a byproduct of home, commercial, industrial, agricultural,

or mining activities, as well as public sector organizations. The Webter’s2 dictionary too

defines trash as a product with no value and no purpose.

Contreau3 defined the term "solid waste" as the organic and inorganic waste materials that are

no longer valuable to their original owners, and are being produced as a byproduct of

1
WHO, (1976) “Management of solid waste in developed countries”, WHO regional publication; South Asia
series no 1.
2
Webster’s, D.V., (1984) “Investor responsible research centre”: Washington.
3
Contreau, S., (1982) “Environment of solid waste in developing countries”: Washington DC.
activities in households, business establishments, institutional settings, and industrial

settings. According to Sinha4, the term "solid waste" refers to a heterogeneous mass of

material that is considered to be of no use and may have originated from residential,

commercial, or industrial settings. Today, a variety of categories are used to classify solid

waste; according to its place of origin, it can be broken down into industrial, hospital, and

municipal garbage (MSW). In addition to this, solid waste is segregated into various

hazardous categories, according to the toxicity of the constituent materials.

A Scheueler and Mahle5 classified the solid waste as Biodegradable (organic waste that can

be decomposed and reduced to simpler substances by bacteria and fungi, like food waste),

Non-Biodegradable (inorganic substances that cannot be degraded/ decomposed easily like

pesticides and fertilizers ), Toxic (substances like detergents, hard metal, plastics, and fly

ash ), and Nontoxic ( materials like glass, scarp paper, and kitchen waste ). Whereas T.N

Khoshoo6 classified solid waste as Garbage (materials that are putrescible like remnants from

food, slaughter and canning), Rubbish ( discarded materials like paper, cloth, rubber, leather

and garden wastes), Ashes ( incineration residues derived from industrial activity, municipal

garbage, left over building materials like timber, bricks, plastics and insulator materials),

Dead animals ( carcasses of rodents, mice, cattle and other animals), Industrial solid wastes

( metal scraps and chemicals,), Mining waste (tailing, slug, heap,and culm piles ) and

Agricultural waste (derived from crop residues and animal wastes).

The term "municipal solid waste" (MSW) refers, in general, to the rubbish that must be on the

representation of local authorities collected from or by sources such as private residences,

4
Sinha, (1997) “ open burning of urban municipal solid waste”: a state level analysis”: NEW Delhi.
5
Schueler, A.C.Mahler, (2011) “Classification method of urban solid waste deposit sit; sources of environment
protection”: vol 2 no.4.
6
Khosoo, T.N; (2008) “Environment concerns and strategies”.
public street sweeping, commercial areas, and industrial and institutional establishments.

(Hester and Harrison)7.

Waste characterization, waste reduction, waste sorting, garbage recycling and reuse, waste

gathering, and engineered landfills for disposing of non-recyclable waste are all essential

components of effective trash disposal. Once the hierarchy of waste management has been

established, the first step is to eliminate the waste at its source, followed by recycling (aimed

at reuse), composting, the recovery of lost energy, and finally the disposal and treatment in

landfills of solid waste that have been engineered.

The process of characterizing waste entails classifying the waste into a variety of categories,

beginning with segregation into non-hazardous and hazardous; followed by categorization

into wastes that are metallic, paper, plastics, or organic in nature. This categorization is

essential information for planning purposes, particularly with regard to the formulation of a

strategy for recycling and the design of landfills. For instance, if a greater volume of organic

material makes up a significant amount of the garbage dumped in landfills, then it may be

essential to establish provisions for the gas collection that will be produced from the organic

material. However, if the primary and the ultimate purpose of waste management system is

disposal of wastes in landfills a thorough understanding of the composition of waste may not

be required (Vesilind Et Al)8.

The generation of waste at both residential and commercial locations should be cut down as

part of waste minimization efforts. For instance, preparing just the right amount of food so as

to reduce the amount of food that otherwise would have been thrown out and wasted. The act

of creating waste in industries may be cut down on if less material was used to create things,

if fewer materials were used for packaging, if products were more long-lasting, and if

7
Hester and Harison., (2002) “method of state disposal of solid waste”.
8
Vesilind etal, (2002) “ Biodegradation in municipal solid waste landfills”.
resources were used more effectively. Reusing items in homes and factories is one strategy

for reducing waste, which also has environmental benefits. The amount of garbage that has to

be collected can be reduced by practicing waste minimization, which in turn brings down the

costs of collection and disposal. Composting is of utmost significance due to the fact that

organic waste makes up more than half of all municipal waste. Composting not only aids in

the recovery of materials but also contributes to the development of organic fertilizers, which

are an essential component in the process of agricultural production. Composting ought to

take place either in a facility dedicated to the process or in a home composter that is well-

managed. Bringing the total amount of organic waste to the landfill down to manageable

levels helps bring the total amount of garbage to the landfill down, which in turn extends the

lifespan of the landfill.

The management of garbage requires a number of steps, one of which is the placement of

trash in the appropriate containers or bins. In order to prevent residents from dumping waste

that has overflowed the containers, the receptacles need to be large enough to hold enough

garbage to last until the district authority comes to collect the garbage. How much waste is

generated per person, and how it is raised, and emptied the receptacles while they are stored

in the trash collection vehicle are two factors that influence the choosing of receptacles.

Because recycling should begin in households, there should be a variety of waste containers

available to accommodate the various forms of trash. Residents are required to have

receptacles provided for them by Local Minimization. (CCIR,)9.

The final step in effective management of solid waste is to deposit trash in landfills, as this is

considered to be the final resort. The landfill should be used for the disposal of all of the

waste that cannot be composted, repurposed, or reused. As a result, landfills ought to have the

capacity to store garbage until it can be destroyed with due respect public health and

9
CCIR, (2011) “The waste (England and Wales) Regulation 2011”, no 988. www.legislation.gov.uk.
environmental safety. Both non-hazardous garbage and hazardous waste must be disposed of

in landfills, but the two types of landfills must be separate and distinct from one another. The

term "engineer landfill" refers to any lined landfill that is operational with good particles,

including compacting and covering garbage on a regular basis, regulating ground water and

so on. (USA, ARMY,)10. Compacting is usually carried out by bulldozer.

Trash management policies are extremely important for waste management, and efficient

waste management requires both political stability and assistance from the government. The

availability of these policies encourages recovery, reuse, and the prevention of waste through

the engagement of users and providers. The United States and Europe share a common

history, as both recently adopted the Zero Waste Policy, which aims to reduce waste and

encourage the usage of compostable materials in packaging (Un Habitat,)11. According to

their policy, there should be limitations placed on the transportation and disposal of

hazardous material. The aforementioned policies need to be strictly adhered, in order to

ensure proper handling of solid waste. A waste management system that is, among other

things, well institutionalized is essential. The local authorities in charge of waste planning

and management ought to have sufficient employees, sound financial management, and the

participation of interested parties. The entity in charge of trash management ought to provide

services including customer care, public education, and campaign services.

As a result of increased urbanization and a dearth of facilities, the management practices of

solid waste provide the municipal authorities with challenges on a daily basis. The

management team may be assisted in making an informed choice after doing a thorough

investigation into the matter through the application of contemporary technologies such as

GIS.

10
Wegman, R.A; H.G Bailey, (1994) “The challenge of cleaning up military waste when US bases are closed”.
11
UN-NABITAT, (2010) “Solid waste management with world’s cities”, published by earth scan, ISBN: 978-1-
84971-170-8.
2.2 Review of the management current considerations for managing solid

waste MSW in developing countries.

This review outlines the existing status in MSW and locates the scientific strategies that

control the developing countries.. Findings from the study conducted by Dhokhikah et al.

(2012), show that the majority of the developing nations in Asia are still utilising the landfill

system for the dumping of their solid wastes. In order to attain sustainability in waste

management, Cucchiella et al. (2014) suggested a a plan for disposing of garbage.

Das et al., (2014) calculated the generation of municipal solid waste in Kolkata, India, as

well as the future trends for disposal of this waste. The forecasting of hurdles and

complexities municipal solid waste generation and disposal in the future is crucial

component of management of urban population and population increase in cities. There is a

connection between the various components of the study contributing to the development of

solid waste in Kolkata, as well as a prognosis of the city's future waste generation.

According to Lohri et al (2014) it is possible to generate revenue from municipal solid waste.

The cost-revenue analysis was applied for the purpose of identifying the appropriate solutions

in the municipality to improve the financial sustainability in management of solid waste in

Ethiopia.

The process of treating waste is necessary for ensuring that there is adequate oversight of

waste production in order to protect the surrounding ecosystem. In Iskandar, Malaysia, Tan et

al. (2014) built an optimized model with the goals of identifying the waste treatment process,

forecasting the greenhouse gas emission, and determining the most cost-effective solution.
When working with large databases, the application of statistical analysis is absolutely

necessary. Edjabou et al. (2015) investigated the statistics required to analyze MSW data

obtained from measuring the difference in trash generation rates from single-family versus

multifamily housing areas. The study demonstrates the substantial disparity in waste

generation rates from single and multifamily housing, using detail classification.

With the help of a number of stakeholders, Soltani and colleagues (2015) developed a multi-

criteria decision analysis to identify the issues connected with waste management and viable

solutions. The findings of the analysis are applied to the solution of more Municipal solid

waste management is fraught with complications. The study suggested employing multi-

objective mathematical programming to determine the possibility of waste management

facilities in Italy's various regions being established.

The management of urban solid waste in developing nations was the focus of research by

Srivastava et. al.,(2015), with India serving as the primary country of investigation. The

review identifies solid waste-related environmental and public health concerns management

and provides suggestions to manage the solid waste management in developing countries. In

addition, the review identifies the problems that are currently facing the solid trash

management business.

Yay (2015) spent a whole year researching Turkey's Sakarya Municipal Solid Waste

Management Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Numerous environmental factors, such as

acidity, are considered in the study, global warming, ozone depletion, and human ecotoxicity,

amongst others, in order to assess the environmental effects that are caused by the dump sites.

The quantity of energy that was extracted from MSW in the Indian city of Bhopal was

determined by Pandey et al., (2016). In the course of this research, MSW was separated into

the various types of components that make it up, such as paper, wood, clothing, polythene,
etc., so that both MSW in the city of Bhopal could be measured in terms of both quality and

quantity.

2.3 Solid Waste Management and Practices

Tchobanglous, G., et al. (1993)12 have provided a comprehensive discussion of the

engineering principles and managerial difficulties associated with integrated solid waste

management. The book is divided into six parts, the initial part offers a historical view on

solid waste management and its numerous components, beginning with the technology of

horse-drawn carts and progressing all the way up to technology that is driven by regulation.

The utilization of the most appropriate technology is essential for solid waste management

because it helps to recycle and dispose of waste at the same time. The use of engineering

principles is necessary in order to analyze the many options for equipment and facilities, to

decide on operational strategies, and to design management systems. Exercises for

strengthening analytical abilities are included in this book, and each chapter provides a

number of problems and discussion topics for readers to work through.

In a paper presented at the 20th WEDC conference in Colombo, Sri Lanka in 1994, Jain A.P.

et al. expressed their opinion that management of solid waste in India as developing and

interesting field of study, but that the information regarding this topic that is available in the

public domain is scant and scattered. In addition to this, a division was drawn between urban

and rural solid wastes. The authors also discussed the viability and efficiency of various

waste management processes, such as landfilling, composting, incineration, anaerobic

12
Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. and Samuel, A.V.(1993). Integrated solid waste management- engineering
principles and management issues. McGraw Hill International Edition.
digestion, refuse derived fuel, and suggested measures for improvement by utilizing

appropriate technologies. These processes include incineration, composting, refuse derived

fuel, and anaerobic digestion. The paper also examines how solid waste is managed in the

Himalayas. This is an important topic because the region receives a steady stream of tourists,

who have increased the demand of solid waste for proper management, which is of the utmost

importance.

The stages of waste management vary from region to region, or from place to place, on the

basis of current technology, stakeholder participation, policy, and institutions. The

management of solid waste in most parts of the East Jaintia Hills District involves refuse or

waste being generated, stored, transferred, collected, transported, processed, and disposed of

in numerous stages.

2.3.1 Solid Waste Generation Rates

It is reasonable to anticipate that compared to developing nations, developed nations will

generate higher garbage due to the fact that developed nations have more money to spend on

purchasing packaged products and food items. On the contrary, since the majority of

industries in developing nations are primary industries, the rates of waste generation in

developing countries industries become significantly higher when compared to waste

generation in developed countries (UNEP). In fact, the rates of municipal garbage creation in

many developing nations have now surpassed the mark of 1kg waste/inhabitant/day, and that

developing countries generate more rubbish than the developed countries combined (UNEP).

An expanding economy is another facet that contributes to increased rates of waste

generation. Thus, the substantial increment in waste generation in Ireland since the middle of

the 1990s, coincides with a period of exceptionally strong growth in the economy
(Desmond13;Ehuarasia,14). As a result, it maybe postulated that higher wealth results in a

greater amount of garbage, generated via larger purchase power and subsequent waste

generation versus regions of low to moderate income with lower purchasing power.

Consequently, in Africa, waste generation figures are significantly lower than 1

15
kg/capita/day. Studies carried out in Kenya by Musademba Et Al and in Zimbabwe by

Mwai Et Al,16 have both reported 0.34 kg/capita/day to be the daily trash generation rate,

which is significantly lower than the UNEP estimates of 1kg waste/inhabitant/day, the in

spite of the individual challenges of waste within the African region.

2.3.2 Composition of Waste

The East Jaintia Hills District is one of the districts in Meghalaya with a high concentration

of manufacturing facilities, and as a result, it is expected to generate a greater amount of

metallic trash. For instance, the trash generated by the Star Cement facility in Lumshnong

consisted of 50% plastics, 40% food waste and biomass, 10% paper, and 5% metal debris.

One of the business sectors of the district, Ladrymbai, had a composition of garbage that

consisted of 10% paper waste, 23% plastics, 12% metal waste, and 45% food and biomass.

2.3.3 Storage of Waste and Coverage of Receptacles

A receptacle is any container that has the potential to be utilized for the temporary storage of

garbage. A suitable container should be tough, have a lid that can be closed, and be resistant
13
Desmand,D., (2006) “ Municipal solid waste management in Ireland: Assessing for sustainability”, Irish
geography 39 1): 22-33, EPA Research Ireland.
14
Ehuarasia, (2011) “ waste generation in India-Down to earth”. https://sdn. down to earth.org.in.
15
Musademba et al, (2011) “Municipality solid waste management challenges of chinoyi town in Zimbabwe:
opportunities of waste reduction and recycling”.
16
UNEP, (2016) “ Waste management outlook for mountain regions: sources and solution”.
https://www.Theuiaa. org> uniaa> united-na.
to being chewed by dogs and rodents. In Ladrymbai there are around 5 to 6 receptacles in the

market area, but unfortunately almost all these metal bins are either left open or damaged.

For example Wapung Dorbar Village used to supply plastic bins to all homes schools and

offices within in its area. The high cost of these bins, on the other hand, has led homeowners

to temporarily store their waste in plastic bags.

Muzengerie17 found out that 48% of the resident in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe was using plastics

bags as receptacle, because most of the members of the community could not afford to buy

the expensive metallic bins. Mangizo18 also showed that provision of bins for waste collection

should be mandatory for the village administration. This is highly significant because it helps

the less fortunate, who typically do not have the financial means to purchase receptacles for

waste disposal. The ongoing economic difficulties of the region have resulted in a significant

reduction in the number of receptacles available. It was necessary to make use of a wide

variety of containers prior to the collection and transportation of waste to the landfill.

2.3.4 Source Sorting and Separation of Waste

Separation of garbage into biodegradable and non-biodegradable components is part of the

process of sorting. Waste recovery and recycling are rendered more feasible and effective by

this first stage of separating solid waste. A study published by the Training and Research

Support Centre (TARSC) along with the Civic Forum on Housing (CFH) (TARSC and CFH)
19
was based on the effective use of source-based management of solid waste in Chitungwiza,

Epworth, and Mulare in Zimbabawe. The Star Cement factory in Lumshnong regularly

separates waste three ways, into biodegradable, non- biodegradable and slug residue.

17
Muzengerie, F.H., (2012) “Waste management in Bulawayo city council in Zimbabwe”,vol 14 no.1.
18
Mangizo, (2014) “ solid waste management practice in the informal sector of Gweru”, Zimbabwe.
19
TARSC ,CFH., (2010) “Accountability and social action in health: A case study on solid waste management
in three local authority areas of Zimbabwe”.
The sorting of waste from households in India is a complicated process that takes place in

multiple locations and involves participation from multiple industries. It is easier to

comprehend if we break it down into secondary and primary level sorting. Primary level

sorting is the first level of sorting. At present, the convicts are responsible for sorting the

primary waste produced at the household level, while rag pickers are responsible for sorting

the rubbish produced in the communal bins. This appears to be the case across the country,

with the exception of a few isolated instances in which non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) or municipalities have sought to implement sorting on a more intense scale.

Items that fall into the categories of construction debris, hazardous garbage such as cotton

and used batteries, infectious waste such as bandages and sanitary napkins, and non-

recyclable waste like certain types of packaging or plastics are not collected at any of the

ground levels. The initial sorting takes place at the household level as well as at the final

disposal site or at the municipal bin, like a waste dump or landfill. It may also take place at

the discover disposal location. Kabaris and middleman are responsible for any subsequent or

secondary aborting that takes place in the recycling supply chain.

The municipal entities are obligated to provide the source-selection sorting of garbage their

greatest priority in order to meet environmental regulations. It is imperative that the function

of rag pickers be acknowledged and bolstered at the community level. This can be

accomplished by making use of their services at the household and sourced to non-

governmental organizations and the corporate sector for support in achieving these aims.

There is a legal requirement for municipalities to maintain distinct trash collection,

transportation, and disposal systems for hazardous waste and demolition waste respectively.

(Tchobanoglous Et Al), MC. Grow Hills, Newyork20.

20
Tchobanoglous etal, (1993) “Intergrate solid waste management” : New York, MC Grow Hills.
2.4 Collection Efficiency and Transportation

Across the East Jaintia Hills District waste collection has suffered from poor collection

efficiency, which has led to burning of uncollected waste, composting waste in backyards and

illegally dumping trash on public property. Major cities in India have not yet found

satisfactory solutions to the significant challenges presented by garbage collection. Mwai et

al. projected that just 58 % of Kenyans have access to solid waste disposal services due to a

shortage of equipment and outdated gear. According to UNEP, less than half of the people in

developing countries have access to municipal solid trash collection services. In another

study by Masocha21 the efficiency of the collection process at Victoria Falls was 60%. Poor

collection efficiency throughout metropolitan areas in Zimbabwe can be attributed, in part, to

that same fact that governments do not have appropriate financial structures in place to cover

the full cost of garbage management.

In India, prior to 1980, scarcity of pertinent data meant solid waste generation and

management were given scant attention. However, the implementation of Environmental

Protection Act of 1986 and the Hazardous Waste Management Rules (1989) promulgated in

India by the Ministry of Environment and Forests caused a significant shift in the attitude of

the government and local authorities. In addition, the Municipal Waste Management Rules

(2000) are responsible for preventing solid debris littering in urban areas designated by the

government (cities, towns, and other urban areas). To make compliance easier, municipal

authorities are required to organize so-called "house to house" collections using any one of

several methods, including community bin collections, house-to-house collections,

collections at regular time intervals, and collections scheduled vehicles equipped with bells to

draw attention.

21
MASOCHA’S, (2004) “Emerging solid waste management issues in Beitbridge border term; Evidence from a
particularitory approach”, International journal of advanced Research.
The integration of available and designated techniques is required to improve collection

efficiency, (Talyan Et Al)22. Container carriers are the method of choice for transporting

municipal solid trash, and this process is scheduled at one or two times a week. On the other

hand, open trucks and dumper trucks are utilized for waste collection in the majority of rural

and small town regions. Since collection costs account for between 50 and 70 % of the total

budget for solid waste, this is the most significant area in which cost reductions can be made.

In recent years, with the assistance of non-governmental organizations and local

communities, waste collection efficiency has increased significantly in a few rural areas.

During the planning stage, it is necessary to take into consideration a number of interrelated

variables, including the cost of labour, the size of the crew, any union restrictions, the

frequency of collection, the distance to the disposal location, as well as the performance and

annual cost of the equipment.

2.5 Recycling and Recovery of Solid Waste

The recycling and recovery of solid waste involves multifaceted activities that engender

conversion of waste into resources or energy. Thus burning tyres to produce heat in cement

industries is a well established method for conversion of waste into energy (for example to

produce heat burning tyres in cement), recycling of materials like iron and paper for

industrial production. Reusing materials like glass containers and plastics are all example of

many different types of activities that are included in recycling and recovery of waste (eg.

Landfill and composting gas). Therefore, the degree of recycling and recovery activities can
22
Talyan etal, (2008) “ State of municipal solid waste management in Delhi”.
be determined by the level and sophistication of the technology (UNEP, 2009). In general,

recycling entails the act of collecting, directly from households and places of business,

unwanted objects that can be resold for reuse and reprocessed into material that can be used

by others, or the production of brand new goods. (Gonzenbach and Goad,)23.

The recycling rate for excess solid waste in the world's cities is now around 29 percent (UN

Habitat, 2010). Recycling is not typically completed by the local council or by scavengers

and rags picker in the majority of underdeveloped countries. (Idris et al,)24. The UN Habitat

(2010) proposed that recycling sector of the city may consume at least 28 %, and in certain

cases even more of the municipal solid waste management budget. Recycling may be turned

into a profitable business for organizations by allowing them to procure valuable assets via

the processing of waste. In addition, garbage is seen as a source of revenue for people who

engage in the practice of scavenging, because it may be used to produce more resources such

as new fuels and materials (UNEP, 2011).

Rapid economic development and urbanization in India have led to an exponential rise in the

country's consumption of plastic, and consequently, its accumulation in the garbage. Despite

the fact that India's plastic usage of 11 kg is only a tenth of that of the United States and a

third of that of China Plast India 2015 25, it seems likely India's plastic usage and plastic waste

will rise dramatically in the years or even decades to come, given the expected high growth

rate of GDP, as well as the continued fast urbanization that is taking place.In 2013,

According to the Central Pollution Control Board, about 8 to 9 percent of municipal rubbish

in India is constituted of plastic waste, of which about 60 percent is required with the

majority of it being utilized in the formal sector.

23
Gonzenbach, (2007) “ Solid waste management and the millennium development” : st. Gallen.
24
Idris et al, 2004) “ Overview of waste disposal and landfill/dumps in Asian countries”. Journal material
cycles and waste management, University Putra, Malaysia.
25
PLAST INDIA, (2015) “9th international plastics exhibition and conference, Gandhinagar”, India.
A study by National Chemical Laboratory Pune 26 revealed PET recycling is estimated to be

significantly higher in India, at 90 percent, against the 31% prevalent in the United States.

This optimistic scenario hides the lack of proper surveillance and segregation of plastic waste

that actually ends up either in landfills, or clogging sewers and drains, or pollutes soil and

groundwater resources. Therefore, India’s significantly higher plastic recycling rate that well

exceeds the global average of 15%, does not tell the whole story.

Paper-based products are recycled at a rate of just 27% in India, a far lower percentage than

in industrialised nations such USA (49%), Japan (60%), Sweden (69%), and Germany (73%),

CPPRI (2013) where it is mostly exported for recycling.

In order to make recycling easier and cut down on the amount of garbage sent to landfills,

recyclable and non-recyclable solid waste must be sorted at the point of generation. The term

"resident waste" refers to waste that is incapable of being reused, recycled, or processed in

any other way. The amount of waste that can be collected and placed in landfills may be cut

by as much as thirty percent if recycling is regularized (US, ARMY 1994). The organic

garbage that is dumped in landfills needs to be separated out and combined with the other

trash first. (Wang and L. K Springer, 2001; Rada et al,)27.

2.6 Solid Waste Disposal

The process of getting rid of rubbish in India entails little more than chopping up garbage

collected from various sections of the city and throwing it all away at a landfill. When a

landfill's storage capacity is reached, a search is conducted to locate an additional dump in an

26
CSIR-NCL, (2017) “Symposium on plastic waste to value venture centre, polymer science and engineer
division”:Pune, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road.
27
Wang,Z., L.K Springer, (2001) “solid waste processing and resource recovery”.
unrelated region of the city. Cities that are fortunate enough to have a river going through

them have an additional dump for all of the waste; for example, the Umkhrah river in

Shillong is a testimony to this reality and ‘fortune’. Less ‘fortunate’ cities that do not have a

river passing through them. Since trash disposal is being addressed by the government with

a limited budget, it drastically reduces the resources necessary to effectively manage the

enormous amounts of waste that are collected each day. Harshine Shankar,( 2010) opined that

people in India produce a significant amount of litter, that is collected by the sweeper and

deposited at the nearby dump; from where, it is transported to the landfill. The amount of

rubbish generated per person in India is so enormous that it can quickly become a problem if

the garbage collector is absent from a neighbourhood for more than a couple of days.

The process includes collection, disposal, and treatment. The problem that requires the most

attention in terms of solid waste management is collection and disposal. According to Kirov

(1975), there are a great number of intrinsic risks associated with the disposal of solid waste

items in open dumps. In addition to contributing to air pollution, these dumps are also likely

to entice rodents, produce a breeding ground for flies and other insects, and increase the risk

of ground water pollution. According to Ali (1991) 28 and Aggrawal (1997), inappropriate

disposal of garbage has a detrimental impact, both on the landscape and on the ecology that is

immediately surrounding it. Pollution of the air, water, and soil can lead to the spread of

infectious diseases among humans and other animals. When garbage is disposed of in an

incorrect or insufficient manner, it can become a source of pollution and an issue for public

health.

28
Ali, S. (1991). “Sanitation situation and garbage management in Delhi slums”. Concept Publication, New
Delhi. 194-212.
According to Salian (1996)29, among the several crisis afflicting mankind, the one that

requires immediate attention is the disposal of an excessive amount of trash generated by

human society around the world. Nobody wants garbage to be produced within the intricate

ecological system. The accumulation of waste and its proper disposal are becoming

increasingly difficult challenges for almost all of the nations on the planet as a direct result of

the rise in global population. It is of the utmost importance to comprehend how the waste is

to be handled, disposed of, or utilised economically with as little impact on the environment

as possible and to make an informed decision about this.In the context of industrialised

countries, wastes resulting from the various economic sectors are typically subjected to

separate treatment, in poor nations, trash from various industries are often not separated for

separate treatment (Chakrabarti and Sarkhel 2003)30.

According to Mantill (1995), toxic waste disposal methods can have a negative impact on

land values, increase the risk of accidents or disease transmission by rodents and insects as

well as pollute air and water resources. They can also have a negative impact on the

community's life and development in a variety of other ways.The improper management and

disposal of solid waste has a variety of negative effects on both human health and the health

of the environment. The improper disposal of waste can result in contamination of surface

and ground water supplies, the pollution of air, soil, and water, the clogging of drains, the

creation of stagnant water that serves as a breeding ground for insects, floods in the plains,

and landslides in the hilly areas during the rainy seasons.Incorrect incineration and burning of

waste is a significant Landfills and untreated leachate produce greenhouse gases (GHGs) that

29
Salian, P. (1996). “Recycling for development, Anubhav”. Waste has been a part of human activity since time
immemorial. 11: 13.

30
Chakrabarti, S. and Sarkhel, P. (2003). “Economics of solid waste management”: A survey of existing
literature. Economic Research Unit Indian Statistical Institute.
are harmful to human health and development in some other way, and also contribute to

urban air pollution and the wellbeing of the environment (Hoornweg et al., 1999)31.

It is not merely a threat to the environment that the current level of waste management in

most developing countries poses natural world but also impact the lives of the people (Mwai

et al, 2008). In big cities, the problems of waste disposal and the location of dumpsites have

not been resolved. (Magalang,)32. Even though they are called sanitary landfills, designed

landfills are the most popular type of landfill technology used all over the world. There is still

evidence of traditional practices that are harmful to the environment, such as open burning,

open dumping, and landfills that do not adhere to sanitation standards. However, in the

majority of countries, landfills are officially prohibited, and the only kind of disposal that is

permitted is sanitary landfill. The landfills that are used for hazardous waste are sometimes

referred to as "secure landfills" because of their potential for more complexity. When the

expenses of transportation and the effects of the landfill on the urban environment are

considered, the placement of the landfill is another crucial consideration. (UNEP, 2009).

Holmes, John R. (1983) conducted an analysis of trash collection and disposal practises in the

United Kingdom and Western Europe. The author discusses the financial and economic

context of the service and explains the ways by which management decisions are made

between various treatment systems. The study investigates the magnitude and breadth of the

private sector industries, the expansion and feasibility of waste reclamation systems, and the

upcoming development of refuse collection and disposal in the United Kingdom.

The gathered garbage ought to go through some sort of processing before being burned or

buried in hygienic landfills. The disposal of waste in a sanitary landfill or an incinerator is a

31
Hoornweg, D. L. T. and Verma, K. (1999). “What a waste: solid waste management in Asia”, World Bank,
May.

32
Magalang, A.A; (2013) “Municipal solid waste management in the Philippines”: Environmental science and
engineering book service (ESE).
regulatory requirement for many different governments. The inability of a landfill to pollute

surface water and the surrounding soil is the very minimum condition for classification as a

sanitary landfill; any landfill that does poison open-dump site status is given to surface water

(US,ARMY,1994). There should also be a reduction in odours and the amount of garbage

that can be blown away by wind. It is possible that different kinds of garbage call for

different kinds of landfills, including hazardous and non-hazardous waste landfills.

2.7 Government Policy and Initiative

The problem of sanitary disposal of urban waste or MSW management is an uphill task and

an environment hazard. MSW generated in many Indian cities remains uncollected, according

to reports from the High Power Committee on Urban Solid Waste Management. As a result,

urban residents are exposed to the dangers of poor hygiene, unhealthy environmental

conditions and the periodic outbreak of epidemics. In 1995, a report prepared for the planning

commission revealed that there is a progressive lowering in the standards of services

provided for collection and disposal of both urban solid waste and industrial waste. In most

of the Indian cities there is no system of segregation for inorganic, organic, and recyclable

waste at the household level. It has been seen that municipal solid waste is dumped mainly in

the open areas in the outskirt of cities. These dump sites are poorly managed or left

unattended, thus affecting neighboring villages as composting is seldom carried out. In

addition, due to dumping of MSW in open land, the water and soil get contaminated. (S.C

Tripathi, Vibha Arora,).

After the outbreak of the Surat Plaque, 33 in 1994, and seeing the magnitude of problem, a

Bangalore based social activist Almitra H. Patal filed a writ petition in India's highest court,

33
Plaque in India, 1994.https;//www.ucis.une.edu/resource/pubs/Carolina/plaque. html.
the Supreme Court, under Article 32 of its constitution the statue and the principal

municipalities to implement Management Solid Waste (MSW) Management (A.Sridhar)34.

On 3rd March, 1997, the Supreme Court directed the respondents to furnish the details in

respect of existing Management Solid Waste (MSW) Management practices adopted by

them. The counter affidavits filed by the respondents municipalities and state were not

sufficient. As of July 28th, 1997, the respondents were ordered to come up with time-bound

plans for disposing of MSW in a sanitary and scientific way. In another case, on 15 th

February, 2000 the Supreme Court specifically directed the Delhi municipal Co-operation

Authorities to earmark the areas for composting site and to impose fines for littering,

implement Management Solid Waste (MSW) Management. They were also advised to

appoint a magistrate to investigate and prosecute cases involving public annoyance and health

violations due to littering. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance that the Municipal

Corporation of Delhi comply to the Delhi Municipal Corporation Act of 1957 as well as the

pertinent Rules and Regulations there under.

According to the Tenth Five Year Plan,35 (The Planning Commission, Government of India at

p-651), approximately 42 million metric tons of municipal solid trash are generated each year

in India. In addition, the annual increase in the urban population demands concomitant

acceleration in the collection of urban solid waste; as a consequence, urban local bodies are

swamped under the burden of managing urban solid waste. The accumulation of garbage in

metropolitan areas is a significant problem that, in the end, has an impact on the health of the

population. The control of land use, public health, sanitation, conservancy, and solid waste

management are only few of the areas of responsibility that fall under the purview of the

34
Sridhar, A; (2013) “A woman’s battle to keep waste from ending up in landfill, Almitra Patel”: Chennai.
35
Chand, S: (2016) “Tenth five-year plan (2001-2007) of India”.
Municipal Corporations. These responsibilities come under the 12th schedule of the

Constitution of India.

The Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) 36 is working in conjunction pollution

control boards from both the federal and state level to address concerns pertaining to the

management of solid waste. In order to facilitate more effective administration of solid waste,

the Environment Protection Act of 1986 established a number of regulations. According to

the Indian Constitution, the management of solid waste is included on state lists since it is

seen as an aspect of public health and sanitation. Urban localities are responsible for

disposing of solid garbage (ULBS) because of its essentially local scope (European Business

and Technology centre).

2.8 Municipal Solid Waste

Enger, Eldon D., and Smith, Bradley F. (1995) provided an understanding of how the

problem of municipal solid waste is impacted by economics, changes in technology, citizen

awareness and involvement by providing an outline. They cover some of the most essential

aspects of the worldwide problem of solid waste. In addition, the writers acknowledged the

integrated approach to the management of solid waste, as well as the numerous methods of

garbage disposal and the issues that are associated with each method. A comprehension of the

challenges involved in the creation of new sanitary landfills, the difficulties connected with

the use of burning as a means of waste disposal, as well as the advantages and disadvantages

of recycling, were also featured.

36
MOEF, (1985) “Ministry of Environment, Forest and climate change”.
Defining Municipal Solid Waste Wilson (1977) 37, in his discussion of the origins of solid

waste, suggests that the production of solid waste is linked to virtually every action that is

carried out by humans. The wide variety of activities carried out by man is reflected in the

structure and characteristics of these wastes. However, for the sake of convenience, waste

characterizations are typically connected with a general description of the sources from which

the waste originates. According to him, wastes generated by individual family homes,

apartment houses, and other types of residential buildings are considered to be domestic

sources of waste. Wastes from institutional sources include those from places like schools,

offices, hospitals, and other such establishments. Whereas, retail stores, offices, gas stations,

warehouses, and other commercial establishments all contribute to the commercial sources.

The term "municipal sources" refers to debris from construction and demolition projects,

cleaning of streets and alleys, tree and landscaping work, operations at parks and beaches,

and solid waste from sewage treatment facilities. Industrial sources include wastes from

consumer sources and wastes produced by industrial goods.

There is a possibility that nothing will be left over as garbage because waste can be turned

into wealth for another company, creating a loop. When this cycle or loop is disrupted and

there is nowhere else for waste to go, then it becomes a true waste (Mohan, 1988)38.

Waste, according to Sushil (198939), is "any needless input or unwanted output from any

system." This encompasses any and all forms of waste, including those of material, energy,

37
Wilson, D. O. (1977). “Nitrification in three soils amended with zinc sulphate”. Soil Biology and
Biochemistry. 9(4): 277-280.
38
Mohan, (1988). “Environmental Awareness and Urban Development”. Ashish Publishing house, New
Delhi. 96-99.

39
Sushil, S. (1989). “Systems approach to national planning-a study on waste management”. Anmol
Publications, New Delhi. 12-14.
personnel, capital services, and similar categories. Resource consumption and the creation of

waste are inseparable aspects of human existence.

In the event that the wastes are not managed or are managed improperly, they present risks of

epidemic diseases, air pollution, contamination of surface and groundwater, in addition to

concerns with space constraint, odour, and aesthetics. The issue is much more dire in

municipal waste management, where the diversity of wastes created from a wide variety of

sources spans from wastes that are biodegradable and organic to wastes that are toxic,

contagious, and hazardous (Tchobanoglous et al, 1993)40. All types of trash are considered to

be waste, including human waste, household waste, agricultural waste, business waste, and

industrial waste (Priya, 1994)41. According to Venketeswaran (1994) 42, garbage is in fact a

resource that has been misdirected, and this idea is gradually gaining respect.

According to Bhatnagar (1994)43, waste can be defined as the simple byproducts of any

productive characteristic that are not put to productive use or recycled. According to Park and

Park (1996)44, waste is defined as unwanted or wasted products that result from man's activity

and can be found in places such as homes, street sweepings, commercial, industrial, and

agricultural operations.

40
Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. and Samuel, A.V.(1993). “Integrated solid waste management- engineering
principles and management issues”. McGraw Hill International Edition.

41
Priya, R. T. (1994). “International encyclopaedia of ecology and environment”. Vol 2.

Indian Institute of Ecology and Environment, New Delhi.

42
Venkateswaran, S. (1994). “anaging waste, ecological, economic and social dimensions”. Economic and
Political Weekly. 29 (45-46): 2907.

43
Bhatnagar, R. K. (1994). “Municipal waste: recycling and vermiculture”. Spartio- Economic Development
Record, 3: 35.

44
Park, J. K. and Park, K. (1996). “Text book of preventive and social medicine”. M/S. Banarsidas Bhamol
Publishers, Jabalpur, India. 422.
Menon (1996)45 defines waste as "a mixture of substances that were used at one point and

thrown away when there is no longer any use for them." Waste is thrown away when there is

no longer any use for the substances. According to Haq and Artola (1996) 46, increased

industrialisation, along with rising population and rising living standards, has resulted in the

development of a large volume of garbage that also includes compounds that are hazardous

and dangerous. According to Coad (1997) 47, the definition of solid waste is something that

the person responsible for it no longer finds valuable and that is not intended to be disposed

through a pipe. It often does not consist of human waste products.

According to Kamaraj (1999)48, waste is an inherent component of the human state of

existence. The further we progress from the stage of merely surviving to higher levels of

civilized living, the larger the amount and variety of garbage that results from these higher

levels.

The garbage was categorized as follows by Sekar et al. (2000) based on the manner in which

it was produced:

1) Residential waste, that includes other anthropogenic activities like those involved in the

preparation and consumption of food.

45
Menon, V. (1996). “Worming our way out of the growing garbage”. Indian Architect and Builder. 10(2):
73-76.
46
Haq, G. and Artola, A. (1996). “Waste policy and management in the European Union”. The International
Jounal of Environmental Education and Information. 15(1): 1-6.
47
Coad, A. (1997). “Lesson form in Solid Waste Management”. Publ. WEDC, Loughborough. U.K. 2

48
Kamaraj, S. (1999). “Potential of biogas plants in Tamil Nadu, Renewable energy” 2000 souvenir.
Ministry of non-conventional energy sources. 202.
2) Solid Waste from the city, which includes litter and waste that results from the upkeep of

roads, parks, and schools. Paper, animal waste, sludge, animal carcasses, drain mud, waste

from slaughtering animals, and other similar materials constitute the waste materials.

3) Waste generated by commercial establishments, such as offices, buildings, shops, theatres,

markets, hospitals, and restaurants, among other places.

4) Waste from industry, including chemicals, paints, sand, metal, ores, fly ash, and the

treatment of sewage and other similar processes.

5) Waste from agriculture, such as farm waste, crop residues, and other similar materials.

According to Zerboc (2003)49, solid trash is widely defined as non-hazardous waste generated

from homes, commercial, and industrial establishments. This type of waste includes organic

waste from households, garbage from hospitals and other institutions, street sweepings, and

debris from construction.

2.8.1 Managing municipal solid waste

According to the opinion of Hook and Paolucci (1970) 50, the material inputs from the larger

environment to the household result in human and non-human wastes being released into the

environment near the household. Through careful management and the application of

appropriate technology, the waste that is produced can be repurposed into usable products.

49
Zerbock Olar, (2003). “Urban Solid Waste Management: Waste Reduction in Developing Nations”.
Michigan Technological University.

50
Hook, N. C., and Paolucci, B. (1970). “The family as an ecosystem”. Journal of Home Economics. 63: 317.
Aggrawal (1997)51 highlighted the need to develop suitable technology for the under the area

of environmental protection and waste management the generation of energy or manure in

reference to sustainable development in India. This was done in the context of protecting the

environment and generating energy or manure. Thus, waste management can also be

accomplished in an efficient manner through the use of composting, which is "a way of

transforming organic material into a drier, non-odoriferous state by the action of

microorganisms." (Mantill.,1995)52, The primary goal of composting is to add nutrients

beneficial to the soil.

The authors Kala and Khan (1994)53 and Aggrawal (1997) have voiced their great concern

regarding the wasteful and irresponsible use of the resources of this planet, which has led to

the point where the system that supports life is in jeopardy. The production of huge quantities

of waste, including solid, liquid, and gaseous materials, has resulted from the process of

getting food and energy. The ineffective and poor methods of waste management, particularly

in developing nations like India, are causing pollution problems in the air, water resources,

and land that are interfering with community life and development. This is particularly true in

emerging countries like India.

According to Joshi (2000)54, waste management is comprised of the following activities:

identifying and reducing waste, storing it, collecting it, moving it from one location to

51
Aggrawal, S. K. (1997). “Waste management- the technological approach”. Invention Intelligence. 32(7):
304-308.
52
Mantill, C. L. (1995). “Solid waste-origin, collection, processing and disposal”. A welly inter sciences
publications, John Willey and Sons, New York. 1-11, 69, 345.
53
Kala, J. C. and Khan, R. R. (1994). “ Management of municipal solid wastes”. Yojana
37(20.24): 18.

54
Joshi, S. (2000). “Quality of environment vs. Standard of living”. Environment and people. 6(11):15.
another, followed by transferring, recycling, processing, prior to its final disposal. The

aforementioned actions need to be carried out while keeping in mind health, economics,

engineering, conservation, and aesthetics, in addition to any and all other environmental

conditions that are a part of the full spectrum of issues involved in solid waste.

When compared to developed countries, the real challenge confronting developing countries

is effective waste management without losing sight of environmental conservation and

preservation (Zerboc, 2003; Nath, 2003)55,56. The rapid increase in the population of

developing nations, is by far the most significant threat to effective waste management.

There are two ways in which the impact of a rapidly expanding metropolitan population can

be seen:

1. An increase in the amount of waste produced: Several studies have demonstrated that an

increasing urban population results in a significant rise in the amount of rubbish produced

(Schubeler, 199657; Medina, 200258; Zerboc, 2003; Zurbrugg, 200359). The pace of trash

generation is far higher than the infrastructure that is provided for solid waste management,

particularly in the case of developing countries.

55
Zerbock Olar, (2003). “Urban Solid Waste Management”: Waste Reduction in Developing Nations.
Michigan Technological University
56
Nath, K. J. (2003). “Home hygiene and environmental sanitation”: A country situation analysis for India.
International Journal of Environmental Health Research. 13: 19-28.

57
Schubeler, P. (1996). “ Conceptual framework for municipal solid waste management in low income
countries”. Urban management and infrastructure. UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat)/World Bank/SDC Collaborative
Program on Municipal Solid Waste management in Low-Income Countries.

58
Medina, M. (2002). “Globalisation, Development and Municipal Solid Waste Managementin”Third World
Cities. http://www.gdnet.org/pdf/2002AwardsMedalsWinners/Outstanding Research
Development/martin_medina_martinez_paper.pdf.

59
Zurbrugg, C. (2003). “ Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries”. SANDEC/EAWAG
available on line accessed February 14th 2007.
2. The expansion of slums in the absence of a waste management system: Migration from

more impoverished areas sometimes leads to the rise of slum areas in developing countries,

which goes hand in hand with urbanization in these countries. In many cities, therefore, the

added burden of providing municipal services is exacerbated by the constant increase in

population, which severely strains the extant urban infrastructure. Municipal administrations

in urban areas are significantly handicapped by insufficient resources to cater to basic

services like water, severely constrains local governments from carrying out basic services

(such as collection of rubbish) to an ever-increasing population. This results in garbage

having an adverse influence on local socioeconomic and environmental health by being

discarded in open area (Kuniyal et al.,1998 60; Medina, 2002; Zerboc, 2003); consequently,

this has led to financial and institutional constraints to manage the solid wastes that have been

produced as a result of this practice (Chakrabarti and Sarkhel, 2003)61.

There is a growing body of research on the challenges and concerns associated with solid

waste management. This is significant when viewed from the perspective of the significance

of solid waste management. Several well-known authors have contributed to the discussion of

these topics (Agunwamba, 199862; Supriyadi et al., 200063; Al-Yaqout and Hamoda, 200264;

60
Kuniyal, J. C., Jain, A. P. and Shannigrahi, A. S. (1998). “Public involvement in solid waste management in
Himalayan trails in and around the valley of Flowers”. Indian Mountain Forum. 24(3-4): 299-322.

61
Chakrabarti, S. and Sarkhel, P. (2003). “Economics of solid waste management”: A survey of existing
literature. Economic Research Unit Indian Statistical Institute.

62
Agunwamba, J. C. (1988). “Solid waste management in Nigeria”: Problems and issues.
Environmental Management. 22(6): 244-251.

63
Supriyadi, S., Kriwoken, L. K. and Birley, I. (2000). “Solid waste management solutions for Semarang,
Indonesia”. Waste Management and Research. 18(6): 557-566.

64
Al-Yaqout, A. F. and Hamoda, M. F. (2002). “Report: management problems of solid waste landfills in
Kuwait”. Waste Management and Research. 20(4): 328-31.
Calvo et al., 200565; Nissim et al., 200566; Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 200567; Tinmaz and

Demir, 200668; Al-Khatib et al., 200769; Chiemchaisri et al., 200770, Sharholy et al., 200771;

Goel, 200872; Agdag,200973; Jiang et al., 200974; Taran et al.75, 2009; Nabegu, 201076; Maity

et al., 201177; Dataman et al., 201278).

Compositional analysis of municipal solid waste is among the most important factors for the

management activities since it provides trustworthy information about the quantity and the
65
Calvo, F., Moreno, B., Zamorano, M. And Szanto, M. (2005). “Environmental diagnosis methodology for
municipal waste landfills”. Waste Management. 25(8):768-779.

66
Nissim, I., Shohat, T. And Inbar, Y. (2005). “From dumping to sanitary landfills- Solid waste management in
Isreal”. Waste Management. 25(3): 323-327.

67
Pokhrel, D. and Viraraghavan, T. (2005). “Municipal solid waste management in Nepal, practices and
challenges”. Waste Management. 25(5): 555-562.

68
Tinmaz, E. and Demir, I. (2006). “Research on solid waste management system: to improve existing situation
in Corlu Town of Turkey”. Waste Management. 26(3): 307-14.

69
Al-Khatib, I. A., Arafat, H. A., Basheer, T., Shswahneh, H., Salahat, A., Eid, J. and Ali, W. (2007). “Trends
and problems of solid waste management in developing countries”: A case study in seven Paletenian districts.
Waste Management. 27:1910-1919.

70
Chiemchaisri, C., Juanga, J. P. and Visvanathan, C. (2007). “Municipal solid waste management in Thailand
and disposal emission inventory”. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 135: 13.

71
Sharholy, M., Ahmed, K., Vaishya, R. C. and Gupta, R. D. (2007). “Municipal solid waste characteristics
and management in Allahabad, India”. Waste Management. 27(4): 490-6.

72
Goel, S. (2008). “Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in India: a critical review”. Journals in
Environmental Science and Engineering. 50(4): 319-82.

73
Agdag, O. N. (2009). “Comparison of old and new municipal solid waste management systems in Denizli,
Turkey”. Waste Management. 29(1): 456-64.

74
Jiang, J., Lou, Z., Ng, S., Luobu, C and Ji, D. (2009). “The current municipal solid waste management
situation in Tibet”. Waste Management. 29(3): 1186-91.

75
Taran, N. G., Coruh, S., Akdemir, A. and Ergun, O. N. (2009). “Municipal solid waste management strategies
in Turkey”. Waste Management. 29(1): 465-9.

76
Nabegu, A. B. (2010). “An analysis of municipal solid waste in Kano Metropolis, Nigeria”. Journal of Human
Ecology. 31(2): 111-119.

77
Maity, S. K., Bhattacharyay, B. K. and Bhattacharyya, B. (2011). “A case study on municipal solid waste
management in Salt Lake City”. International Journal of Engeneering Science and Technology.3 (8): 6208-6211.

78
Dataman, A., Amparadoer Jr., R. F., Aranico, E., Torres, M. A. J. and Demayo, C. G. (2012). “Assessment of
solid waste management in the Islamic city of Marawi, Philippines”. International Journal of Environmental
Science and Development. 3(5): 465-469.
types of materials that are generated. Compositional analysis of waste had been performed by

a number of workers previously (Ezeronye, 2000 in Nigeria 79; Gomes et al., 2005 in

Portuguese landfill in Portugal80; Prechthai et al.81, 2006 in Nonthaburi municipal solid waste

dumpsite in Thailand; Xiao et al., 2007 in Beijing, China 82; Sadugh et al., 2009 in Iran 83;

Zarak and Adam, 2009 in UNIMAS Cafeterias, Malaysia; Nor Phuntsholing City, in the

country of Bhutan; Vyas, in the city of Ahmedabad, in the Indian state of Gujarat;

Abdalqader and Hamad, in the Gaza Strip, close to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea 84)

2.8.1.1 Recycling

Recycling is the transformation of used materials into new products that can be reused, thus

creating a useful resource from waste that can be put to productive use. (Dwivedi and Sen,

1979)85. According to (Khoshoo, 1985), when waste materials are recycled into new goods,

the original materials are no longer identifiable, as the waste has been transformed into a

fresh product. The quantity of solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes produced by households,

industries, and agricultural sectors has increased by a factor of ten or more in recent years. To

79
Ezeronye, O. U. (2000). “Solid waste management in the Tropics- a case study of the Nigerian urban
environment”. International Journal of Environmental Studies. 57(4): 437-442.
80
Gomes, C., Lopes, M. L. and Lopes, M. G. (2005). “A study of MSW properties of a Portuguese landfill”.
International Workshop hydro-physico-mechanics of landfills. LIRIGM, Grenoble 1 University, France, 21-22.

81
Prechthai, T., Visvanathan, C. and Cheinchaisri, C. (2006). “RDF production potential of municipal solid
waste”. The 2nd Joint International Conference on Sustainable Energy and Environment (SEE 2006)”. 21-23,
Nov., 2006, Bangkok, Thailand.

82
Xiao, Y., Bai, X., Ouyang, Z., Zheng, H. and Xing F. (2007). “The composition trend and impact of urban
solid waste in Beijing”. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 135(1- 3): 21-30.
83
Sadugh, M. B., Jalili, G. M., Pezeshk, H. And Jalili, G. V. (2009). “Evaluating the Recovery potential of solid
waste”. International Journal of Environmental Research. 3(4): 681-690.

84
Abdalqader, A. and Hamad, J. (2012). “Municipal solid waste composition determination supporting the
integrated solid waste management in Gaza Strip”. International Journal of Environmental Science and
Development. 3(2): 172-176.

85
Dwivedi, U. and Sen, S. (1979). “Turning a band into an economic boon”. Indian Farming. 46(4): 19.
restate the matter, , "waste management" has emerged as the nation's most serious issue right

now.

According to Chawla (1986)86, in urban regions the position of the land is so tight that even to

dispose the household waste, a considerable exercise has to be done in locating a suitable

spot for it, in case it does not exist. This is because urban areas have a smaller amount of land

available for development. And in the event that it is not removed from that location, it may

produce a significant issue that results in unhealthy conditions, pollution, and issues relating

to public health. Recycling is commonly regarded as the method that is most suited to address

the issue of solid waste in communities, making it one of the waste management practices

with the most potential for the future.

There is an immediate need to dispose of waste materials that are generated as a result of the

everyday activities of man; nevertheless, disposal is not a solution because it results in

environmental pollution that can be very hazardous.. According to Diwan (1987) 87, recycling

is a feasible option for creating useful materials out of the disposed waste. Kumar (1985) 88,

defines recycling as the process of disassembling an old product in order to use the materials

from that product in the production of a new product with some factors in common with the

original. Another kind of recycling, which is frequently referred to as secondary recycling,

results in the production of a product that is distinct from the one that was recycled originally.

Rao (1991)89 opined that recycling waste materials will become an essential method of waste

86
Chawla, O. P. (1986). “Advances in Biogas”. Technology Publication and information Division, Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. 40.

87
Diwan, P. (1987). “Environmental protection”. Deep and Deep publication, New Delhi.
7-9.

88
Kumar, S. (1985). “How biomass sustains life”. Yojana. 28(24): 21-23.

89
Rao, C. S. (1991). “Environmental pollution control engineering”. Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi. 40-50.
management once the economic and technological problems were resolved, and could

prevent the loss of precious resources.

Factors such as the ever-increasing generation of solid waste, the lack of available land space

in urban areas, fossil fuels, and raw materials, made experts from all over the world accept

recycling as a serious solution to waste management. Therefore, according to Skinner

(1994)90, activities aimed at reducing waste are necessary if one is to stop or at least slow

down the ever-increasing rate at which garbage is produced. According to Nambiar (1995) 91,

recycling waste is the process of converting garbage into reusable forms as resources, making

the waste into something that is no longer considered "waste" but rather "a resource."

Recycling waste has financial benefits since it lowers the cost of disposal and increases

profits by maximizing resource utilization and minimizing waste of those resources

(Devdas1997)92. Waste recycling needs to be made economically and environmentally viable,

to enable conservation of valuable material resources from the onslaught of toxic byproducts

(Rajeev.,1997)93 According to Ghosh (1997)94, the ever-increasing population in India is

causing the country to face four major interconnected problems: those problems are a lack of

food, fuel, fertilizer, and environmental pollution. Prasad (1986) 95, report that the necessity

of converting waste materials into fresh goods is put to good use can become a key factor in

the resolution of waste management issues.

90
Skinner, J. H. (1994). “Progress in solid waste management productivity”. Keywards: Environmental
Protection/management waste location: ANDTJ. 35(1): 50.

91
Nambiar, V. (1995). “Reduce, recycle, reuse”. Social Welfare. 41(10): 10-13.

92
Devadas, R. P. (1997). “Direction of National Development”. Edition 1.95.

93
Rajeev, M. (1997). “Utilization of rice husk”. Kissan World. 24(4): 24.

94
Ghosh, S. N. (1997). “Meeting the energy needs of rural India”. Invention Intelligence
12(1): 63-70.

95
Prasad, S. (1986). “Sanitation”. Capart Press Clippers. 9(1): 90.
According to Kulkarni (1999)96, the production of solid waste has been going on since the

beginning of civilization. The increase in population, industrialization, and urbanization, have

reduced the land area available for dispose of waste, and as a result, the extant sites have no

scope for expansion. Technological progress significantly increases the amount of solid trash

that is generated and requires disposal. For this reason, recycling as a method of waste

disposal is extremely important when seeking answers to problems of garbage disposal.

There are constraints, according to Porteous, Andrew (1977), who does not see it as self-

evident that "recycling is a good thing" and must, as a result, be taken to its logical extreme.

Even though there will be a case made for recycling, it will still be necessary to investigate

the amount of money and energy that is spent on it, as well as the quality of the product or

service that is produced or delivered, and make evaluations to determine whether or not

recycling is a good idea. The importance of recycling should be brought to light, as should

the question of how to most effectively utilise the resources that are buried in our trash. A

comprehensive picture should be constructed for this purpose.

Turner, R.K. (1992) investigated the management of municipal solid waste from an economic

viewpoint. The study focused on the issues that surround the selection of the future system

that is the most appropriate given the fact that there are a variety of alternative configurations,

each of which is technically feasible. It appears that the traditional method of "dispose, dilute,

and disperse" needs to be replaced with a new philosophy that emphasises "recycle,

concentrate, and contain," as all signs point to this being the most appropriate course of

action. In addition to this, he elaborated on the effects that market forces have on waste

management and the expenses, both private and public, that are associated with the debate

over recycling versus disposal.

96
Kulkarni, D.V. (1999). “Power generation from municipal solid wastes through the biomethanation route”.
Renewable energy 2000 souvenir. Ministry of non- conventional energy sources. 418.
Ellen Bogardus's article from 1995 gives advice on how to create plans for source reduction

and recycling, makes suggestions for actions that waste generators can take to further

pollution prevention and recycling, and presents case studies of several source reduction and

recycling programmes that have been successful. According to the author, conducting a

pollution prevention assessment is the first critical stage in the process of creating and putting

into action a source reduction and recycling programme that will be successful. This

evaluation's goal is to investigate the waste stream so that specific recyclable items can be

identified and located as a result of the findings. If one knows how and where resources are

produced, they can devise a strategy for recovering materials in order to recycle them.

Since organic farming and the utilisation of earthworms for the transformation of organic

waste into inorganic manure is gaining more and more prominence in today's agricultural

practises, Sinha, Rajiv K. (1997) makes a reference to the recycling and management of

waste through the use of vermiculture biotechnology. In this context, Consider that trash

recycling and disposal are becoming increasingly critical. Vermicomposting on a commercial

scale Waste from residences and agricultural sectors such as sugar mills, fruit and vegetable

processing units and slaughter houses can all be used as raw materials for the production of

biogas. Vermicomposting is a method of decomposing organic matter using worms.

Reduce, reuse, and recycle are the "three R's" that Sherman, Rhonda (1998) identified in the

order of importance for measures that should be made to manage solid waste. Sherman,

Rhonda (1998) considered reducing and reusing before recycling. It has also been brought to

light that a comprehensive reuse strategy and reuse operation should be implemented for

individuals, households, businesses, industries, organisations, and local governments.

2.8.2 Community Participation in Municipal Solid Waste Management

The appropriate disposal of trash has emerged as a major concern for the modern world, both

in terms of public health and the environment. Without the collaboration of the general

population, its successful implementation would be impossible for even the government

urban municipal bodies. Therefore, the engagement of the community and the role of

community based organizations (CBOs) in the accomplishment of the aim are both necessary.

The work carried out by Wilson et al (2006) 97, endorsed the importance of the informal

sector in recycling waste materials. A number of researchers have investigated the

participation of communities and civil societies, as well as the attitudes of members of these

groups, in urban sanitation and solid waste management (Zahur, 2007 98; Singh et al., 200799;

Kapoor, 2009100; Tukahirwa et al., 2010101; Apinhapath, 2014102).

According to t Higginson, A. E. (1983), street cleaning and litter control are two of the most

important yardsticks by which the general public evaluates the effectiveness of cleansing

personnel. His study details the different types of organizations that provide these services, as

well as the types of street waste, the regulatory framework, the types of mechanical and

manual tools and equipment used, and the types of equipment used. The prevention of

97
Wilson, D. C., Velis, C. and Cheeseman, C. (2006). “Role of informal sector recycling in waste management
in developing countries”. Habitat International. 30: 797- 808.
98
Zahur, M. (2007). “Solid waste management of Dhaka City”: public private community partnership. BRAC
University Journal. IV (2): 93-97.

99
Singh, G., Siddiqui, T. Z. and Jain, A. (2007). “Community participation through information, education,
communication and capacity building of ULB for solid waste management”. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Sustainable Solid Waste Management, 5-7 September 2007, Chennai, India.504-507.

100
Kapoor, R. (2009). “Public attitude towards solid waste management. An empirical analysis”. Proceedings of
International Conference on Energy and Environment. 19-21.

101
Tukahirwa, J. T., Mol, A. P. J. and Oosterveer, P. (2010). “Civil society participation in urban sanitation and
solid waste management in Uganda”. Local Environment. 15(1): 1-14.

102
Apinhapath, C. (2014). “Community mapping and theory of planned behavior as study tools for solid waste
management”. Journal of Waste Management. Article ID 934372.
littering and the participation of groups that are run voluntarily are both additional ideas that

have been proposed

In the event that the authorities do not collect the garbage in a timely manner, residents will

typically resort to waste disposal methods that are not environmentally friendly. The inability

to collect the garbage from residents on a regular basis, forces to them resort to illegal

dumping in 60 percent of cases, and to burning their garbage residents in 20 percent of cases

(Masocha). Burning is prohibited due to the additional pollution it brings to the surrounding

ecosystem whereas both burying and composting are practices that are permitted, albeit to a

smaller extent, accounting for only 20% of the total (Masocha). These approaches help

mitigate the harm to the environment from garbage disposal. Bartone103 has stated that in

order to enhance management of solid waste, rules that prohibit unlawful dumping need to be

strictly enforced. Urban areas in the undeveloped nations continue to use the outmoded

dumping system to dispose of their waste. By using this method, waste is sent into a dump,

which has virtually little onsite management to oversee its operations.

Musademba et al. suggested that because the government agencies had failed to collect

rubbish, the communities in response had begun engaging in activities that were not kind to

the environment. According to a survey conducted by Musademba et al. in Chinhoyi,

Zimbabwe, 31.5 percent of households resort to burning waste, 31.9 percent use burying or

open-pit disposal, 30.1 percent use illegal dumping, and 6.5 percent use composting.

Houseflies, rats, mosquitoes, and other disease-transmitting insects, such as those that can

transmit cholera, malaria, dysentery, and fever, are attracted to open rubbish dumps because

they provide an ideal breeding environment (Musademba et al). Residents sneak about at

night to dispose of their garbage, because the Environment Management Authority has the

power to fine people for illegal dumping, despite the fact that it is a criminal offence. The

103
Bartone, P.T; (2009) “Role and size of informal sector in waste management”: an interview”.
lack of rubbish collection by the authority concern in Rymbai village in Meghalaya has led to

an increase in the size of the refuse dump there. Poor solid waste management is largely

attributable to a combination of factors, including a shortage of financial resources, human

resources, and refuse equipment, as well as a lack of environmental awareness on the part of

the general public. Mangizvo expressed concern that the current state of inadequate

management of solid waste could pose a threat to public health if appropriate corrective

measures were not taken. He also came to the conclusion that stakeholders needed to take

part in an integrated strategy to the management of solid waste in order for the city and the

village to be a place that was aesthetically beautiful and had waterways that were clean and

functional.

In his study on solid waste management as taken up by the Cuttack Municipal Corporation in

Cuttack in Orissa, Dev, Jayanth Kumar (2001) offers management using research of solid

waste. These innovations were undertaken by the CMC. Cuttack's solid waste management

system has to be reformed the company came up with a strategy that included eight different

steps. improvements in the managing solid waste, such as the encouragement of

decentralisation and optimal collection, the supply and provision of basic equipments, a

social audit of services for solid waste management and the installation of a compost plant.

The method that was chosen resulted in considerable improvements in the management of

solid waste, such as the encouragement of decentralisation and optimal collection, and

resource development as a result of the activity.

In a case study, Jain, A.K. (2001) discusses the Greater Mumbai Municipal

Corporation's initiative in which the residents of a building or a group of buildings are

motivated to organise advanced locality management societies. The initiative was discussed

in relation to the city of Mumbai. These communities have the notion of taking responsibility

for the proper disposal of solid waste that garbage should be reduced, recycled, and reused.
This is done with the intention of reaching the "zero waste level." Through the use of mass

media, to enhance public awareness of the importance of reroute the recyclable components

of solid wastes to the industries that process recyclable materials and to vermicompost the

biodegradable trash whenever this is feasible.

In a case study that he published in 2001, Sudeep Jain describes the numerous changes in

management of solid waste that were implemented the result of bringing budgetary

discipline, changing the culture of the business, and encouraging public participation. The

privatisation of sanitation services through Residents Associations, the provision of

subsidised loans to the dependents of sanitation workers for the purchase of tipper

automobiles, tree plantation at the compost yard, and the conversion of a dumping site into a

forested area are some of the primary areas of intervention that have been mentioned.

Mohapatra, G. P. (2001) emphasised the new method in solid waste management that was

responsible for Surat's entire change from being in the list of the dirtiest cities in the country

to being a part of the list of the cleanest cities in the country. The short-term example of

Surat, which spanned only eighteen months, demonstrates that such limitations could be

substantially alleviated by adhering to the fundamental democratic principle of "rule by law."

The urban management strategies that were implemented in Surat were planned with the

intention of decentralising authority while simultaneously improving accountability. The

information management—for the purpose of decision support, the development of methods

to serve and motivate citizens, the promotion of transparency in a variety of activities by

means of encouraging civic participation and public awareness, and the establishment of

advance warning systems for the purpose of efficiently managing the outbreak of diseases

affecting the public health—are all essential components of efficient management of

information.
2.8.3 Environmental Impacts of MSW

A polluted biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere are the result of improper management of

urban solid waste, which pollutes ground and surface water, as well as land and air. These

issues are characteristic of urban and suburban areas, where the collection and disposal

facilities frequently fall short in comparison to the amount of waste that is produced. This

results in large garbage piles can be seen strewn about in a disorganised manner in every

nook and cranny of the cities and towns. Concerning the effects that solid waste has on the

surrounding environment, a significant amount of research has been conducted. Different

workers were responsible for completing these tasks (Courtney and Fenton, 1976; El-Fadel et

al., 1997; Mato, 1999; Tsiliyannis, 1999; Hoehn et al., 2000; Binder and Bramryd, 2001;

Izonfuo and Bariweni, 2001).104 Other workers, including Boadi and Kuitunen (2003) 105,

Hamer (2003), Oinam (2005), Khanal (2007), Xiao et al. (2007), Ehirim et al. (2009),

Kurniawan (2009), Nkwachukwu et al. (2010), and Sankoh et al. (2013), have also completed

work of this kind (Boadi and Kuitunen, 2003;The generation of damaging greenhouse gases

(GHGs) and the poisoning of ground water are just two instances that suffice to endorse the

considerable negative consequences of solid waste accumulation on the environment. Thus,

when solid waste is disposed of in an incorrect manner, it can wreak havoc on the quality of

life in the surrounding area and environment at large.

104
Binder, M. and Bramryd, T. (2001). “Environmental impacts of landfill bioreactor cells in comparison of
farmer landfill techniques”. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 129: 289-303.

Izonfuo, L. W. A. and Bariweni, A. P. (2001). “The effects of urban runoff water under human activities on
some physico-chemical parametres of the epic”

105
Boadi, W. O. and Kuitunen, M. (2003). “Municipal solid waste management in the Accra Metropolitan Area,
Ghana”. The Environmentalist. 23(3): 211-218.
According to Thorneloe et al., 2002106, landfills provide 90 percent of the total greenhouse

gas emissions that are released from the waste industry in the United States. Furthermore,

landfills are the largest anthropogenic source of methane. The sector responsible for

managing trash is responsible for four percent of the total anthropogenic emissions of

greenhouse gases. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that is a key ingredient of landfill

gas (also known as LFG). When compared with emissions from poor countries, affluent

nations produce significantly higher levels of global landfill methane. In addition, the amount

of organic material that is dumped in landfills, the method of land filling procedures that are

used, and the degree of anaerobic decomposition are the primary factors that determine the

amounts of LFG emissions (Jokela et al. 2002)107.

In addition to contributing to the emission of greenhouse gases, solid waste is a leading cause

of ground and surface water contamination. In the process of leaching, as the water filters

through the soil, the compounds present are dissolved; and the solution released is known as

the leachate. The term "leaching" also refers to the mixture that results from the process.

(McMichael, 2000)108. Contaminated leachate and surface run-off from land disposal facilities

w negatively affect the quality of ground and surface water further down the gradient; besides

impacting the health of garbage employees and the general public. In addition, drain clogging

caused by uncollected wastes, can lead to stagnant waters that become breeding grounds for

disease causing vectors like mosquitoes (Bose et al., 1998)109.

106
Thorneloe, S. A., Keith, A., Weitz, S. R., Nishitala, S. Y. and Zannes, M. (2002). “The impact of municipal
solid waste management on greenhouse gas emissions in the United States”. Journal of the Air and Waste
Management Association. 52: 1000-1011.

107
Jokela J. P., Kettunen, R. H. and Rintala J. A. (2002). “Methane and leachate pollutant emission potential
from various fractions of municipal solid waste (MSW)”: effects of source separation and aerobic treatment.
Waste Management and Research. 20(5): 424-33.

108
McMichael, A. J. (2000). “The urban environment and health in a world of increasing globalization: issues
for developing countries”. Bulletin world Health Organization. 78(9): 1117-1126.

109
Bose, R. K., Vasudeva, G., Gupta, S. and Sinha, C. (1998). “Municipal solid waste”.
TERI Report 97/ED/52.
The illegal disposal in water bodies of wastes is a prevalent activity that, in addition to

causing dissemination of toxic waste, frequently results in the water bodies becoming

coagulated and damaging the entire ecosystem of the region (Hoornweg et al. 1999;

Zurbrugg, 2003)110.

The widespread but unlawful practice of dumping municipal rubbish on riverbanks and other

bodies of water is a major pollution contributor, which has detrimental effects not just on the

environment but also on public health. In this regard, several workers in different countries

have analyzed of the degree of pollution emanating from the illegal disposal of solid wastes

(Brower and Ramkrishnadas, 1981 in USA 111; Chukwu et al., 2008 in Minna Town,

Nigeria112; Kassenga and Mbuligwe, 2009 in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania 113; Oladimeji et

al., 2009 in Ondo State, Nigeria114).

The pernicious discharge of municipal solid waste is escalated by improper and unscientific

management procedures, which make it the principal source of pollution in both surface and

ground water pollution. Earlier workers in Manipur also reported that anthropogenic activities

such as dumping and throwing of garbage, municipal waste alongside the river bank also

110
Hoornweg, D. L. T. and Verma, K. (1999). “What a waste: solid waste management in Asia”, World Bank,
May.

Zurbrugg, C. (2003). “Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries”.

SANDEC/EAWAG available on line accessed February 14th 2007.

111
Brower, G. R. and Ramkrishnadas, R. (1981). “Solid waste and water Quality”. Journal (Water Pollution
Control Federation). Literature Review Issue. 53(6): 896- 900.

112
Chukwu, O. Mustapha, H. I and Gafar, H. B. A. (2008). “The Effect of Minna Abottoir Waste on Surface
Water Quality H”. Environmental Research Journal. 2(6): 339-342.

113
Kassenga, G. R. and Mbuligwe, S. E. (2009). “Impacts of a solid waste disposal Site on soil, surface water
and ground water quality in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania”. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa.
10(4): 73-94.
114
Oladimeji, M. O., Abata, E., Dawodu, M. O. and Ipeaiyeda, A. R. (2009). “Effects of refuse dumps on the
physic-chemical properties of surface water, ground water and soil on Owo township, Ondo State, Nigeria”.
Toxicological and Environmental chemistry. 91(5): 979-987.s
degraded the quality of the water (Singh et al., 2010). According to Kosygin et al (2007) 115

the results from their work on Moirang river in Manipur indicate that disposal of waste into

water bodies can also affect the concentration of nutrients in river water the Moirang river in

Manipur.

Several individuals have been responsible for quality assessments of the surface water

sources (Ahmad and Bhat, 2008 in Dal Lake, Kashmir Valley, India 116; Ololade et al., 2009 in

Ondo State, Nigeria; Deb et al., 2012 in dumping site of Karimganj District, Assam, India;

Loboka et al., 2013 in Juba, South Sudan117).

2.8.3.1 Influences on Health

The widespread but unlawful practice of dumping municipal rubbish on riverbanks and other

bodies of water is a major pollution contributor, has detrimental effects on public health.

Thus, the health of garbage employees and the general public are negatively impacted by

toxic compounds emanating from areas of solid waste disposal via surface run-off and

leachate. Bose et al.(1998)118 warned of increase in vector bore diseases, as drainage systems

became blocked by uncontrolled waste, and lead to vector nurseries in the increasingly

stagnant waters. There is a strong correlation between the lack of water, inadequate drainage,

115
Kosygin, L., Dhamendra, H. and Gyaneshwari, R. K. (2007). “Pollution status and conservation strategies of
Moirang river, Manipur with a note on its aquatic bio-resources”. Journal of Environmental Biology. 28(3):
669-673.

116
Ahmad, P. and Bhat, G. A (2008). “Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste choking world famous Dal Lake in
Kashmir Valley”. Sengupta, M. and Dalwani, R. (Editors). Proceedings of Taal 2007: The 12thWorld Lake
Conference: 1458- 1462.

117
Loboka, K., Shihua, M., Q., Celestino, J. L., Hasan, S. O. and Wami, S. (2013). “Municipal solid waste
management practices and fecal coliform water contamination in the cities of the developing countries”: The
case of Juba, South Sudan. International Journal of Environmental Science. 3(5): 1614- 1624.

118
Bose, R. K., Vasudeva, G., Gupta, S. and Sinha, C. (1998). “Municipal solid waste”.
TERI Report 97/ED/52.
and spread of various infectious diseases due to inefficient sanitization and solid waste

management (McMichael, 2000).In addition, crowding and unhygienic environmental factors

play an important role in the transmission of infectious illnesses. As per Park and Park's

research from 1996119, there is a significant correlation between health problems and the

whole surrounding.Consequently, the accumulation of solid waste in man's surroundings

presents a clear and immediate danger as solid waste contains a large amount of organic

material ferments. This in turn encourages the reproduction of flies, which are carriers of

multiple diseases and easily transmitted to human beings. Further, seepage of rain water

through deposits of fermenting solid waste exacerbates water pollution, while accidental

spontaneous combustion and the decomposition of organic matter can increase levels of air

pollution.

2.8.3.2 The Impact on the Soil Caused by Municipal Solid Waste

The constant dumping at open landfill sites, requires periodic assessments of environmental

parameters, including the qualities of the soil in and around the landfill to forestall soil,

vegetation and ground water contamination. Arnous (2013) 120 built a spatial model that is

based on the geotechnical parameters to assist in identifying the condition of the soil strata in

the area under examination. The integrated method locates the profile of the earth below

ground level as well as the zones that are suitable for shallow foundations.

119
Park, J. K. and Park, K. (1996). “Text book of preventive and social medicine”. M/S. Banarsidas Bhamol
Publishers, Jabalpur, India. 422.

120
Arnous, M. O. A., (2013) “Geotechnical site investigation for possible urban extensions at Suez City, Egypt,”
Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(5), pp. 1349-1369.
The evaluation, degradation, and erosion of soil quality are the topics covered in this review

for the purpose of preserving the characteristics of soil, particularly in agricultural areas. This

investigation included profiling the soil's inherent fragility as well as the disputes in the

surrounding area utilizing MCA and geographical analysis. We were able to locate the areas

of high susceptibility as well as soil degradation. Junior et al. (2014) 121 have conducted an

assessment of the susceptible area by taking into account all of the necessary data, which

supported prevention of soil deterioration of soil as a cardinal necessity for maintaining a

122
healthy ecosystem. Virto et al., (2014) conducted a review of the policies and challenges

concerning soil protection and quality that are prevalent in Western Europe. It is essential to

practice soil conservation if the soil profile is to be preserved in its natural state without

undergoing any changes. In this context, Avendano et al., (2015) 123 experimentally

demonstrated that the aerobic soil biotransformation is significant in perfluoro octane

sulfonic acid purposefully for better comprehension of soil biotransformation that occurs in

landfill leachates. This engenders a deeper assessment of soil biotransformation occurrence in

landfill leachates. The soil hydraulic parameters of the landfill plant were assessed by

Cassinari et al. (2015)124 and the resultant data was plotted graphically to determine the

hydraulic profile.

2.8.3.4 Impact of Municipal Solid Waste in Water Quality

121
Junior, R. V., Varandas, S. G. P., Fernandes, L. S., and Pacheco, F. A. L., (2014) “Environmental land use
conflicts: a threat to soil conservation”. Land Use Policy, 41, pp. 172-185.

122
Virto, I., Imaz, M. J., Fernández-Ugalde, O., Gartzia-Bengoetxea, N., Enrique, A., and Bescansa, P., (2014)
“Soil degradation and soil quality in Western Europe: current situation and future perspectives”, Sustainability,
7(1), pp. 313-365.

123
Avendano, S.M., and Liu, J., (2015) “Production of PFOS from aerobic soil bio- transformation of two
perfluoroalkyl sulphonamide derivative” Chemospher, 119, 99.1084-1090.

124
Cassinari, C. H. I. A. R. A., Manfredi, P., Giupponi, L. U. C. A., Trevisan,
M. A. R. C. O., and Piccini, C., (2015) “Relationship between hydraulic properties and plant coverage of the
closed-landfill soils in Piacenza (Po Valley, Italy),” Solid Earth, 6(3), pp. 929.
The hydrochemical properties of the groundwater in the Wadi Fatimah basin were discovered

by Alyamani and colleagues in 1995125. The hydrochemical characteristics are necessary for

making an accurate plan for the use of the water resources that are accessible. According to

the findings of the study, the weathering response of the rock is causing variations in the

groundwater's chemical make-up. Nickson et al. (2005)126 investigated the nature of arsenic

and various groundwater quality criteria in Punjab's south-western Muzaffargarh District,

which is located in central Pakistan. The groundwater quality parameter analysis is essential

in the industrial and agricultural areas with their exposure toxic chemicals and anthropogenic

factors. The diverse range of applications that is served by using groundwater as a primary

resource, shielding it from contamination is vital. Thus, drinking and irrigating with

groundwater remains a common practice, even when the risk of groundwater contamination

remains high due to the influence of leachate in dumpyards. Even if a laboratory test has not

been performed on the water, it can be easily identified by simply observing the colour and

odour of the groundwater.

Aderemi et al. (2011)127 investigated the influence that leachate has on the groundwater that is

located near a landfill. The groundwater samples that were taken close to the municipal waste

site were analysed for a number of different physical-chemical and microbiological

characteristics and parameters. Proximity to landfills determines levels of contamination,

therefore when the dump and the water body are close, the level of contamination is higher;

125
Alyamani, M. S., and Hussein, M. T., (1995) “Hydro chemical study of groundwater in recharge area, Wadi
Fatimah basin, Saudi Arabia,” Geo. Journal, 37(1), pp. 81-89.

126
Nickson, R. T., McArthur, J. M., Shrestha, B., Kyaw-Myint, T. O., and Lowry, D., (2005) “Arsenic and other
drinking water quality issues, Muzaffargarh District, Pakistan,” Applied Geochemistry, 20(1), pp. 55-68.

127
Aderemi, A. O., Oriaku, A. V., Adewumi, G. A., and Otitoloju, A. A., (2011) “Assessment of groundwater
contamination by leachate near a municipal solid waste landfill” African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, 5(11), pp. 933-940.
and levels of contamination drop as the distance increases. Because the location contains

clay, the effect of the landfill's leachate should be reduced as much as possible.

The groundwater laboratory results were analyzed by Katz et al. (2012) 128, and their findings

were utilised to evaluate the trajectory that contaminants take through the Mississippi

embayment aquifer system. The work resulted in pinpointing the source of the contamination

and information on utilization of private and public wells provided insights into the

chemistry and level of contamination of the groundwater in the area. The results also show

that there is a larger concentration of nitrate in the aquifer's deeper regions, as a result of the

ageing of the aquifer.

In the Alappuzha District of Kerala, India, Prasanth et al. (2012) 129 conducted an investigation

into suitability of groundwater for agricultural and drinking purposes. The high salinity in the

coastal area, mandates regular analyses of the quality characteristics of the groundwater. The

findings of the investigation suggest that the groundwater in most areas of the Alappuzha

district, with the exception of a select few spots along the coast, is unfit for human

consumption.

Evaluation of the impact of leachate from a landfill site in Northern Jordan was carried out by

Abu-Rukah et al. (2001)130, who conducted an investigation into the matter. The samples of

groundwater are taken from the location under investigation. The laboratory results were used

to determine the cause that contributed to the contamination of the groundwater. The findings
128
Katz, B. G., Kingsbury, J. A., Welch, H. L., and Tollett, R. W., (2012) “Processes affecting geochemistry and
contaminant movement in the middle Claiborne aquifer of the Mississippi embayment aquifer system,”
Environmental Earth Sciences, 65(6), pp. 1759-1780.

129
Prasanth, S. S., Magesh, N. S., Jitheshlal, K. V., Chandrasekar, N., and Gangadhar, K., (2012) “ Evaluation of
groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in the coastal stretch of Alappuzha
District, Kerala, India,” Applied Water Science, 2(3), pp. 165-175.

130
Abu-Rukah, Y., and Al-Kofahi, O., (2001) “The assessment of the effect of landfill leachate on ground-water
quality—a case study- El-Akader landfill site— north Jordan,” Journal of Arid Environments, 49(3), pp. 615-
630.
of the laboratory suggest that there are irregularities in the groundwater that is used for

drinking. According to the findings of the study, the leachate has an effect on the aquifers in

the area.

The quality of the irrigation water in the Ghataprabha command region in Karnataka was

analysed by Jain and colleagues (2004) 131. Water quality is determined by the results of

irrigation water quality analysis. The results of the laboratory test are compared with the

quality criteria for irrigation water in order to have an understanding of whether or not the

water is suitable for irrigation.

2.9 Models to Aid of Solid Waste Management in Municipalities

The multifaceted nature of solid waste management makes it is one of the most difficult

responsibilities assigned to municipal authorities. Mismanagement in the handling and

disposal of MSW can potentially lead to social and economic risks as indicated in various

literature.

A scientific model for efficient transporting solid trash was utilized by Mourao et al.,

(2000)132. Within the scope of this investigation, heuristic methods were utilized for waste

collection vehicles in order to cut down on the amount of time needed to collect rubbish from

residential areas. The model determined the most feasible, quickest and shortest route for

efficient collection and transportation of solid waste. Apaydin et al., (2007) 133 created the

theme container layer to determine which collecting container should be used for optimal
131
Jain, C. K., Kumar, C. P., and Sharma, M. K., (2004) “Irrigation water quality of Ghataprabha Command
Area, Karnataka,” Water Pollution. APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 17, pp. 145-158.

132
Mourao, M. C., and Almeida, M. T., (2000) “Lower-bounding and heuristic methods for a refuse collection
vehicle routing problem,” European Journal of Operational Research, 121, pp.420-434.

133
Apaydin, O., and Gonullu, M. T., (2007) “Route optimization for solid waste collection: Trabzon (Turkey)
case study,” Global NEST Journal, 9(1), pp. 6- 11.
route planning in the city of Trabzon. Route planning leads optimization of the route,

reduction in fuel expenditure and cost, besides making waste delivery more cost and time

efficient.

The potential for pollution posed by leachate originating from the Pune dump site was

investigated by Kale et al. (2010)134. For each of the twenty-eight samples included in study,

the Leachate Pollution Index (LPI) was applied and calculated. The value of the LPI that was

greater in the monsoon season than in the post-monsoon period.When the level of the

groundwater table is high, the impact that leachate has on groundwater is extremely severe. In

order to determine the extent to which the dumpyard was responsible for the poisoning of the

groundwater in Erode city, Rajkumar et al. (2010) 135 carried out a comprehensive

investigation on the effect of leachate on the situation. The spatial analysis tool was used to

better understand the geographic variation of groundwater found in the GIS platform.

Research conducted by Zupanc and colleagues (2010) 136 investigated possibility of using

wastewater for irrigation. In order to assess the amount of water present in the substrate, a

water drop penetration test was carried out. The results of the investigation demonstrated that

composted biomass has a high nutritional content wastewater treatment was higher than that

of regular drinking water.

134
Kale, S. S., Kadam, A. K., Kumar, S., and Pawar, N. J., (2010) “Evaluating pollution potential of leachate
from landfill site, from the Pune metropolitan city and its impact on shallow basaltic aquifers,” Environmental
monitoring and assessment, 162(1-4), pp. 327-346.

135
Rajkumar, N., Subramani, T., and Elango, L., (2010) “Groundwater contamination due to municipal solid
waste disposal-A GIS based study in Erode city”. International journal of environmental sciences, 1(1), pp. 39.

136
Zupanc, V., and Justin, M. Z.,(2010) “Changes in soil characteristics during landfill leachate irrigation of
Populusdeltoides”. Waste management, 30(11), pp. 2130-2136.
 MSW management techniques in Nagpur were investigated by Modak et al. (2011) 137 to

optimize best management practices in solid waste. Laboratory testing is necessary to assess

the environmental impact of the disposed-of solid waste. Consequently, the physical and

proximate laboratory analysis were performed on a total of fifty different samples. The

findings from the laboratory indicate that there is a higher concentration of organic matter

and moisture in the soil. The municipal solid waste in Nagpur has a high organic content,

which makes it an excellent material for the production of vermicelli compost.

Research is carried out onthe solid waste produced by households in order to determine

whether it is possible to recycle the produced waste. Understanding the possibilities for

recycling requires first having a solid waste classification in place. Moh et al., (2014) 138

identified the difficulties that were encountered in the practice of recycling when the

recycling policy was being put into effect.

2.10 A Statistical Approach to the Problem

Utilizing the statistical analysis tool helps to simplify the process of doing an analysis of the

laboratory test results. In the traditional technique, statistical analysis was performed through

the use of manual calculation. However, as the field of software development has advanced, a

variety of statistical software has been available to simplify the process of statistical analysis.

137
Modak, P. R., Nangare, P. B., and WADKAR, D. V., (2011) “Quantitative and qualitative assessment of
municipal solid waste for Nagpur city”, Journal of Engineering Research and Studies, 2(2), pp.55-61.

138
Moh, Y. C., and Manaf, L. A., (2014) “Overview of household solid waste recycling policy status and
challenges in Malaysia”, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 82, pp. 50-61.
 139
Principal component analysis was applied by Bhardwaj et al., (2010) for the purpose of

analysing water quality parameters. In order to get a qualitative analysis from PCI, the water

quality characteristics must first be included. Utilizing the software, one is able to conduct an

accurate analysis of the findings of the laboratory tests. It is possible to receive the massive

database of analysis results in a shorter amount of time.

In order to determine whether or not groundwater is suitable for human consumption, Das et

al. (2010)140 utilised multivariate methods. The result from the laboratory that was obtained

was compared to the standards for the quality of the drinking water. The findings suggest that

the standards for drinking water fall below the standards that are derived from the BIS and

WHO references.

In the study of Wang et al. (2013)141, the multivariate statistical analysis was utilized to

determine the spatial variance in water quality. The outcome is utilized to gain an

understanding of the locations that were severely damaged, moderately affected, and only

slightly affected. The result of the analysis was used, along with the appropriate validation, to

identify the zone that posed a high environmental threat.

The statistical method was applied by Venkatramanan et al. (2015) 142 in order to get the data

from the test results that we need. For the sake of this investigation, a statistical method was

applied to the hydro-geochemistry of groundwater in order to gain a better understanding of

139
Bhardwaj, V., Singh, D. S., and Singh, A. K., (2010) “Water quality of the ChhotiGandak River using
principal component analysis, Ganga Plain, India,” Journal of earth system science, 119(1), pp. 117-127.

140
Das, M., Kumar, A., Mohapatra, M., and Muduli, S. D., (2010) “Evaluation of drinking quality of
groundwater through multivariate techniques in urban area,” Environmental monitoring and assessment,
166(1), pp. 149-157.

141
Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Ran, M., Liu, Y., Zhang, Z., Guo, L. and Wang, P (2013) “Identifying potential
pollution sources in river basin via water quality reasoning based expert system in Digital Manufacturing and
Automation (ICDMA),” Fourth Internation Conference, pp. 671-674.

142
Venkatramanan, S., Ramkumar, T., and Anithamary, I., (2012) “A statistical approach on hydro
geochemistry of groundwater in Muthupet coastal region, Tamilnadu, India,” Carpathian Journal of Earth and
Environmental Sciences, 7(1), pp. 47-54.
the impact that contamination has on the coastal region. The findings of the analysis

demonstrate how each groundwater parameter impacted the results.

2.11 GIS Application and Analysis

The use of GIS is extremely important in the entire process of municipal solid waste

management; thus planning, execution and monitoring, may all be carried out on a GIS

platform. Waste management requires an evaluation of municipal solid waste geographical as

well as nonspatial data may produce information that is more pertinent to a number of

different questions. An examination of networks, the location of bins and vehicles, the

selection of disposal sites, and other tasks can all be accomplished through the use of GIS.

Solid waste management is vital for processing the vast volume of data. The required result

has been obtained by approaching a spatial data mining in GIS database in order to discover a

meaningful pattern in the created spatial data, as Brimicombe, (2003) 143 found that the

analysis of spatial data for solid waste management is effective on GIS platform. This was

discovered in their study, which was published in 2003.

The 3D-based model was applied by Tavares et al. (2008) 144 for the purpose of route

optimization. In the Cape Verdean municipality of Santo Antao a GIS-based 3D garbage

collection and transportation model was implemented. The research identifies the most

effective paradigm for MSW routing networks so that they can function at their full potential.

143
Brimicombe, A., (2003) “A variable resolution approach to cluster discovery in spatial data mining,”
Computational Science and Its Applications—ICCSA 2003, pp. 985-985.

144
Tavares, G., Zsigraiova, Z., Semiao, V., and da GraçaCarvalho, M., (2008) “A case study of fuel savings
through optimisation of MSW transportation routes,” Management of Environmental Quality: An International
Journal, 19(4), pp. 444-454.
A simulation research on the movement of chloride in the Bhalaswa landfill site was carried

out by Jhamnani et al., (2009)145. The findings of the laboratory investigation into the

groundwater show that leachate from the Bhalaswa landfill was the most likely candidate

responsible for the presence of the contaminant in the groundwater in the surrounding area.

By providing a range of different input values, the research simulation may be used to

determine the impact. Matlab's finite element approach was used to solve the diffusion-

dispersion problem, which was then displayed.

For the purpose of determining the availability of groundwater, a remote sensing and

geographic information system technique was used for basaltic watersheds in the Indian state

of Maharastra. In order to determine where groundwater is available in a given area, there are

a variety of layers that must be considered. In order to determine the necessary spatial
146
information, Pradhan (2009) utilised a model called the Analytical Hierarchical Process.

This model required the input of six different thematic layers.

Following a GIS and multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) evaluation of the situation,

Agarwal et al. (2013)147 prepared five distinct groundwater potential zonation maps. In the

course of this investigation, the procedure for reclassifying the results was utilized. In order

to retrieve a zone with a groundwater potential that is more accurate, the weights for the

various themes are applied.

145
Jhamnani, B., and Singh, S. K., (2009) “Groundwater contamination due to Bhalaswa landfill site in New
Delhi,” Transport, 84, pp. 8507.

146
Pradhan, B., (2009) “Groundwater potential zonation for basaltic watersheds using satellite remote sensing
data and GIS techniques,” Open Geosciences, 1(1), pp. 120-129.
147
Agarwal, E., Agarwal, R., Garg, R. D., and Garg, P. K., (2013) “Delineation of groundwater potential zone:
An AHP/ANP approach,” Journal of Earth System Science, 122(3), pp. 887-898.
Using the DRASTIC model, Neshat et al. (2014) 148 were able determine the extent of

groundwater exposure. A thematic map was created to show the areas with the highest

potential for groundwater contamination. To acquire a better knowledge of the Kerman

agricultural area's underground well plan, the vulnerability index was developed.

Based on the findings of the laboratory tests conducted on 76 bore wells, Balakrishnan et al.

(2011)149 proposed a GIS-based map that was color-coded to indicate potable and non-potable

zones. The spatial database that was developed will be helpful in understanding Gulbarga

City, a city in the Indian state of Karnataka, has a wide range in the quality of its

groundwater.

2.12 Landfill Suitability Studies

The task of locating a suitable an easy task to find a landfill site to dispose of municipal

garbage material one and involves a large and complex procedure. The development of new

technologies and instruments could provide support for the identification of alternative

landfill sites in a manner that is more precise. The usage of GIS for the purpose of purpose of

locating potential landfill sites has demonstrated that spatial analysis is one of the powerful

tools that can be used to locate potential alternatives to landfill sites that meet the necessary

criteria for validation.

148
Neshat, A., Pradhan, B., Pirasteh, S., and Shafri, H. Z. M., (2014) “Estimating groundwater vulnerability to
pollution using a modified DRASTIC model in the Kerman agricultural area, Iran,” Environmental Earth
Sciences, 71(7), pp. 3119-3131.

149
Balakrishnan, P., Saleem, A., and Mallikarjun, N. D., (2011) “Groundwater quality mapping using
geographic information system (GIS): A case study of Gulbarga City, Karnataka, India,” African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology, 5(12), pp. 1069-1084.
Vuppala et al. (2006)150 used the analytical hierarchy process in order to determine where the

best location for a landfill site would be for the disposal solid waste. The results of the AHP

helps the user to determine the optimal location by assigning a weight to each layer.

A multi-criteria decision-making process (MCDM) and an analytic network (MCDM) were

proposed by Babalola et al., (2011) 151 in order to determine highly suitable locations for a

landfill in the town of Damturu, Nigeria. The MCDM is a one-of-a-kind method that is used

to derive the most trustworthy output from the given values. The outcome demonstrates that

the GIS plus MCDM technique is effective in process of selecting a site for landfill.

In their study, Eskandari et al. (2012)152 suggested using an MCA approach to locate the

landfill site in the area under investigation. The location of the landfill was determined by

building a hierarchical structure with a total of thirteen constraints and fifteen elements. The

model pinpoints the most appropriate location for a landfill within the scope of the research,

and in the end, a field survey was carried out to verify the information obtained from the

model's output.

In Azemmour, Morocco, Makan et al. (2012)153 conducted research to determine, using the

PROMETHEE method, where the most appropriate location for a landfill site would be. The

model is then updated with the necessary input parameters in order to quickly obtain result. In

150
Vuppala, P., Asadi, S. S., and Reddy, M. A., (2006) “Solid waste disposal site selection using analytical
hierarchy process and geographical information system,” Pollution Research, 25(1), pp. 73.

151
Babalola, A., and Busu, I., (2011) “Selection of landfill sites for solid waste treatment in Damaturu Town-
using GIS techniques,” Journal of Environmental Protection, 2(01), pp. 1.

152
Eskandari, M., Homaee, M., and Mahmodi, S., (2012) “An integrated multi criteria approach for landfill
siting in a conflicting environmental, economical and socio-cultural area,” Waste Management, 32(8), pp.
1528-1538.
153
Makan, A., Malamis, D., Assobhei, O., Loizidou, M., and Mountadar, M., (2012) “ Multi-criteria decision
analysis for the selection of the most suitable landfill site: case of Azemmour, Morocco,” International Journal
of Management Science and Engineering Management, 7(2), pp. 96-109.
order to validate the alternative landfill site that was selected in Azemmour, the result was

analysed using an AHP method.

Eskandari et al., (2013)154 determined the landfill's location using an integrated GIS and AHP.

Detailed explanations of the process can be found in the methodology section of this thesis.

As a result of the location factor, the process of assigning weight might be different

depending on where you are. The results obtained identified the areas that would make the

best candidates for the landfill site.

The study conducted by Bratley, Keith J. (1983) is considered to be one of the most

significant on contemporary sanitary landfills. Every single facet of the craft, including but

not limited to the selection of plants, the amount of space consumed by landfill operations,

safety, day-to-day management, and administration of the site have been outlined. It is also

mentioned that there would be a thorough and specific instruction on responsible and cost-

effective operations, as well as health, safety, and ultimate restorationAccording to Taha et al.

(2011)155, Non-engineered landfill sites in the Malaysian state of Selangor located in Ampar

Tenang and Bukit Tagar need to be shut down and cleaned. At the locations of the landfills, a

variety of laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the effects of the solid waste.

The findings of the analysis point to a severe contamination of the groundwater at the non-

engineered landfill sites and in the surrounding area.

In order to ensure safe conditions for landfills and their environs, regular groundwater testing

is required. An investigation into the physicochemical conditions and main ion concentrations

was carried out by Magesh and colleagues (2013)156 in the area surrounding the Dindigul
154
Eskandari, M., Homaee, M., Mahmoodi, S., and Pazira, E., (2013) “Integrating GIS and AHP for municipal
solid waste landfill site selection,” Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 3(4), pp. 588-595.

155
Taha, M. R., Yaacob, W. Z. W., Samsudin, A. R., and Yaakob, J., (2011) “ Groundwater quality at two
landfill sites in Selangor, Malaysia,” Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, 57, pp. 13-18.

156
Magesh, N. S., Krishnakumar, S., Chandrasekar, N., and Soundranayagam, J. P., (2013) “Groundwater
quality assessment using WQI and GIS techniques, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, India,” Arabian Journal
District in Tamil Nadu, India. The Gibbs diagram was utilised to shed light on the origin of

the main ions. The spatial distribution of the parameters that were analysed was highlighted

with the use of GIS mapping.

M. Backman and T. Lindhqvist (1992) were of the opinion that in order to protect the

environment, a sustainable development plan should be based on a waste prevention strategy.

The inherent flaws in the manner in which the earth's resources are utilised, which are

reflected in waste and pollution, are not able to be addressed by technology, the law, or better

regulatory restrictions. These flaws are reflected in the fact that waste and pollution are

produced. The explanation behind it is that, historically speaking, waste has been considered

and handled as if it were unrelated to the origins of its generation in terms of both its

magnitude and its composition. This is due to the fact that trash has traditionally been

regarded and handled as though it were unrelated to the various sources of production.

Participation from all segments of society is necessary for an effective waste prevention

strategy. In the future, there is going to be a greater emphasis placed on the environmental

responsibilities of customers. Consumers have some sway over the products that are available

to them because of the choices they make when making purchases, and this sway can help

contribute to the development of markets for items that are less harmful to the environment.

According to Rajashekhara, C.V. (1992), India is distinguished by having an urban

population that exceeds even the total population of several countries located in the western

hemisphere. This fact was brought to light by the author. The overpopulation of major cities

in India, the amount of garbage has increased and the function of public cleansing that is

being performed by various local bodies and authorities is hardly satisfactory. This situation

requires immediate corrective actions to be taken in order to address the problem.

of Geosciences, 6(11), pp. 4179-4189.

The authors Botkin, Daniel B., et al. (1995) made a comparison between the outdated and

insufficient concept of waste management known as "dilute and disperse" and the more

recent concept of "concentrate and contain." They discussed how the older concept is

gradually being replaced by the more recent one, with an emphasis on the management of

materials and the elimination of waste. Consideration of wastes as resources is the central

tenet of the contemporary environmentally conscious approach to waste management. If this

theory were put into practise, there would be no such thing as waste since In either case, it

would be viewed as a resource that could be repurposed in the future if it was created. The

term "zero waste" is commonly used to allude to this idea. They feel that "Integrated Waste

Management," or IWM for short, is currently the most common method for disposing of

waste in today's society. Reuse, reduction, recycling, composting, landfilling, and

incineration are all part of IWM, which is best described as a collection of management

strategies.

Sinha Rajiv K. (I 997) voiced concern on the production of wastes as a consequence of

human activity and saw it as a potential risk that may bury humanity alive. He also offered

information on the generation of solid trash in various countries as well as in key cities in

India, as well as the types of wastes that are generated in the municipal areas of Indian cities.

M. Backman and T. Lindhqvist (1992) were of the opinion that in order to protect the

environment, a sustainable development plan should be based on a waste prevention strategy.

The inherent flaws in the manner in which the earth's resources are utilised, which are

reflected in waste and pollution, are not able to be addressed by technology, the law, or better

regulatory restrictions. These flaws are reflected in the fact that waste and pollution are

produced. The explanation behind it is that, historically speaking, waste has been considered

and handled as if it were unrelated to the origins of its generation in terms of both its

magnitude and its composition. This is due to the fact that trash has traditionally been
regarded and handled as though it were unrelated to the various sources of production.

Participation from all segments of society is necessary for an effective waste prevention

strategy. In the future, there is going to be a greater emphasis placed on the environmental

responsibilities of customers. Consumers have some sway over the products that are available

to them because of the choices they make when making purchases, and this sway can help

contribute to the development of markets for items that are less harmful to the environment.

According to Rajashekhara, C.V. (1992), India is distinguished by having an urban

population that exceeds even the total population of several countries located in the western

hemisphere. This fact was brought to light by the author. The overpopulation of major cities

in India, the amount of garbage has increased and the function of public cleansing that is

being performed by various local bodies and authorities is hardly satisfactory. This situation

requires immediate corrective actions to be taken in order to address the problem.

The authors Botkin, Daniel B., et al. (1995) make a comparison between the outdated and

insufficient concept of waste management known as "dilute and disperse" and the more

recent concept of "concentrate and contain." They discuss how the older concept is gradually

being replaced by the more recent one, with an emphasis on the management of materials and

the elimination of waste. Consideration of wastes as resources is the central tenet of the

contemporary environmentally conscious approach to waste management. If this theory were

put into practise, there would be no such thing as waste since In either case, it would be

viewed as a resource that could be repurposed in the future if it was created. The term "zero

waste" is commonly used to allude to this idea. They feel that "Integrated Waste

Management," or IWM for short, is currently the most common method for disposing of

waste in today's society. Reuse, reduction, recycling, composting, landfilling, and

incineration are all part of IWM, which is best described as a collection of management

strategies.
Enger, Eldon D., and Smith, Bradley F. (1995) provided an understanding of how the

problem of municipal solid waste is impacted by economics, changes in technology, citizen

awareness and involvement by providing an outline Covers some of the most essential

aspects of the worldwide problem of solid waste. In addition, the writers acknowledged the

integrated approach to the management of solid waste, as well as the numerous methods of

garbage disposal and the issues that are associated with each method. A comprehension of the

challenges involved in the creation of new sanitary landfills, the difficulties connected with

the use of burning as a means of waste disposal, as well as the advantages and disadvantages

of recycling, were also featured.

Sinha Rajiv K. (I 997) voiced concern on the production of wastes as a consequence of

human activity and saw it as a potential risk that may bury humanity alive. He also offered

information on the generation of solid trash in various countries as well as in key cities in

India, as well as the types of wastes that are generated in the municipal areas of Indian cities.