History of Britain in short
Celts and Romans
The first inhabitants of Britain were the Celts. They crossed the English Channel many centuries before the Christian
era. The Celts or Britons practiced agriculture and dug up minerals such as tin, lead and gold. Their religion was
Druidism and their priests, the Druids were famous for their magic arts.
Roman legions led by Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 B.C. The Romans conquered much of the island and ruled it
for almost 400 years. They built cities, country estates, bridges and roads. England and Wales together formed the
Roman province of Britannia. They remained part of the Roman Empire until the 400s. However, the Romans
couldn’t control the entire island. In the Northern part of Britain, in the area known as Scotland today, lived the Picts
and the Scots. They resisted Roman rule and attacked Roman settlements in the south. To keep them out, Roman
soldiers built great walls with forts and towers. The greatest monument they left is Hadrian’s Wall between England
and Scotland. The Romans also had difficulties in the area they still ruled. They couldn’t win over the Celts because
most Celts lived in their own villages and were not interested in or influenced by the Roman culture.
Roman rule in Britain began to crumble during the 4 th century A.D. This was because Roman soldiers were called
home to defend the empire’s borders against the invasions by the Germans and the Huns.
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes
After the last legions left in 410 A.D. the island was gradually invaded by groups from northern Germany and
Denmark called Angles, Saxons and Jutes. They were strong warriors and by the 7 th century they controlled most of
the island. The Angles, Saxons and Jutes united and became Anglo-Saxons. They built settlements, farmed the land
and set up several small kingdoms. They southern part of Britain became known as Angleland or England, the people
became known as English and their language, Anglo-Saxon, later developed into modern English.
The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain followed the Germanic religions. Pope Gregory I. decided to convert the Anglo-
Saxons to Christianity. In 597 A.D. he sent a mission of 41 monks to England and by 700 A.D. all England was
Christian. The Pope was head of church. Many monasteries were built and they became the centres of religion and
culture. One monk, Bede, was a great scholar and he wrote down the first history of English people.
Even though people accepted Christianity, the Anglo-Saxons kept much of their old culture. They retold the old
legends about brave warriors fighting monsters and dragons. (epic poem – Beowulf)
Danes
About 835 bands of Danes, the Vikings began raiding the coast of England and they settled down permanently in the
conquered areas. The English kingdoms decided to resist the invaders and they chose Alfred, King of Wessex as their
leader. Alfred, the Great was England’s best loved monarchs, built the first English fighting ships and constructed
fortresses throughout the country.
But Alfred never became strong enough to drive the Danes completely out of the country so he sighed a treaty with
them. It recognised the right of the Danes to rule the northeast part of the country, an area that became known as
Danelaw. At that time books were written in Latin so Alfred’s scholars translated the books into English so that
people would become familiar with their history starting from the Romans.
The Norman Conquest
In 1042, the witan (assembly of important Anglo-Saxon men) made Edward the Confessor King of England but he
spent so much time in religious work that he failed to carry out his royal duties. As a result, the nobles increased
their hold on the country and when Edward died, a powerful noble, Herold became the king. William, Duke of
Normandy, a cousin of Edward led an army of Norman archers and knights across the sea to England from France in
1066 and at Hastings they defeated the English. William, the Conqueror was crowned King of England in the
Westminster Abbey in London. The Normans ruled England until 1154. William introduced a system called
feudalism, in which the king seized the lands of English nobles and divided them among Norman nobles in exchange
for loyalty and service. Under his rule, the English learnt Norman customs and French language.
The Plantagenet Kings
In 1154 a new line of English kings came to power. They became known as the Plantagenets. They ruled England for
more than 300 years. Henry II was the first of this new line of kings. He made important changes to the court system
that promoted more equal treatment of law cases. He also sent armies to conquer Ireland.
The Magna Carta
John became king in 1199 when his brother Richard the Lionheart died. King John was a cruel and unpopular ruler
because he increased taxes and ignored the law so the nobles refused to obey him and joined together to try to limit
John’ power. They declared that the king must rule according to law. In 1215 they forced King John to agree to this in
a document called the Magna Carta. The king no longer could collect taxes without the consent of the Great Council,
a freeman accused of a crime had the right to a trial by his peers and the king had to obey the laws. Although the
Magna Carta was written by nobles for nobles, it came to be viewed as an important step towards democracy.
Birth of Parliament
Later in the 1200s, Parliament developed from a group of nobles that gave the king advice and agreed to new taxes.
Later Parliaments included representatives from the church and common people as well as the nobles. Many
struggles occurred as Parliament tried to expand its powers and limit the powers of the king.
The Hundred Years’ War
In the early 1300s, the English still held a small part of southwest France. The French wanted to drive the English out
of the country but in 1337, the English king, Edward III declared himself king of France, which angered the French
very much. France eventually defeated England in the 1400s.
The Wars of Roses
Peace didn’t come to England after the Hundred Years’ War. In 1455, two noble families began a struggle for the
throne which lasted many years. Their war was called the Wars of Roses because the York family’s symbol was a
white rose and the Lancaster family’s symbol was a red rose.
The Tudors
When the struggles of the War of Roses ended in 1485, a family called the Tudors, who fought on the Lancastrian
side, took over the English throne. The first Tudor king, Henry the VII prepared the way to the renaissance. England
enjoyed more than a century of peace and wealth under the Tudors as Henry the VII strengthened the monarchy and
encouraged trade. Henry VIII became king in 1509. Henry VIII was strong ruler who enjoyed and encouraged art,
literature, music, hunting and festivals, he even composed his own music. Under his rule, English nobles and
merchants began to look to the renaissance Italy for guidance in politics, diplomacy and behaviour. However,
Henry’s life wasn’t happy because his wife, the Spanish Catherine of Aragon, bore only a girl to Henry who wanted a
son to succeed to the throne. At the same time Henry VIII fell in love with Anne Boleyn, a young woman of the court,
whom he wanted to marry. However, Pope Clement VII refused to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
This decision angered Henry so he broke England away from the Roman Catholic Church and the leadership of the
Pope. He did not want to be controlled by the church so he created a new national church called the Church of
England (or Anglican Church) and he became the head of this new church. In 1534 Henry VIII broke all ties with
Rome as the English Parliament passed the law known by “the Act of Supremacy” stating that the king is the
Supreme Head of the Church of England. Henry married Anne Boleyn but some years later he had her executed for
treason because Anne had only a girl, Elizabeth. Henry then married Jane Seymour who died shortly after giving
Henry the son he longed for. When Henry died in 1547, after marring 3 more times, his 9-year-old son became king
Edward VI and when he died Henry’s first daughter, Mary became queen. She was Catholic and accepted the Pope
as head of the English Church. She persecuted the Protestants and the people began to call her “Bloody Mary”. Then
her half-sister, the 25 years old Elizabeth became queen who Protestant and with the help of the Parliament she
ended the Pope’s authority over the English Church. Some Protestants opposed Elizabeth’s church and became
known as Puritans.
Golden Age and the Birth of the British Empire
England reached great heights under the last Tudor monarch, Queen Elizabeth I. The period of her rule, 1558–1603,
is often called England’s Golden Age. During this time, English literature thrived. In addition, England became a great
sea power. In 1588 England defeated the powerful Spanish navy, called the Armada, to prevent an invasion of
England.
English merchants began to seek distant markets for their goods. In 1600 the British East India Company established
trading posts in India. In 1607 England settled its first colony in what would later become the United States. Over the
next 300 years, England established a huge worldwide empire of colonies. England grew wealthy from trading in
tobacco from the Americas, slaves from Africa, and spices from India.
The Stuarts and the Civil War
After the death of Elizabeth I. in 1603, the Stuart line of rulers took power. The first Stuart king was James I, who
was also king of Scotland and he believed in rule by divine right so he dismissed the Parliament. His son, King Charles
I. also wanted to rule alone, and he dismissed Parliament like his father. This conflict led to a civil war in 1642.
Groups who supported the king were called Cavaliers, groups who supported Parliament were called Roundheads
and they came from mostly the middle and the lower class. They were led by Oliver Cromwell, a Puritan whose New
Model Army defeated the King’s Army and ended the war Charles I was tried and beheaded in 1649. England was
declared a republic, “The Commonwealth” and had no king.
Restoration
After Cromwell died in 1658, the republic soon weakened. By 1660 England was ready to welcome a new king. A new
Parliament crowned Charles I’s son Charles II as king. This period was called the Restoration, because the Stuart line
of kings were restored to the throne. However, the power of the English rulers was from then on more limited.
The Revolution of 1688
James II became king in 1685. Parliament opposed James II because he was Roman Catholic. In 1688 Protestant
leaders invited James II’s daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, to become joint rulers of England.
They were both Protestants. James II fled England, and William and Mary took power.
The 1700s
The last of the Stuart rulers was Queen Anne. It was under her rule that Scotland merged with England and Wales
to form a single kingdom, Great Britain, in 1707.
Union and Empire
In 1801 Ireland was joined to England, Scotland, and Wales to form one country called the United Kingdom. (Most
of Ireland later broke away from the union, but Northern Ireland remained part of the kingdom.) The kingdom
enjoyed a period of great strength and wealth. Beginning in the late 1700s, England was the birthplace of the
Industrial Revolution, which brought new inventions and better ways of producing goods. This period of wealth and
power continued through the long rule of Queen Victoria, from 1837 to 1901. During her reign, the British Empire
expanded to its greatest extent. The United Kingdom then ruled more than a quarter of the world’s people.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) was the transition from small cottage industries mass-produced goods in
factories using steam and water power. Textiles were the dominant industry of the early Industrial Revolution, which
first used modern production methods. The first major change came in 1733 when the “Flying shuttle” was invented
which reduced the time needed to weave cloth by half. The second major change was the invention of the “spinning
jenny” which made it possible for one person to spin many threads at the same time. The Industrial Revolution
brought not only the innovative steam-powered machines but also social changes happening in the growing cities.
Besides the nobles – the upper class – and the peasants – the lower class – a middle class of rich merchants
developed. The Industrial Revolution created a new class – the working class who sold their labour in order to live.
Their working conditions were difficult, most jobs were dirty, difficult and unsafe. Children and women had to work
in factories or in mines. Houses couldn’t be built fast enough in overcrowded cities so living conditions were terrible.
Union and Empire, Imperialism
In 1801 Ireland was joined to England, Scotland, and Wales to form one country called the United Kingdom, which
enjoyed a period of great strength and wealth at that time. The long rule of Queen Victoria, (1837 to 1901) was
marked by imperialism. During her reign, the British Empire expanded to its greatest extent and the United Kingdom
then ruled more than a quarter of the world’s people in India, Asia, Africa and Latin America. These underdeveloped
areas satisfied the UK’s great demand for raw materials, tea, cocoa and sugar. Victoria held the title of Empress of
India for 25 years.
World War I
The United Kingdom entered World War I on 4 August 1914, when King George V. declared war after the expiry of
an ultimatum to the German Empire. The official explanation focused on protecting Belgium as a neutral country; the
main reason, however, was to prevent a French defeat that would have left Germany in control of Western Europe.
The UK went to war in 1914 with a small, professional army (250,000 Regulars) primarily designed to police its
overseas empire. Together with 250,000 Territorials and 200,000 Reservists, this made a total of 700,000 trained
soldiers. The Secretary of State for War realised the conflict would be long and on an unprecedented scale, so Britain
would have to create a new mass army. Thousands of volunteers soon flocked to the army but these men were
completely untrained so they spent their first months learning the basics of soldiering. These ‘New Armies’ entered
the battles of 1915-16. Despite the influx of volunteers, the British still needed more men. Conscription was
introduced in 1916 and this eventually expanded the Army to a force of over 4 million men by the end of the war in
1918.
World War II started in 1939. By the time it ended in 1945, the war involved nearly every part of the world. The two
sides that fought the war were called the Axis powers and the Allies. Germany, Italy, and Japan were the major Axis
powers. The major Allies were the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom (Great Britain), and France.
China also aided the Allies. More people died in World War II than in any other war, about 40 million people lost
their lives, many of them were civilians. 6 million people were victims of the Holocaust—a German plan to kill Jewish
people that were thought to be inferior.
Japan, Italy, and Germany all committed warlike acts in the 1930s, however, Germany was the biggest threat to
world peace. Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party wanted Germans to rule over everyone else. In March 1938 German
troops marched into Austria then Hitler next wanted Czechoslovakia and Poland too. Britain and France promised to
help Poland in case Germany attacked it. Germany was uncertain to fight Britain, France, and the Soviet Union.
Starting in June 1940, German warplanes began bombing Britain. However, the British had a new invention called
radar which warned the British when German aircraft were nearing. This battle, called the Battle of Britain, was the
world’s first major battle fought in the air. June 6, 1944, is called D-Day when a troop of 156,000 from the United
States, Britain, and Canada attacked the beaches of Normandy in northern France. After fierce fighting, the Allied
armies moved inland and freed Paris on August 25. Then the Allies moved toward Germany and by February 1945 it
was clear that Germany would lose the war. The Allied leaders—U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt, British prime
minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet premier Joseph Stalin—met in Yalta where they made plans for Europe after
the war. Meanwhile, Soviet troops pushed through Germany from the east. By April 25 the Soviets had surrounded
Berlin, the German capital. Hitler killed himself on April 30. Germany surrendered at midnight on May 8, 1945. After
the war’s end, the Allies divided Germany among themselves and the United States and the Soviet Union became
the most powerful countries in the world. Despite having been Allies, the two countries soon began a long struggle
called the Cold War.
From Empire to Commonwealth
After World War II, the United Kingdom lost its position as one of the world’s greatest powers. In the years following
the war, the British Empire gave up most of its lands in Africa, Asia, South America, and the Caribbean. The last major
British colony, Hong Kong, was returned to China in 1997. Although the British colonies became independent
countries, many did not cut their ties entirely with the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom and several of its
former territories have chosen to cooperate through a free association called the Commonwealth. In 1973 the UK
joined the European Economic Community which eventually became the European Union (EU). It was formed to
promote cooperation and close ties among European countries. The UK also benefits from historical and cultural
links with the United States and is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Many Britons, however, were sometimes reluctant EU members, wanting their own self-governing issues. In June
2016, in a referendum on whether the UK should remain in the EU, 52 percent of British voters chose to leave
(Brexit). After much negotiation, several deadline extensions and prolonged domestic political discord, on January
31, 2020, the United Kingdom would become the first country to withdraw from the EU.
Political Development
Queen Elizabeth II. came to the throne in 1952. In 1979 the Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher became
the United Kingdom’s first woman prime minister. The Labour Party leader Tony Blair became prime minister in
1997 then came Gordon Brown in 2007. In 2010, however, the Labour Party lost its majority in Parliament. A new
government, a partnership between the Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrats came to power. The
Conservative party leader, David Cameron, became prime minister.
In June 2016 the UK voted to leave the European Union (EU). Cameron did not want the country to pull out of the EU
so he resigned. Theresa May became the new prime minister but she wasn’t successful either, she resigned and was
replaced by Boris Johnson in August 2019. He stepped down as prime minister in 2022 and Liz Truss became the new
prime minister in September. Soon the country faced another transition when Queen Elizabeth died on September 8.
She had served longer than any other British monarch. Her son Charles then became king.
The British economy continued to decline under Truss. She resigned six weeks after taking office. Truss was replaced
by Rishi Sunak. He became the first British Asian prime minister (from 2022 - ).
