RELH 315 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH II
MODERN CHURCH HISTORY FROM 1517
PART I: THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION
(1517-1648)
LESSON 1: BACKGROUND TO THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
The unwillingness of the medieval Roman Catholic church to accept reforms suggested by
sincere reformers such as the mystics, Wycliffe and Hus, the leaders of the reforming councils,
and the humanists; the emergence of nation-states, which opposed the papal claim to have
universal power; and the rise of a middle class, which disliked the drain of wealth to Rome, all
combined to make a Reformation a certainty.
1.1 Factors That Helped to Promote the Reformation
By 1500 AD the foundations of the old medieval society were breaking up, and a new society
with a larger geographical horizon and with changing political, economic, intellectual, and
religious patterns was slowly coming into being.
A. Geographical Change
The geographical knowledge of the medieval people underwent remarkable changes between AD
1492 and 1600. By AD 1517 the discoveries of Columbus and other explorers (e.g. Magellan)
ushered in an era of oceanic civilization, in which the oceans of the world became the highways
of the world. Cheaper routes to the riches of the Asia- Pacific region were opened. Two rich new
continents – North America and South America – were opened up for exploitation by Europe.
As a result of the geographical change, Counter reformation Catholicism was carried to Quebec
in Canada and Central and South America by Spain, Portugal, and France. Pluralistic
Protestantism was exported to the United States of America and Canada by the British.
B. Political Change
The medieval (middle ages) concept of a universal state was giving way to the new concept of
the territorial, nation-state. Centralized nation-states with powerful rulers, served by army and
civil service, were nationalistic and opposed to domination by a universal state or a universal
religious ruler.
Some of the nation-states were consequently eager to support the Reformation in order that
national churches might be more directly under their control.
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C. Economic Change
By AD 1500 the revival of towns, the opening of new markets, and the discovery of sources of
raw materials in colonies in the newly discovered lands ushered in an age of commerce in which
the middle-class traders replaced the medieval land lords as leader in society. Trade became
international rather than interurban. An economy in which profits became important emerged.
The rising capitalistic middle class resented the drain of their wealth to the international church
under the leadership of the pope in Rome, and threw its influence behind the Reformation.
D. Social Change
The horizontal social organization of medieval society, in which one remained in the class into
which one was born, was replaced by a society organized along vertical lines. One could rise
from a lower class in society to a higher class. There was a new urban middle class composed of
the free farmer, the country gentry (next to the nobility) and the business class of the town.
The strong middle class generally supported the changes made by the Reformation.
E. Intellectual Change
The intellectual changes brought by the Renaissance created an intellectual outlook that favored
the development of Protestantism. The desire to return to sources of the past led the Christian
humanists to a study of the Bible in the original languages of the Bible (Hebrew, Aramaic, and
Greek) and difference between the New Testament Church and the medieval Roman Catholic
Church was made clear.
The Renaissance emphasis on the individual was a helpful factor in the development of the
Protestant insistence that salvation was a personal matter between the individual and one’s God
without a human mediator (the priest). The critical spirit of the Renaissance was used by the
Reformers to justify observation of the hierarchy and sacraments of the medieval Roman church
and a critical comparison of them with the Scriptures.
F. Religious Change
Medieval religious uniformity gave way to the early sixteenth century religious diversity. The
international and universal Roman Catholic Church, with its corporate, hierarchical, sacramental
structure, was replaced by national or free Protestant churches (usually under the control of the
rulers of the nation-states, especially Anglican and Lutheran churches).
The authority of the Roman Church was replaced by the authority of the Bible, which the
individual was allowed to read freely.
G. Immediate Cause of Reformation
1. Pope Leo X needed funds to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral
2. Archbishop Albert wanted to also become Archbishop of Mainz
3. Pope wanted a fortune to set aside the church law against this
Solution: borrow from bankers and sell indulgences
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a. Theory of Indulgences
1) Sinner confesses to priest
2) Priest conditionally forgives sins based on authority of church
3) Assigns “penance,” such as saying prayers, going on pilgrimage, etc.
4) Indulgence frees one from fulfilling that penance in Purgatory after death
b. Selling Indulgences in Germany
1) Sales supervised by a Dominican, Johan Tetzel
2) Used “high-pressure” sales tactics
3) Greatly offended Luther
4) He wrote “95 Theses”
1.2 What Is the Reformation?
For Roman Catholics, Reformation is a revolt inspired by Luther’s low motives while for
Protestants it is an attempt to restore the church to New Testament purity.
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LESSON 2: LUTHER AND THE GERMAN REFORMATION
2.2 Luther’s Formative Years to 1517
Germany had her Martin Luther in whom all the forces of opposition to Rome could be
concentrated in a declaration of spiritual independence. Martin Luther was born on November
10, 1483, in the little town of Eisleben. Luther went to school in Eisenach between 1498 and
1501 where he received the advanced instruction in Latin required for university studies. In 1501
at the University of Erfurt he studied the philosophy of Aristotle under the influence of teachers
who followed the nominalistic ideas of William of Ockham. William had taught that revelation
was the only guide in the realm of faith; reason was the guide to truth in philosophy. Thus Luther
was made aware of the need of divine intervention if man were to know spiritual truth and to be
saved.
Luther graduated with a BA degree in 1502/03 and a MA degree in 1505. In l505 he became
frightened during a severe thunderstorm on the road near Stottemheim and promised Saint Anne
that he would become a monk if he were spared. He entered a monastery of the Augustinian
order at Erfurt, and in 1507 he was ordained as a priest.
Luther taught theology at Wittenberg University as a visiting professor in 1508. In 1510/1511 he
was sent to Rome on business for his order. There he saw something of the corruption and luxury
of the Roman Church and came to realize the need of reform.
In 1511 Luther transferred to Wittenberg University where he became professor of Bible and
received his Doctor of Theology degree. He served as a lecturer in biblical theology at this
university until his death.
While a professor at Wittenberg university, Luther came to a realization of justification by faith,
studied the original languages of the Bible, and developed the idea that only in the Bible could
true authority be found. Luther lectured on the Psalms, on Romans, on Galatians, and on
Hebrews. A reading of Rom 1:17 convinced him that only faith in Christ could make one just
before God. Sola fide (justification by faith) and sola scriptura (the scriptures are the only
authority in seeking salvation) became the main points in his theological system.
In 1517, Tetzel, the agent of Archbishop Albert, began his sale of indulgences near Wittenberg.
The indulgences were certificates which guaranteed forgiveness of all sin – past, present, and
future – with no need of repentance. Luther and his followers resented the exploitation of the
people by this system; and made a public protest.
On October 31, 1517 Luther posted his 95 theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
He condemned the abuses of the indulgence system.
2.2 The Break with Rome (1518-1521)
After the publication of the Theses, Tetzel endeavored to use all the power of the Dominican
order to silence Luther, who found support in the Augustinian order. Luther was ordered to
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debate the problem before members of his order at Heidelberg in 1518, but little came of the
debate except a widening circle of those who accepted Luther’s ideas, included Martin Bucer
(1491–1551).
A valuable ally, who later supplemented Luther’s bold courage with his gentle reasonableness,
came to Wittenberg as professor of Greek in 1518. At the age of twenty-one Philip Melanchthon
(1497–1560) was already well trained in the classical languages and Hebrew.
While Luther was the great prophetic voice of the Reformation, Melanchthon became its
theologian. He and others of the Wittenberg faculty loyally supported Luther’s views.
By the fall of 1518 Luther was insisting that his only authority in the coming dispute would be
neither the pope nor the church, but the Bible. He would have fallen before the Dominicans had
it not been for the aid of Frederick, the elector of Saxony, who was one of those who elected the
emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
When Luther was summoned to appear before the imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1518, Frederick
promised that he would give his powerful support to this brave reformer. The pope did not seem
to realize the extent of popular support for Luther in Germany. At the Diet Luther met Cardinal
Cajetan, who demanded that he retract his views, but Luther refused to do this until he should
become convinced of their falsity by Scripture. He also denied the pope as the final authority in
faith and morals and the usefulness of the sacraments without faith.
Early in 1519 Luther promised the papal nuncio, Karl von Miltitz, that he would not proclaim his
views if his opponents also kept silence.
Later, Luther appealed for a general council to deal with the problem. In July 1519 he debated
with John Eck (1486–1543) at Leipzig.The clever Eck was able to force Luther into an admission
of the fallibility of a general council, his unwillingness to accept the decisions of the pope, and
the validity of many of Hus’s ideas.
In 1520 Luther decided to carry the issue to the German people by the publication of three
pamphlets:
1. Address to the German Nobility - aimed at the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church.
Luther wrote in this pamphlet that princes should reform the church when necessary, that
the pope should not interfere in civil affairs, and that the believers were spiritual priests
of God to interpret Scripture and choose their own ministers.
2. Babylonian Captivity – challenging the sacramental system of Rome. Luther challenged
the sacraments as means of grace when dispensed by the priesthood; and that the Lord’s
Supper and baptism are the only ceremonies to be celebrated.
3. The Freedom of the Christian Man – assertion of the priesthood of all believers as a result
of their personal faith in Christ.
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In June 1520 Leo X issued the bull Exsurge Domine, and this eventually resulted in the
excommunication of Luther. Luther’s books were also burned at Cologne. Not to be outdone,
Luther promptly burned Leo’s bull publicly on December 10, 1520.
Charles V (1500–1558), the new emperor, issued a summons for an imperial diet at Worms in
the spring of 1521, at which Luther was to appear to answer for his views. Luther went to Worms
with the assurance of protection by Frederick, who was the elector of Saxony and founder of
Wittenberg University, and other German princes.
He again refused to recant unless he could be convinced of fault by “the testimony of the
Scriptures” or by reason. He said that he would take his stand on this alone and appealed to God
for help.
His friends kidnapped him on the road back to Wittenberg and took him to Wartburg Castle,
where he remained until 1522. After his departure from Worms, the Diet issued an edict that
ordered any subject of the emperor to seize Luther and to turn him over to the authorities. The
reading of his writings was also banned.
2.3 Years of Separation 1522-1530
During the trying year of May 1521 to March 1522, Melanchthon worked a book on the theology
of the Reformers of Wittenberg, the Loci Communes, that came out in 1521. This little work in
Latin was the first major theological treatise of the Reformation and went through numerous
editions during the lifetime of its author. It established Melanchthon as the theologian of the
Lutheran movement.
Melanchthon rejected the authority of the Roman church, the Fathers, the canon law, and the
Scholastics. He put the Bible above these as the final authority for Christians. His little book
grew out of his study of Paul’s Epistle to the Romans.
Melanchthon also set up the German school system from village schools to universities. He was
responsible for the Augsburg Confession. For thirty years this irenic scholar was Luther’s friend
and colleague.
During his enforced residence at Wartburg Castle between May 1521 and March 1522, making
use of Erasmus’s edition of the Greek Testament, Luther completed his German translation of
the New Testament in less than a year. The whole Bible, including the Apocrypha, was translated
from the original languages into German by 1534. When it was published, it not only gave the
German people the Bible in their own tongue but also set the standard form of the German
language
Luther also wrote On Monastic Vows, in which he urged monks and nuns to repudiate their
wrongful vows, to leave the cloister, and to marry.
Luther opposed the Anabaptists, the radical wing of reformation and broke with them in 1335.
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Luther also lost the support of the humanists, such as Erasmus, by 1525. Erasmus had supported
Luther’s demands for reform at first but recoiled when he saw that Luther’s views would lead to
a break with Rome.
He also disagreed with Luther’s view that man’s will was so bound that the initiative in
salvation must come from God. Erasmus emphasized the freedom of human will in his book The
Freedom of the Will, which he published in 1524. Luther denied freedom of the will in his 1524
book, The Bondage of the Will.
The peasants also became hostile to Luther in 1525 when he opposed the Peasants’ Revolt. The
peasants had heard him denounce the authority of the church and assert the authority of the
Scripture and the right of the individual to come directly to God for salvation, and they applied
these arguments to their social and economic problems.
Feudalism had caused much oppression of the peasants, and in their “Twelve Articles” of 1525
they demanded the reform of feudal abuses that could be demonstrated as abuses on the authority
of Scripture. At first, in his Admonition to Peace in April of 1525, he urged the peasants to
patience and the lords to redress the grievances of the peasants. When Luther realized that this
revolutionary social movement might endanger the Reformation and might subvert the
foundations of orderly government even in Protestant provinces, he urged the princes in violent
language, in his pamphlet Against the Plundering and Murderous Hordes of Peasants, to put
down disorder.
The authorities needed no urging to use severe measures and slaughtered about one hundred
thousand peasants. Southern German peasants remained in the Roman Catholic church partly
because of this apparent betrayal of them by Luther.
It also was unfortunate that Luther could not see his way clear to join forces with Zwingli, who
was leading the Reformation in the northern cantons of Switzerland. Luther and Zwingli met in
the fall of 1529, in what was known as the Marburg Colloquy, at the Marburg Castle of Philip of
Hesse. They agreed on over fourteen out of fifteen propositions but disagreed on how Christ was
present in the elements of Communion. Zwingli contended that Communion was a memorial of
Christ’s death, but Luther argued that there was a real physical presence of Christ in the
Communion though the substance of bread and wine did not change. Just as iron remains iron
but becomes cherry red when it is heated, so he contended that the substance of the bread and
wine do not change but that around and under the symbols there is a real physical presence of
Christ.
Events in Germany forced Luther into a position where he had to develop
church organization and liturgy suitable for his followers. At the Diet of Speier in 1526 the
princely followers of Luther were able to get the Diet to agree that until a general council met,
the ruler of each state should be free to follow what he felt was the correct faith. The principle of
cuius regio eius religio—that the ruler should choose the religion of his state—was adopted for
the time being. The fact that Emperor Charles V was fighting to prevent his French foe Francis I
from gaining control of Italy during the 1520s, the eastern Turkish threat, and the absence of
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many Catholic German princes at the Diet may account for this decision and the later rapid
growth of the Lutheran movement.
A second Diet at Speier in 1529 canceled the decision of the previous Diet and declared that the
Roman Catholic faith was the only legal faith. The six princely followers of Luther and
representatives of fourteen free cities read a Protestation. From then on, they were known as
Protestants by their opponents.
In 1530 the Diet of Augsburg was held. Melanchthon with Luther’s approval had drawn up the
Augsburg Confession, which was presented at the Diet.12 It became the official creed of the
Lutheran church. It was the first of several creeds that made the period between 1517 and 1648
as great a period of Protestant creedal development as the period between 325 and 451 had been
for the development of the ecumenical creeds of the church, such as the Nicene Creed.
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LESSON 3: THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND
Switzerland was the freest land in Europe at the time of the Reformation, although it was
nominally a part of the Holy Roman Empire. Each canton (county) was free to develop as a self-
governing republic. The government of each canton was in complete charge of local affairs, and
for that reason the individual canton was free to accept the form of religion that it would follow.
Three types of Reformation theology developed in Swiss territories:
1. The German speaking cantons of the northern part of the country, led by Zurich, followed
Zwingli’s view of the Reformation.
2. The French speaking cantons in the south, led by Geneva, followed the views of Calvin.
3. The radicals of the Reformation, known as Anabaptists, developed as an extreme wing
among those who at first worked with Zwingli.
3.1 The Zwinglian Reformation in the German Cantons of Northern Switzerland
The Zwinglian Reformation was started by Huldreich Zwingli (1484 – 1531). He attended the
University of Vienna and in 1502 went to the University of Basel where he received the BA
degree in 1504 and an MA degree in 1506. Between 1506 and 1516 he served as a parish priest,
chaplain, and an ardent Swiss patriot. Between 1516 and 1518 he served as pastor at Einsiedeln,
a center for pilgrims. There he began to oppose some of the abuses of the Roman system of
indulgences and of the black image of the Virgin Mary. In 1519 he was called to be a pastor at
Zurich. He took a definite stand against the enlisting of the Swiss as mercenaries in foreign
service because of the corrupting influences encountered there.
An attack of the plague in 1519 and contact with Lutheran ideas led him into an experience of
conversion. He opposed the tithing system as not of divine authority. He prepared the Sixty
seven Articles, which emphasized salvation by faith, the authority of the Bible, the headship of
Christ in the church, and the right of clerical marriage. Furthermore, his reforms included: fees
for baptisms and burials were eliminated, monks and nuns were allowed to marry; images and
relics were banned; the Mass was abolished; and the church and the state were linked in a
theocratic manner.
From 1522 on, Zwingli was hampered by followers who became known as Anabaptists because
they insisted on the rebaptism of converts. Zwingli also lost the support of Luther in 1529, when
the two men could not come to an agreement over the presence of Christ in the Holy
Communion. Zwingli contended that Communion was a memorial of Christ’s death, but Luther
argued that there was a real physical presence of Christ in the Communion although the
substance of bread and wine did not change.
Zwingli upheld the absolute authority of the Bible and would permit nothing in religion that
could not be proved by the Scriptures. He believed that faith was the essential element in the
sacraments, that the Lord’s Supper was a symbolic commemoration rather than a repetition of
the Atonement, and that the believer by reflection on Christ’s death received spiritual blessing.
According to Zwingli, infants could be saved by Christ without baptism.
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3.2 The Radical Reformation (1525 – 1580)
The Anabaptists insisted on the separation of church and state, the authority of the Bible, the
baptism of believers by immersion, and community of goods (ideas of socialism). Their
opposition to infant baptism as unscriptural and their insistence on rebaptism gave them the
name of Anabaptists.
3.3 The Calvinistic Reformation in Geneva
The Calvinistic Reformation was developed by John Calvin (1509 - 1564). Calvin may be ranked
as the leader of the second generation of Reformers. Around 1533 Calvin was converted and
adopted the ideas of reformation. In 1536 Calvin completed his greatest work: The Institutes of
the Christian Religions in an attempt to defend the Protestants of France, who were suffering for
their faith.
The coordinating idea of Calvin’s theology is the complete sovereignty of God. He believed in
the total depravity of all human beings, that is, a totally corrupted will. According to Calvin,
salvation is a matter of unconditional election apart from human merit or divine foreknowledge.
He believed in double predestination of people destined to salvation and to condemnation. He
also believed that the work of Christ on the cross is limited to those elected to salvation, that
grace is irresistible, and the preservation of the saints – that the elect will never be finally lost.
Calvin’s Contributions
1. His Institutes – accepted as the authoritative expression of the Reformed theology –
emphasize the importance of doctrine and the centrality of God in Christian theology.
2. Calvin encouraged education.
3. He accepted the representative principle in government of the church and the state.
4. His emphasis on a divine call to a vocation and on thrift and industry stimulated
capitalism.
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