UNIT-1

History and Classification of Fingerprints

Divita Sharma
divita.r178@cumail.in
Fingerprint

• A fingerprint is an INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTIC

• No two have yet been found to possess identical ridge
characteristics.
• Fingerprints are a reproduction of friction skin ridges found
on the palm of the fingers and thumbs.
• Also found on palms and soles of feet.
• Designed for firmer grasp and resistance to slippage.
 Principles of fingerprint
According to criminal investigators, fingerprints follow 3
fundamental principles:
• A fingerprint is an individual characteristic; no two
people have been found with the exact same fingerprint
pattern.
• A fingerprint pattern will remain unchanged for the life
of an individual; however, the print itself may change
due to permanent scars and skin diseases.
• Fingerprints have general characteristic ridge patterns
that allow them to be systematically identified.
 History and Development
• Chinese used fingerprints to sign legal documents as far
back as three thousand years ago.
• Picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was
discovered in Nova Scotia.
• Indus Valley Civilization extensively used fingerprints
embossed on clay tablets/seals.
• In 14th century Persia various official government papers
had fingerprints (impressions) and one government official
a doctor observed that no two fingerprints were exactly
alike.
Before Fingerprints
• In earlier civilizations branding and even maiming were used to mark
the criminal for what he was.
• The Romans tattooed to identify and prevent desertion of mercenary
soldiers.
• More recently law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual
memories so-called camera eyes identified old offenders by sight.
• Photography lessened the burden on memory but was not the
answer to the criminal identification problem. Personal appearances
change.
How did we discover fingerprints
• Around 1870 a French anthropologist devised a system to measure
and record the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body.
• These measurements were reduced to a formula which theoretically
would apply only to one person and would not change during his/her
adult life.

• There was already a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time whose

Bertillon measurements were nearly exact and his name was William
West
 1684 Nehemiah Grew
• Commented on the ridge formations of the fingers.
• He is seen as the first pioneer to study and describe sweat
pores, epidermal ridges and furrows, and their various
arrangements on both the hands and feet.

1685 - Bidloo
• Dutch anatomist Govard Bidloo's 1685 book, "Anatomy
of the Human Body" included descriptions of friction
ridge skin (papillary ridge) details.
 Marcello Malpighi 1686
• In 1686 Marcello Malpighi a professor of anatomy at the
University of Bologna noted ridges, spirals and loops in
fingerprints.
• He made no mention of their value as a tool for
individual identification.
• A layer of skin was named after him Malpighi layer
which is approximately 1.8mm thick.
1788 - Mayer
• J. C. A. Mayer wrote the book Anatomical Copper-plates with Appropriate
explanations containing drawings of friction ridge skin patterns.
• Became the first to expound on the theory that the arrangement of skin ridges is
never duplicated in two individuals
 1823 - Purkinji
• In 1823, Jan Evangelista Purkinje, anatomy professor at the
University of Breslau, published his thesis discussing nine
fingerprint patterns he too made no mention of the value of
fingerprints for personal identification.

1856 - Welcker
• German anthropologist Hermann Welcker of the University
of Halle, studied friction ridge skin permanence by printing
his own right hand in 1856 and again in 1897, then
published a study in 1898.
 Sir William James Herschel -1858

• The English first began using fingerprints in July

1858 when Sir William James Herschel, Chief
Magistrate of the Hooghly District in Bengal,
India, first used fingerprints on native contracts.
• On a whim, and without thought toward
personal identification, Herschel had Rajyadhar
Konai, a local businessman, impress his hand
print on a contract.
 1863 - Coulier
• Professor Paul-Jean Coulier, of Val-de-Grâce in Paris,
published his observations that (latent) fingerprints can be
developed on paper by iodine fuming, explaining how to
preserve (fix) such developed impressions and mentioning
the potential for identifying suspects' fingerprints by use of a
magnifying glass.
 1877 - Thomas Taylor
• American microscopist Thomas Taylor proposed that finger and
palm prints left on any object might be used to solve crimes.
• The July 1877 issue of The American Journal of Microscopy and
Popular Science included the following description of a lecture by
Taylor:

Hand Marks Under the Microscope. - view the markings on the palms of the
hands and the tips of the fingers, and called attention to the possibility of
identifying criminals, especially murderers, by comparing the marks of the
hands left upon any object with impressions in wax taken from the hands of
suspected persons. In the case of murderers, the marks of bloody hands would
present a very favorable opportunity. This is a new system of palmistry.
1870s-1880 - Dr. Henry Faulds

• During the 1870s, Dr. Henry Faulds, the British Surgeon-Superintendent

• Took up the study of "skin-furrows" after noticing finger marks on
specimens of "prehistoric" pottery.
• Dr. Faulds not only recognized the importance of fingerprints as a means
of identification, but devised a method of classification as well.
• He discussed fingerprints as a means of personal identification, and the
use of printers ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints.
• He is also credited with the first fingerprint identification of a greasy
fingerprint left on an alcohol bottle.
 1882 - Gilbert Thompson
• In 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New
Mexico, used his own thumb print on a document to help
prevent forgery.
• This is the first known use of fingerprints in the United States.
1882 - Alphonse Bertillon
• Alphonse Bertillon, a clerk in the ,Paris, France, devised
a system of classification, known as anthropometry or
the Bertillon System, using measurements of parts of
the body.
• Bertillon's system included measurements such as
head length, head width, length of the middle finger,
length of the left foot; and length of the forearm from
the elbow to the tip of the middle finger.
• Bertillon also established what became known a
system of photographing faces - what became known
as mugshots.
1883 - Mark Twain (Samuel L. Clemens)

• In Mark Twain's book, "Life on the Mississippi", a

murderer was identified by the use of fingerprint
identification.
• In a later book, "Pudd'n Head Wilson", there was a
dramatic court trial including fingerprint identification.
• A movie was made from this book in 1916
 1888 - Sir Francis Galton
• Sir Francis Galton, British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles
Darwin, began his observations of fingerprints as a means of
identification in the 1880's.
• Galton identified the characteristics by which fingerprints can be
identified. These same characteristics (minutia) are basically still in
use today and are often referred to as Galtons Details.
• Coined terms: loops, arches, and whorls

1891 - Vucetich
• Juan Vucetich, an Argentine Police Official, began the first
fingerprint files based on Galton pattern types.
• At first, Vucetich included the Bertillon System with the files.
 1897 - Haque & Bose
• Haque and Bose are the two Indian fingerprint experts
credited with primary development of the Henry System of
fingerprint classification
1900 - E.R. Henry
• Appeared before the inquiry committee to explain the system
published in his recent book "The Classification and Use of
Fingerprints."
• The committee recommended adoption of fingerprinting as a
replacement for the relatively inaccurate Bertillon system of
anthropometric measurement, which only partially relied on
fingerprints for identification.
1918 Edmond Locard
FACTS- Fingerprint Analysis and Criminal
Tracking System
• Finger Print Bureau:
• It was in the year 1897 that the first Finger Print Bureau of the
world was set up in Calcutta (now Kolkata).
• Today, 29 Fingerprint Bureau are functioning in the States/UTs.
• The Central Finger Print Bureau (CFPB) of the National Crime
Records Bureau (NCRB) maintains the Fingerprint Records of
Inter-State and International criminals convicted / arrested
under Indian Penal Code (IPC) and various other
(CFPB)
• The administrative control of CFPB was shifted to Central Bureau of
Investigation (CBI) in 1973, and since July, 1986, this has been under
the administrative control of NCRB.
CFPB
• The Central Finger Print Bureau, better known by the acronym CFPB
among the law enforcement agencies of the country, came into
existence in the year 1955.
• FACTS is an advanced Automated Fingerprint Identification System.
• It uses image processing and pattern recognition technique to
capture, encode, store and match finger prints including comparison
of Chance Prints.
 Functions

• Database creation
• Identification oriented query
a. Ten print to ten print searches
b. Chance print to ten print searches
c. Ten print to Chance print search
d. Chance print to Chance print search
• Remote Query Processing
• Creation of Criminal Attribute Database
• To maintain and computerize finger print record slips of specified
categories of Indian and foreign criminals convicted of offences falling
under the schedule of crimes as mandated for CFPB.
• To conduct search of references relating to unidentified interstate
suspected persons received from police stations and other
investigating agencies in India and to search chance prints developed
at the scene of crime.
• To maintain and computerize the fingerprint records of International
criminals and to conduct search of references sent by Interpol Division
of CBI, New Delhi.
• The Central Finger Print Bureau (a Division of National Crime Records
Bureau, New Delhi), consists of the following sections:
• a) Finger Print Record Section
• b) Finger Print Search Section
• c) Automated Fingerprint Identification System Section (AFIS).
• d) Document Section
• e) Photography Section
• f) International Records Section
• g) Elimination/Maintenance Section
• h) Training Section
• i) Research & Development Section
• The software named "Fingerprint Analysis & Criminal Tracing System"
(FACTS), codeveloped by NCRB & CMC Ltd. was first installed in CFPB
in 1992.
• It is a computerized system of matching fingerprints on the basis of
ridge characteristics.
• The current version of AFIS at CFPB is FACTS Version 5.0.
 Types of Prints
• FINGERPRINTS HAVE GENERAL RIDGE PATTERNS FOR
CLASSIFICATION:
• Divided into three classes:
• – LOOP
• – WHORL
• – ARCH
• 60-65% OF POPULATION HAS LOOPS
• 30-35% WHORLS
• AND 5% ARCHES.
 Loop

• Loop must have one or more ridges entering

from one side of the print, recurring and exiting
from the same side.
• – If loop opens toward little finger= ulnar loop
• – Opens from the thumb= radial loop
• Loops are divided in to two subgroups
Radial loops (ridges pointing toward the radius bone, or
thumb)
Ulnar loops (ridges pointing toward the ulna bone, or
little finger)
• The terms have been derived from radial and ulnar
bones of the forearm.
Type-lines
• Pattern area of the loop is surrounded by two diverging ridges known
as type-lines.
 Deltas
• The ridge point nearest the type-line divergence is the DELTA.
• – Triangular in shape.
• – ALL LOOPS HAVE ONE DELTA
DELTA
• A delta may be
 Bifurcation – to be chosen, the bifurcation must open toward the core
 An abrupt ending ridge
 A dot
 A short ridge
 A meeting of two ridges
 A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the centre and in front
of the divergence of the type lines.
Core
• Core = center of the pattern.
Whorls
• Whorls- 4 distinct groups:
• – Plain
• – Central pocket
• – Double loop
• – Accidental.
• All whorl patterns have type lines and a
minimum of two deltas.
• Plain and central pocket loop whirl have at
least one ridge that makes a complete circuit.
Arches
• Arches- create a wave-like
pattern
• least common has 2
patterns
• plain arches and
• tented
• Do not have:
• – type lines
• – deltas
• – or cores
The plain arch
• The ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or tend to
flow out the other with a rise or wave in the centre.
• There may be various ridge formations such as ending ridges,
bifurcations, dots and so forth, but they all tend to follow the general
ridge contour.
• The “crest” of an arch is the highest point reached by the rising
friction ridge. Most often that will be in the middle of friction ridge.
• The plain arch is also known as an absence of pattern (plain arch has
no delta, no real core.)
THE
PLAIN
ARCH
 THE TENTED ARCH
Most of the ridges enter on one side of the impression and
flow or tend to flow out on the other side, as in the plain arch;
however, the ridge or ridges in the centre do not.
LOOP
Requirements of a loop:
1. A sufficient re-curve
A sufficient curve can be defined as the part of a re-curving ridge
between the shoulders of the loop that is free of any appendages
abutting upon the outside of the re-curve at right angles

2. One or more ridge count across a looping ridge A delta

3. A delta
WHORL
• A whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are present
with a re-curve in front of each.
• Whorls form circular or spiral patterns, like tiny whirlpools.
• Whorls make up about 30 to 35 % of fingerprint pattern types.
• Categorized into 1 group
• Plain (concentric circles)
PLAIN WHORL
• A plain whorl posses two deltas and at least one ridge making a
complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a
circle
COMPOSITE PATTTERN
Double loop (two loops that create an S-like pattern)
Lateral loops (loop lateral to another)
Central pocket loop (a loop with a whorl at the end)
Accidental (irregular shaped)
Central pocket loop
• It has two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit,
which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle.
• Combines the features of both loops and whorls
Pattern looks like loop but has a small whorl inside the loop ridges.
It has two deltas, one at the edge of the pattern area, and one inside the
pattern area just below the centremost ridges (inner delta)
It fulfils the requirements of the loops with one or more whorl ridges around
the core.
This pattern is sometimes called a bulb or flower for obvious reasons.
Central pocket loop whorl
Central pocket loop whorl
 Double loop whorl
• A double loop whorl is a pattern that consist of two separate loop formations
with two separate and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas.
 Accidental pattern
• Consisting of a combination of two different types of patterns, with the
exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas, or a pattern which
possess some of the requirements for two or more different types or a
pattern which conforms to none of the definitions
Accidental examples
Accidental whorl examples
Fingerprints in criminal investigations and
trials
• Multiple kind of fingerprint impressions play a role in criminal
investigations. These are;

Rolled
Plain
Partials
Latent
Indented
 1. Rolled impressions

• Generally taken by law enforcement upon arrest to register the

offender, these prints cover the entire digit i.e. finger tip from one side
to another.
• Acts as a standard for comparison
• The entire pattern area is available
• Cores and deltas are easily identifiable
• Multiple examinations such as ridge tracing, counting can be
performed.
• Also used in biometric identification systems by repeated scans of the
finger, e.g. phone lock, ID registry
Rolled impressions
2. Plain impressions
• Generally taken along with rolled impressions, these impressions
show the fingerprint as it is available on natural touch. Also known as
flat impressions.
• May not include cores and delta
• Does not include pattern area in its entirety.
• Displays the scope of partial prints on a crime scene.
• Useful for identification of authenticity of latent prints from scene.
• Can act as a standard in absence of rolled impressions.
Plain impressions
 3. PARTIAL IMPRESSIONS

• These kind of impressions display only a small portion or area of the

digit exposing only a few fingerprint characteristics.
• Found at a crime scene or most objects coming in hand contact with
any individual as latent print.
• Often are left by ignorance and accidents but act as a good
identification tool.
• Identifying the minutiae becomes significant in case of missing core
and deltas
PARTIAL IMPRESSIONS
 4. LATENT IMPRESSIONS

• The invisible prints are called latent prints. These are the source of
identification at a crime scene.
• Requires developments method to visualize such as chemical, physical
or optical
• Can appear on any kind of surface.
• Prone to damage due to multiple conditions like water or oil contact,
heat, humidity, wiping etc.
• Used as sample to compare with rolled impressions to identify the
person of interest.
LATENT IMPRESSIONS
 5. INDENTED IMPRESSIONS
• These impressions are indented in solid or semi
solid material because of the pressure applied.
• Also called 3-D or 3-dimensional prints.
• Mostly found in clay, dried blood pool, recently
dried paint, wax etc.
• Rare to find at a crime scene, but useful in
ancient civilizations as a mark on arts.
• Commonly used in identity theft by fabrication.
• Needs photographic documentation. Lifted by
Cellulose Acetate solution.
EXAMINATION OF FINGERPRINTS
• CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
 Fingerprint Patterns
 Ridge Count
 Ridge Tracing

• INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Minutiae and Fingerprint characteristics

• FINGERPRINT COMPARISON
Minutiae

• Minutiae are the details in a fingerprint.

• With the minutiae a fingerprint identification can be made.
• There are big details like starting lines, splitting lines and line
fragments.
• But there are also smaller details like pores, incipient ridges, and line
shapes.
 Minutiae
• Line-unit, it exists as only one isle with a
pore.

• Line-fragment. 2 or more line-units

• A beginning or ending line.

 Minutiae
• Bifurcation, a splitting line.

• Eye, two lines splitting and meeting each

other shortly after that.

• Hook, a short splitting line.

 Minutiae
• Pores, details in number, shape and size.

• Line shape, the lines vary breadth.

• Scars, the lines can not recover anymore.

• Incipient ridges, between the papillary

Functions of Skin
• Protective barrier. This is the most obvious function. The skin
protects your body against water loss, invasion of bacteria and other
germs, physical injuries, chemical damage, and UV light.
• Immune defense. Your skin helps your immune system fight off
infections by producing substances that kill bacteria and fungi. Your
skin contains cells that alert the body’s immune system to threats.
• Keeping your body in balance. That means regulating your
body temperature and its water balance. Sweat glands and blood
vessels in your skin try to make sure you don't get too hot or too cold.
Functions of Skin
• Production of Vitamin D. When exposed to sunlight, your skin
produces vitamin D. This vitamin is important for healthy bones and
helps the immune system fight off infections.
• Sensory function. Your skin has sensors that can detect touch, heat,
cold, and pain. This helps protect you against harm and allows you to
interact with your surroundings without injuring yourself.
• Health indicator. From looking at your skin's color, firmness, or
texture, you or your doctor can gather clues about your overall
health.
Layers of Skin
Layers of the epidermis
• Stratum basale: The stratum basale is in the deepest layer of your
epidermis. New skin cells develop in this layer. It also contains the
keratinocyte stem cells, which produce the protein keratin.
• Stratum spinosum: This layer mostly consists of keratinocytes held
together by sticky proteins called desmosomes. The stratum
spinosum helps make your skin flexible and strong.
• Stratum granulosum: Keratinocytes have granules within them, which
are visible under a microscope in this layer.
Layers of the epidermis
• Stratum lucidum: It’s a thin, transparent layer of keratinocytes that
are becoming less round and have a flatter shape.
• Stratum corneum: This is the layer you see. In the stratum corneum,
keratinocytes become corneocytes. Corneocytes are strong, dead
keratinocytes that protect you from harm, including abrasions, light,
heat and pathogens.
Epidermis
• The epidermis prevents water loss through evaporation, acts as a
receptor organ, and provides a protective barrier for the underlying
tissues.
• Melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells of the epidermis, play a key
role in the protective barrier.
• The pigmentation produced by the melanocytes shields the DNA of
the keratinocytes (primary cell type of the epidermis) from the sun’s
harmful rays.
• Additionally, the melanocytes are responsible for the synthesis of
vitamin D
Dermis
• The dermis is a layer of connective tissue that supports the epidermis.
• It is a network of cells, fibers, blood vessels, and gelatinous material
that provides structural support and nourishment for the epidermis.
• The dermis serves as a blood reserve and participates in sensory
reception and temperature regulation
Hypodermis
• The hypodermis lies under the dermis and is a loose connective tissue
that contains a pad of adipose cells (fat) that contour the body and
serve as an energy reserve.
• Fibers link the epidermis to the dermis and the dermis to the
hypodermis.
Palm prints
• The friction ridges on the palmar surface of the hands develop in-
utero during the first and second trimester.
• Like fingerprints, the ridge flows and patterns that emerge on the
palms are the product of the growth stresses and strains on the
surface of the skin at the time of friction ridge development.
• These growth stresses, and the size and shape of any volar pads
(VPs) present, influence the resulting patterns displayed on the
palms.
Importance of Palm Prints
• Reliable: They are a reliable form of evidence of a person.
• Unbiased: Palmprints can’t be unbiased and couldn’t lead to different
results (however, investigators could).
• They don’t lie: When a palm print is found it shows a personal
presence to a scene or place and the person can’t deny it.
• Used as evidence for both criminal matters by linking, suspect,
witness, or culprit to a particular case.
• Proving Theory: They assist in proving or disproving a set of
circumstances or facts.
Importance of Palm Prints
• Validate Information: It can also be used to corroborate information
or statements.
• Biological Evidence: With a good amount of sweat or blood, palm
prints can be a source of DNA.
• Occupational details can be obtained by studying palmprints.
• Speedy comparison and individualization when compared to DNA or
other tests.
• Compare without a sophisticated tool: Two palmprint samples can
be compared side-by-side without the use of any high-end devices.
Types of Palm
Prints in Forensics
Classification of Palm Print
• Classification of palm prints involves dividing the Palm area into three
major regions and then determining or comparing the frictional
ridges. The major sections of the Palmprint area are :
• (a) Interdigital (b) Hypothenar and (c) Thenar Region
Palm prints
1. Interdigital Area
• The area between the index and ring fingers at the distal end of the
palm.
• It is divided into 4 major parts.
• Part I: Interdigital space between thumb and index finger.
• Part II: Interdigital space between index and middle finger.
• Part III: Space between middle and ring finger.
• Part IV: Space between the ring and little finger.
• 2. Thenar Area
• The area from half of the wrist to the index finger.
• They have fewer overall patterns than other regions of the palm.
• 3. Hypothenar Area
• The area is bounded by the distal and ulnar margins of the palm and
by principal line 1 (radial longitudinal crease) and principal line 2
(distance transverse crease).
• There are three main patterns that can are usually seen in the Palm
area. These are
• Principal Lines
• Creases
• Wrinkles
1. Principal Lines
• These are the main lines that run from one end of the palm to another.
Commonly, there are three principal lines in the human palm:
• Line 1: starts in between the thumb and index finger and ends at the
base of the palm. It is sometimes called radial longitudinal creases.
• Line 2: Starts from line 1 and runs towards the hypothenar part of the
palm. It may or may not touches the other side of the palm. It is
sometimes called proximal transverse creases.
• Line 3. Starts from the hypothenar part and moves towards the index
finger and may or may not ends on the palm side of the index finger. It
is sometimes called distal transverse creases.
• Datum points: end points of principal lines.
2. Short Creases
• These are the simple lines (or curves) that are usually seen in the area
near the thumb or base of the palm.
• They are also called minor creases.
• One end of the creases starts outside the base and thumb area and
enters the ridge area.
Wrinkles
• These are the inner and irregular lines as compared to the principal
lines.
• They are usually driven by the inward movement of the thumb.
• 1. Arches
• Unlike fingerprints, where plain and tented arches are quite common,
but with palmprints, usually tented arches are seen.
• They usually appear in the interdigital region at the base of fingers
(index to ring) where the ridge flows over a delta that formed loop-
like patterns.
LOOP
• A. Ulnar Loops: These loops point toward the outer edge of the
palm. They are further sub-characterized by the origin of the
ridge flow.
• Ulnar loop – top: ridges flow into the ulnar loop from the top of
the palm.
• Ulnar loop – base: ridge flows into the ulnar loop from the
bottom of the palm.
• B. Radial Loops: Loops pointing toward the center of the palm.
• C. Proximal Loops: Loops points toward the base of the palm.
Whorls
• Like fingerprints, in palmprints whorls are in the form of a complete
circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle.
Double-loop whorls are also possible.
 4. Columns

These patterns are in the form of

a series of three or more ending
frictional ridges of palm that are
flanked on one or both sides by
a delta.
 5. Vestige

When a ridge flow opposite

to the main flow of the
ridge is called a vestige
pattern. It could be small,
independent, large, and in
form of loops, columns, or
whorls. They are unique to
the thenar area of the
palmprint.
Soleprints
• Examination and comparison of design, size or shape of footprint is
useful in criminal investigation for leading a case in appropriate
direction.
• In foot prints the parameters that are taken into consideration are the
dimensions of the stride, footprint’s location, its size and shape, the
angulations, interspaces, deepness, the outer margins, creases in
heels, information regarding the gait pattern from the injuries and
accidental damages, length of legs and height of the individual range
of body weight and interrelated movement of the foot, ankle, leg and
the body that are individualistic to that particular person.
Types of Footprint
• 1) Visible Print A visible print is a transfer of material from the shoe
or tire to the surface. This kind can be observed through naked eye
without extra aids.
• For instance, bloody shoe prints leftward on carpet or tracks left by
muddy tires on a driveway.
• 2) Latent Print A latent print is not easily observable to the bare eye.
This is formed by static charges between the sole or tread and the
surface. Investigators uses powders, chemicals and alternate light
sources to observe these prints.
• Illustrations comprise shoeprints identified on a tile or hardwood
ground, window sill, or metal counter, or tire tracks detected on road
surfaces, driveways or sidewalks.
• Others:
• 1) Phalange marks Phalange marks are created by the phalanges of the toes
and are imprinted in form of toe stems.
• The presence, position, shape and size of the phalange mark from the
characteristic feature of footprints and can help in personal identification.
• 2) Crease marks Crease marks are caused by skin folds of the plantar surface
of the foot.
• Some of the folds are long lasting while others are not. Both types of creases
form useful evidence to identify individuals.
• Their presence, position, size and shape are characteristic of a person.
• The existing study demonstrations that in various cases, there may be no
crease mark or there are one or two or several creases, correspondingly in
some individuals, creases are vertical horizontal or crossed, in others or they
may be in different directions.
• 3) Pits, corns, deformity and crack marks It is well known that the
individuals who have the habit of walking barefooted, their plantar
surface forms pits, corns, cracks, cuts, etc.
• They have their corresponding marks in the imprints.
• The damage in the form of pits or cracks is individualistic in nature and
permits definite identification of the marks in the respect of its source,
thus linking the mark with the foot of a person.
• An unusual flat ridge in the instep area of both left and right footprints
is seen as an example of deformity.
• Flatfoot character Flatfoot is a condition, in which complete instep
region of the plantar surface of the foot is impressed on the surface.
• The flexed or curved area is not visible in flatfoot as in normal foot.
• That is, the medial and lateral borders of the foot can clearly be
discernible in the flatfoot.
• This condition is considered as a deformity and the recruitment into
the military and police forces is restricted for such persons having this
condition.
 Collection
• Adhesive lifter –
• A heavy coating of adhesive lifts the imprint from smooth, non-delicate
surfaces such as tile or hardwood floors, metal counters, etc. It is usually
used in conjunction with fingerprint powders.
• Gelatin lifter –
• A sheet of rubber with a low-adhesive gelatin layer on one side that can
lift prints from almost any surface, including porous, rough, curved and
textured surfaces.
• It is less tacky and more flexible than an adhesive lifter, allowing it to
pick up a dusty shoeprint on a cardboard box, for example, but not tear
the surface of the box.
• Electrostatic dust-print lifting device-
• A tool that electrostatically charges particles within dust or light soil,
which are then attracted and bonded to a lifting film.
• This method is best for collecting dry or dusty residue impressions on
almost any surface, even the skin of a cadaver.