POWERED

English Medium

MPPSC MAINS

GS
FULL NOTES
PAPER-1 PART-A UNIT-1

history of ancient india

@safaltaias
www.safaltaias.com

By:-Aditya Sir
 Powered by

Preliminary information

Itihas (History) - Iti (definitely) + Has (happened)

Something that has definitely happened

 History - The word History is derived from the Greek word Historia, which means - 'to find or
know'.
 The word History was first used by the Greek historian Herodotus. Also, Herodotus was the
first to write history in a systematic manner, as a result Herodotus is called the father of
history.

Definitions of History -
 The study of past events in a systematic manner in the present is called history.
 According to Prof. Ghate - "History is a scientific account of the past of mankind."
 G.R. Elton - Defines history as a bridge between the past and the present.
 According to E.H. Carr - "Every history is the history of thought and the historian
reconstructs those thoughts in his mind, which history studies.
 The study of political, economical, social and cultural changes and continuity from past to
present is history.

Division of History
The basis of division of history is considered to be script. On this basis history has been divided
into three parts-
History

Prehistoric Period Protohistoric Period Historical Period

 Palaeolithic Age  Indus Valley  Ancient period

 Mesolithic Age Civilization
 Medieval period
 Neolithic Age
 Chalcolithic Age  Modern period
1. Prehistoric period - It is that period of human development in which man did not invent the
script and under this we study the Stone Age.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
1
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

2. Protohistoric period - It is that period of human development in which man had invented the
script, but today we are not able to read that script. Under this we study the Indus Valley
Civilization.
3. Historical period - It is that period of human development in which man had developed the
script and today we are able to read that script. Under this we study the history of modern
times from 6th century BC.

Sources of study of ancient Indian history

Sources of Ancient
Indian History Study

Literary Sources Archaeological Sources Foreign Writers/Travellers

Coin Inscription Arabians Greeks Chineese

Temples Statues
s
Sangam  Abu Rihan Megasthen  Hiuen
Literature  Alberuni
Religious Literature Secular es tsang
Literature  Al Masoodi tolemy  Fa-
 Marcopolo Herodotus Hien
 Itsing

Brahmin texts Jain texts Buddhist  Ashtadhyayi  Tolkappiyam

texts  Mudrarakshasa  Tirukkural
 Mahabhashya  Shilappadikaram
 Kathasaritsagara  Manimekhalai
 Vedas  Bhagwati  Tripitaka  
Brihatkathamanjari Jeevakachintamani
 Brahmin texts Sutra  Nilindpanho  Neetisagara
 Aranyakas  Acharanga  Divyavadana  Malvikagnimitram
 Upanishads Sutra  Aryamanju-  Machchakatikam
 Puranas  Kalpasutra Srimulakalpa  Harshacharitra
 Vedanga  Parishishta  Ramcharita
 Shaddarshan Parva  Prithviraj Raso
 Epics  Bhadrabahu  Prithviraj Vijay
Charitra
 Rajatarangini
 Vikramankadevcha
ritra
 Ratnavali
Priyadarshika
 Nagananda
 Navasahasanka
Charita

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
2
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 The first mention of the name Bharatvarsha for India is in the Ashtadhyayi written by Panini.
 The first mention of the name Bharatvarsha in any inscription is in the Hathigumpha
inscription of Kharavela.

Archaeological Survey of India

Introduction - Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established in 1861 with the efforts of Sir
Alexander Cunningham during the time of the then Viceroy Lord Canning.
 Due to his unforgettable contribution in the field of archaeology, he is called the 'Father of
Indian Archaeology'.
 Headquarters: Delhi and 27 regional offices.
 ASI works under the Ministry of Tourism and Culture.
 The first Director General of ASI was Sir Alexander Cunningham. While the first Indian
Director General was 'Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahni'.
 The credit for the establishment of the Archaeological Department of India is given to the time
of Lord Curzon (Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904).
 The Director General of ASI at the time of excavation of Harappa and Mohenjodaro was Sir
John Marshall.
 When humans used stone as tools.

Stone Age (25 lakh BC)

 The Stone Age has been divided into three parts on the basis of changes in the nature of stone
tools.
1) Paleolithic - (25 lakh - 10 thousand BC)
2) Mesolithic - (10 thousand - 7 thousand BC)
3) Neolithic (7 thousand - 3 thousand BC)

1- Stone Age (25 lakh BC)

 Paleolithic is a Greek word in which Paleo means ancient (Pura) and lithes means stone i.e.
Paleolithic.
 During this period, man used to hunt, catch fish and collect food and fruits.
 Physical remains of present man have not been found.
 Man of this period belonged to the Negrito race.
 In 1870, Larnet divided the Palaeolithic period into three parts -
1. Lower Palaeolithic period - 5 lakh to 50 thousand BC - Ice Age, Bhimbetka.
2. Middle Palaeolithic period - 50 thousand to 40 thousand BC - Blade, Cleavers, Scrapers,
Borers.
3. Upper Palaeolithic period - 40 thousand to 10 thousand BC - Emergence of Homo sapiens, flint
stone.

 Lower Palaeolithic period -

 In this period, man used quartzite stones (crystal stones).
 In this period, two cultures developed in India on the basis of tools - Chopper-chopping pebble
culture and Hand-axe culture.
 Chopper-chopping pebble culture (Culture of the north) - Its tools were found from Sohan
river valley of Punjab (Pakistan) and Belan valley (Vindhya) of Mirzapur.
 Therefore, it is also called Sohan culture.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
3
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Note - Father of discovery of tools from Sohan culture - D.N. Badia (1928)

 Hand-axe culture (Culture of the south) -

 Robert Brushfoot first found a hand axe in 1863 from a place called Pallavaram in Madras.
 Similarly, in 1864, William King found evidence of an axe from a place called Attirampakkam
in Madras.
 Hand-axe culture is also called "Madrasi culture".
 On 5 December, 1982, Arun Sonkia of M.P. found Evidence of human skull from a place called
Hathnora in Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh, which is called Narmada Manav.

Note - Evidence of chopper-chopping pebbles as well as handaxe culture is found from Chautara in
Himachal Pradesh, hence Chautara is considered to be the meeting point of the lower paleolithic
culture of North and South India.

Stone Age

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic

 Middle Paleolithic period -

 Jasper, chert and flint stones started being used in this period, from which tools like cleaver,
scraper point, burin etc. were made.
 A tool called flake was made by breaking the stone.
 That is why Mr. Sankalia called it flake culture.
 HD Sankalia has called Nevasa in Maharashtra as the prototype site of this culture.

 Upper Paleolithic period -

 The tools of this period were of blade type.
 Flint industry was established in this period, man probably became acquainted with fire.
 This period is also called blade-burin culture.
 Homo sapiens man emerged in this period.
 A statue of Mother Goddess made of bone of this period was found from Lohda Nala of Belan
Valley in Allahabad, Mirzapur region, which is kept in the Kaushambi Museum.
 Both the arts of carving and painting developed in this period.

Note - Evidence of painting and habitation done by Palaeolithic man is found at a place called
Bhimbetka in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh, which was discovered by Vishnu Shridhar
Wakankar in 1958.
 Pictures from prehistoric to Copper Age are found at the Bhimbetka site.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
4
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

2- Mesolithic &
 In this period, tools of small stones were made, therefore it is called microlithic age.
 The first information about this period was given by C.L.Carlyle, he obtained the first
microlithic tool from Vindhya region in 1867.
 In this period, man started animal husbandry and dogs were first domesticated.
 In this period, man invented bow and arrow.
 In this period, funeral rites were started by man.
 The first evidence of animal husbandry is found from Adamgarh of Hoshangabad district of
M.P. and Bagor of Rajasthan.

Note - Evidence of human skeleton from 'Sarai Nahar Rai' of U.P. and burial of man and woman
together from 'Mahadaha' has been found.
a. Mahadaha - Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh) - Evidence of bone tools found.
b. Damdama - Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh) - Evidence of couple and single burials and bones
found.
c. Sarainahar Rai - Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh) - First evidence of human war and evidence of
funeral rites found.

3- Neolithic -
 Archaeological research related to this period was started by Dr. Prime Rose.
 Agriculture was discovered in the Neolithic period.
 He discovered Neolithic tools from a place called Lingasugur in Karnataka in 1842.
 Later in 1860, Le Mesurier found many Neolithic tools from the Tons river valley of Uttar
Pradesh.
 The oldest evidence of agriculture (wheat and barley) has been found from a place called
Mehargarh in Balochistan province of Pakistan.
 Use of polished stone tools.

Note - According to new discoveries - the oldest evidence of agriculture has been found from
Lahuradewa of Sant Kabir Nagar in Uttar Pradesh, here evidence of rice cultivation has been
found from 9 thousand to 8 thousand BC.

 In this period, wheel and fire were invented.

 Evidence of 'rice or paddy cultivation' has been found from a place called Koldihwa in
Allahabad.
 Permanent life and construction of settlements started.
 Earthen pots were made to store agricultural products.
 Evidence of burial of dog along with human and cave dwelling has been found from a place
called Burzahom in Kashmir.
 Evidence of cave dwelling has also been found from Gufkral in Kashmir.
 In this period, ash mounds have been found from Sanganakallu and Piklihal in Karnataka.
 Bone tools (made from deer horns) have been found from a place called Chirand in Bihar.
 Pottery is first seen in this period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
5
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Pottery Traditions Period

1. Black-Red Painted Ware (BRPW) Indus Valley Civilization
2. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Rigvedic Period
3. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Late Vedic Period
4. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Mahajanapada Period

 Pottery
 Philander was the first person to discover pottery in the world.
 B.B. Lal was the first person to discover pottery in India.
 The oldest evidence of pottery in India has been found in Chaupanimando (Allahabad, Uttar
Pradesh).
 Most evidence of pottery has been found in Hastinapur (Meerut, Uttar Pradesh).
 The age of pottery is determined by thermoluminescence method.

Chalcolithic Age
Chalcolithic culture

B.B. Lal Garden Child Stuart Piggot

Book- ‘What Happened in History’ Book- ‘Prehistoric India’

1. First metal used by humans - Copper

2. This was a rural culture.
3. Development of villages by humans.
4. Familiarity with textile manufacturing.
5. Largest copper deposit - Gugeria (Balaghat) of Madhya Pradesh
6. Pottery - BRW - Black Red Ware
7. Use of clay and stone in house construction.
Chalcolithic period

Pre-Harappan Harappan contemporary Post-Harappan

Chalcolithic culture (400- Chalcolithic culture Chalcolithic culture
2600 BC) (2600-1800 BC) (2000-1400 BC)

 Ahad Culture - Udaipur,

 Sothi culture -  Malwa culture (Navdatoli,
Rajasthan
Rajasthan Eran, Kayatha Madhya
 Jhukar - Jhakar  Gilund Culture - Pradesh)
 Jorwe culture - Maharashtra
culture - Sindh, Rajsamand, Rajasthan
 Chandauli culture -
Pakistan
Maharashtra
3. 

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
6
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

1. Pre-Harappan Copper-lithic Culture (400-2600 BC) -

 Sothi Culture (Bikaner) Rajasthan.
 Jhukar-Jhakar Culture - Sindh Pakistan.

Sothi Culture
 Location - Rajasthan (Bikaner)
 River - Ghaggar/Chautang
 Discovery - Amalananda Ghosh (1953)
 Major sites - Savadhiya, Poongal
 Features - This culture was basically a rural culture which was gradually developing into
an urban culture.

Jhukar - Jhakar Culture

 Location - Sindh, Pakistan

2. Chalco-lithic culture of Harappan period -

Ahar Civilization
 Location - Udaipur (Rajasthan)
 River - Banks of Ayad River / Banas River Civilization
 Excavation - 1956 Ratan Chandra Agarwal
o and 1961-62 - H. D. Sankalia
 Other names - Tamravati Nagari, Dhulkot

Features -
 In the excavation of this civilization, four levels of settlements have been found, which shows
that this civilization was settled and ended many times.
 Two copper axes have been found from the fourth level of excavation.
 These people used to build houses using bricks and stones dried in the sun. Bamboo was spread
on the roof and clay was applied on it.
 Metal work was the main means of economy of these people, they knew how to melt copper.
 Weights and measures have also been found here, which indicate the development of commerce
and trade.
 People of Ahad were familiar with rice.
 These people were also involved in agriculture and animal husbandry. The presence of 4 to 6
big stoves in a house throws light on the system of cooking food for a large family or
collectively in Ahad.
 The people of this civilization used to bury the dead.
 Beads and ornaments made of clay and stone.

Balathal Culture
 Location - Udaipur district Rajasthan
 River - Bedach river
 Excavation - 1999 V. N. Mishra

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
7
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Features -
 Clay bull figures have been found from excavations here, which were probably used for
worship.
 Iron tools have been found in abundance from excavations here. Remains of five iron smelting
furnaces have also been found.
 A piece of hand-woven cloth has also been found from here.
 Copper tools include axes, knives, muskets, pointed arrow heads and copper coins on which
elephant and moon figures are engraved.
 Stone beads, baked clay statues, animal figures, copper tools have also been found from here.

Gilund Culture
 Location - District Rajsamand Rajasthan
 River region - Banas
 Excavation - B. B. Lal (1957-58)

Features
 Pieces of bones of wild animals have been found, which prove that the humans here were
carnivorous.
 Weapons made of copper have been found and wheat grains have also been found in a pot.
 Remains of a storehouse for storing grains and a stove have also been found in the middle of
the walls.
 Five types of pottery have been found from Gilund. These include plain, black, polished,
brown, red and black painted pottery.
 Remains of clay toys, figures of elephant, camel, dog, stone tablets and ivory bangles have been
found in the excavation.
 Baked bricks have not been used in Ahar, whereas they were used in abundance in Gilund.

3. Post-Harappan Copper-lithic Culture - (2000-1400 BC)

Malwa Culture -
 Malwa culture is known for its unique type of pottery. In this, black coloured paintings have
been done on red coloured utensils.
 Major sites - Navdatoli, Kayatha, Nagda, Eran

Features -

 Building construction -
 In Malwa culture, the houses found in the form of building complexes from Manoti and Nagda
are made of mud bricks, one part of which indicates a security wall. Which was 11 feet wide
and 10 to 12 feet high.
 An oblong platform made of unbaked bricks found from Manoti was probably built to protect
the residential area from the floods of Chambal river.

 Food stuff -

 The two faced stove found from the excavations proves that they were non-vegetarians
belonging to a joint family and the animal bones found in it.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
8
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 The presence of many varieties of grains here shows that they produced as many types of
grains as possible. For example, along with evidence of wheat, seeds of pulses, oilseeds and
fruits have been found from excavations from Nagda.

 Metal tools -

 The people of Malwa culture used copper and brass, but the method of making copper and
glass developed as a result of relations with the Rajasthan region.

 Religious condition -

 A small statue of a woman and a bird has been found from Navdatoli, which are the symbols
of the mother goddess.
 The fire altars found from Navdatoli is known as an example of fire worship.

 Burials -

 Remains of an animal burial and a symbolic burial of a human have been found from Pipri.

Jorwe Culture -
 Spouted pottery
 Location - Daimabad (Ahmednagar) and Inamgaon (Pune), Nevasa
 Evidence of dual culture (urban and rural civilization) found.
 Expansion in modern Maharashtra
 Burial sites - from north to south

Chandauli (Pune)
 Evidence of funeral urns for children found.
 Evidence of spouted pottery found

Harappan Civilization
Emergence of Harappan Civilization -
Harappan civilization was one of the oldest civilizations of the world and it represents the
stage of the first urban revolution in the Indian subcontinent. Its wide regional expansion, city-
building plan and its socio-cultural diversity all establish it as a unique civilization. Now that
many sites of the Harappan civilization have been excavated, there is no doubt that it was a
civilization spread over a wide area. But despite extensive research, no concrete information has
been found regarding the origin and development of this civilization. Because generally, whenever
and wherever the remains of this civilization have been discovered, they reveal the characteristics
of this civilization, especially urbanization, city building plans, developed commerce, trade and
various forms of religion. And all the characteristics mentioned above points towards the
developed stage of any culture.
Now the question arises that who were the ones who brought the Harappan civilization to
this developed stage? Were they local or foreign? If they were foreign, then what was their origin?
If this element of origin was local, then what was their connection with this developed civilization?
The emergence of the Indus civilization can be understood in the light of these questions.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
9
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Origin by Origin by Origin by Theory of gradual

Sumerians/Mesopotamians Dravidians Aryans evolution

a. Originated by Sumerians/Mesopotamians-

Reasons
1. British writers were motivated by imperialist objectives. And they did not want to give the
credit of developing such an advanced civilization to a slave country like India.
2. Prominent among the diffusion theory - Through this, it was easy to show its origin from
Mesopotamia.
3. The granary and purlin wood obtained from Harappa and Mesopotamia by Cramer, Gordon
Childe, Mortimer Wheeler have been used equally in both the civilizations.
4. Sirin Ratnakar has considered Mesopotamian trade as the decisive factor for its origin.

Refutation
 City planning in Mesopotamia was irregular while it was well organized in Harappan
civilization, Harappan houses were made of baked bricks while unbaked bricks were used in
Mesopotamia.
 Mainly cylindrical seals were found in Mesopotamia whereas rectangular and square seals
were found in Harappan civilization.
 Harappan script was piltographic whereas cuneiform script was prevalent in Mesopotamia.
 Mesopotamian people used to build temples, but till now no evidence of temple has been found
from Harappan sites.

b. Theory of origin by Dravidians -

 Rakhaldas Banerjee and Suniti Kumar Chatterjee believe that the Indus Valley Civilization
was created by Dravidians, in favor of which there are arguments that Dravidians were also of
Mediterranean origin like Harappans, similarity of script, matriarchal society, water worship
and gender worship etc. are the arguments given.
 Refutation - The civilization that was established among the Dravidians was a megalithic
civilization and rural culture whereas Harappans established big cities.

c. Theory of origin by Aryans -

Scholars like S.R. Rao, K.N. Shastri, Ramchandra and Laxman Swaroop said that Harappan
civilization was created by Aryans, giving their opinion in favor they said -
 The initial residence of Aryans and the concentration of Harappan civilization both remained
the Sapta Sindhu region.
 Harappan cities are located on the banks of the major rivers mentioned in the Rigveda.
 Fire worship was prevalent among the Aryans. Similarly, evidence of fire pits was found from
Harappa sites Kalibangan and Lothal.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
10
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Refutation -
 Aryans had a rural culture while Harappans had an urban culture.
 Aryans were patriarchal while Harappan civilization was matriarchal.
 Aryans were familiar with horses and iron, but Harappans were unfamiliar with both.

d. Theory of gradual evolution -

This view is most accepted. According to Fairservis and Romila Thapar, Harappa developed from
indigenous cultures like Sothi, Jhukar-Jhakar, Iranian-Baluchi Kotdiji, Amri-Nal etc.

 Question - Which dominant view emerged in the origin of Harappa civilization?

 Answer - Research has been going on continuously since the 1950s and after that. It indicates
that the roots of urban civilization are within the Indian subcontinent itself. And it is the
result of gradual development of rural cultures. This was first indicated by an archaeologist
Amalananda Ghosh. When he tried to explain the origin of Harappan civilization by
comparing the pottery with the Sothi culture of Rajasthan.
 Further, a Pakistani scholar R. Mughal took this argument forward by studying pottery as
well as tools and other materials.
 The belief is that the rural cultures in Balochistan, Sindh, North-West Frontier Province
Punjab and Rajasthan gradually developed and reached the stage of urbanization. For
example, the Neolithic period was between about 5500 BC and 3200 BC in the North-West.
During this period prosperous rural settlements developed in the north-west, for example
Mehargarh, Kiligul Mohammad in Balochistan, Kotdiji, Amri in Sindh, Jalilpur in Punjab
etc.

 Other names -
(a) Harappa Civilization
(b) Indus Valley Civilization
(c) Bronze Age Civilization - (Copper + Tin = Bronze)
(d) Protohistoric Civilization
(e) Indus-Saraswati Civilization
(f) Saindhav Civilization

 Discovery -
1. 1826 - Charles Mason first focused on the mounds in Harappa and expressed the suspicion of
some civilization being buried in it.
2. 1853 - Cunningham visited Harappa but he could not understand the importance of this place.
3. 1856 - Brunton brothers (James and William) were laying a railway line between Karachi and
Lahore, but they did not pay much attention to it and instead used those bricks to lay under
the railway line.
4. 1921 - A city named Harappa was discovered by Daya Ram Sahni under the leadership of Sir
John Marshall.

Note - At the time of discovery of Harappa, the head of the Indian Archaeological Department was
J.L. Marshall.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
11
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Area of Indus Valley Civilization

 Area - 12,99,600 Km2
 Expansion in countries - India, Pakistan, Afghanistan (2 sites - Shortugai and Mundigak)
 Expansion in Indian states -
 Jammu Kashmir
 Punjab
 Haryana
 Rajasthan
 Maharashtra
 Uttar Pradesh
 Gujarat
 Shape - Triangular
 Area of Harappan
Civilization -
 East to West - 1600 km.
 North to South - 1400 km.
 Manda (J&K) - Chenab River
 Discoverer - Jagpati Joshi

Nort

1400 K.M.

 Sutkagendor (Dashk River)

 Place – Alamgirpur, UP
 Discoverer - Aurel Stein East
West (Hindon River)
 Location - Pakistan
 Inventor – Yagya Dutt
(Balochistan) 1600 K.M.
Sharma

South
 Location - Daimabad
(Maharashtra), Pravara River
 Discoverer - B.P. Bopardikar
 Evidence - Copper furnace, rural
culture

Species of Harappan Civilization -

1. Mediterranean or Dravidian
2. Proto Australoid
3. Mongoloid - Mongolian
4. Alpine
 Most of the residents of Mohenjodaro were of Mediterranean race.
 Most of the historians consider the Mediterranean race (Dravidian) as the creator of Indus
Civilization. This race is currently found in South India.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
12
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Dating -
Dating of Indus Civilization is a controversial subject of Indian Archaeology. Because this
civilization appears to be in developed form right from the beginning and its decline also appears
to be sudden - different scholars have determined the following date by different methods of
dating -
The first attempt to date this civilization was made by Sir John Marshall in 1931 AD.
(a) John Marshall - 3250 BC - 2750 BC
(b) Mortimer Wheeler - 2500 BC - 1500 BC
(c) Radio Carbon - 14 (C14) - 2350 BC - 1750 BC
(d) NCERT - 2600 BC - 1900 BC

Major sites of Harappa civilization, evidences found and their discoverers

Harappa
 Discovery - by Dayaram Sahni in 1921
 Current location - Montgomery Punjab province, Pakistan (Ravi river)
 First excavated site of Indus civilization
 Evidence -
 Potter's wheel
 R-37 cemetery
 Total 12 rooms in a row of 6:6, 18 circular platforms on which evidence of wheat and
barley and 15 workers' quarters
 Most evidence of inscriptional seals was found from the city of Harappa.
 A single horse cart made of copper
 Most of the markings on the seals of Harappa are of a one-horned animal.
 A plant emerging from the womb of a woman is marked on a rectangular seal.
 Evidence of utensils bearing the picture of fisherman and bronze mirror
Note- The fort of Harappa was named Mount AB.

Mohenjodaro
 Meaning - Mound of the dead (Indus river)
 Discovered - 1922 by Rakhaldas Banerjee
 Present location - Larkana district (Sindh province) Pakistan (Indus river) right bank
Other names -
o Mound of the dead
o Mound of ghosts
o Garden of Sindh

 Evidence - Large bathing room (11.88 meters long, 7.01 meters wide, 2.43 meters deep).
 Pashupati seal (three faces) - elephant-tiger on the right, buffalo-rhino on the left and
four deer placed below
 4 inch long bronze dancer statue
 Huge granary, large hall
 Statue of a bearded priest
 Image of a shining monkey

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
13
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Chanhudaro
 Discovery - In 1931 by N.G. Gopal Das Majumdar
 Present location - Sindh province, Pakistan (Indus river)- left bank
Note - Evidence of fort was not found in any part here. (Lack of fortification)

 Evidence -
 Evidence of Chalcolithic period's Jhukar and Jhakar culture
 Evidence of dog chasing cat
 Evidence of bead or toy making factories
 Evidence of lipstick
 Evidence of comb
 Evidence of perfume
 Clay bullock cart
 Two fish symbols

Lothal
 Discovery - In 1954 by Ranganath Rao
 Location - In Ahmedabad district of Gujarat (Bhogava river)
 Lothal is called mini Harappa or mini Mohenjodaro.
 Both the parts of Lothal are surrounded by the same security wall.

 Evidence -
 Paddy husk
 Fire altar
 Persian seals
 Couple tombs
 Ivory scale
 Mummy model
 Clay statue of horse
 Mark of cunning fox
 Cloth dyeing tank
 Copper seal
 Dockyard - Size - 214 m. × 36 m. × 3.3 m.

Kalibangan
 Discovery - by Amalananda Ghosh in 1953
 Both the mounds are surrounded by separate security walls.
 Meaning - Black bangles
 Current location - in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan (Ghaggar river)
 Evidence -
 Evidence of ploughed field
 Fire pit
 Decorated bricks
 Only evidence of drain made of wood
 Skeleton of camel bones
 Evidence of earthquake
 Picture of goat with man on a clay tablet
 Evidence of mixed crop

Note - Houses of Kalibangan were made of unbaked bricks.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
14
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Dholavira
 Discovery - by Jagpati Joshi while excavation was done by Ravindra Singh Bisht in 1990-
91
 Literal meaning - White well
 The only city which was divided into 3 parts.
 Current status - Located in the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat.
 It is the 40th UNESCO World Heritage Site of India (2021).
 It is the oldest evidence of rock-cut architecture.

 Evidence -
 Name plate with 10 letters
 Evidence of stadium
 Evidence of 16 large ponds
 Evidence of best drainage system
 Evidence of two canals

Banawali
 Discovery - in 1973 by R.S. Bisht
 Present location - Hisar (Haryana) Rangoi River

 Evidence -
 Evidence of good quality barley
 Evidence of plough made of clay
 Lack of drainage system
 Evidence of fire altars
 Fishing hook

Rakhigarhi -
 Discovery - in 1969 by Suraj Bhan
 Present location - Hisar, Haryana (Ghaggar River)
 Special -
 Here the dead were buried by laying them in north-south direction.
 The largest site of Indus Valley Civilization in India.

Ropar -
 Discovery - by Yagyadutt Sharma in 1953
 Current status - Roop Nagar, Punjab (Sutlej River)

 Special
 Harappan site discovered in India after independence
 Evidence of dogs being buried with humans
Rangpur -
 Discovery - by S.R. Rao in 1954
 Current status - Kathiawar Gujarat (Bhadar River)
 Evidence of rice, jowar, millet and paddy husk
 Aras Putra of Indus Valley Civilization
 Forts made of unbaked bricks, drains, pottery

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
15
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Surkotda -
 Discovery - by Jagpati Joshi in 1964
 Current status - Kutch, Gujarat (Saraswati River)

 Special -
 Urn burial, horse skeleton
 The Fort and the city area were surrounded by the same defence wall.

Kunal -
 Hisar, Haryana (Ghaggar River)
 Discovered - 1974 by J.P. Joshi and R.S. Bisht
 Terracotta seal, evidence of micro pearls
 Two silver crowns

Alimurad -
 Located in Pakistan
 The only rural site

Daimabad -
 Bullock cart made of copper
 Located on the banks of Pravara River

Kotdiji -
 Location - Sindh Province (Pakistan)
 Excavated - Fazal Ahmed (1955)
 Located on the banks of Indus River
 Evidence of a house and a fronton made of stone were found here.

Rojdi
 Harappan site in Saurashtra (Gujarat)
 Unbaked brick platforms, baked clay beads, elephant remains

Balakot -
 Excavated by George F. Dales in 1979-81
 Harappan site in Khyber- Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan)
 Located on the banks of the Kunhar river.
 Mostly used unbaked bricks
 Port, shell industry

Bhagwanpura -
 Located in Kurukshetra (Haryana), on the banks of the Saraswati river.
 Excavator of Harappan site - G.P. Joshi
 Coloured glass bangles, copper bangles found

Kuntasi -
 Harappan archaeological site in Morbi (Gujarat)
 Evidence of a port settlement, evidence of a thousand alabaster berds.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
16
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Mitathal -
 Harappan site in Bhiwani (Haryana)
 2 mounds found, two copper axes
 Houses made of unbaked bricks

Deshalpur -
 Harappan site in Bhuj (Gujarat)
 Discoverer - Aurel Stein
 Evidence of buildings with huge ramparts, rooms with balcony.
 Evidence of copper seals

Ganeri Wala -
 Located on the banks of Ghaggar river, Punjab (Pakistan)
 Unicorn statue, evidence of copper seal

Bhagatrav/Bhagatrav -
 Harappan site in Bharuch (Gujarat), on river Kim
 Excavator - Dr. S.R. Rao
 Important port

City planning of Harappan civilization

Harappan civilization was a well-organized urbanized civilization, the proof of which is
found in the remains obtained from the Harappan civilization, its city planning had the following
features -

 City - Harappan cities were generally divided into two parts, the western part of which was
called fort and the eastern part was called city.
Generally forts were surrounded by security walls (exception - lack of fortification in
Chanhudaro) and there was lack of security walls on the city (exception - both the mounds of
Kalibanga were surrounded by walls).

 Building - The Indus valley civilization residents built their buildings in a well-organized
manner, courtyard, bathroom, kitchen, rooms etc. are found in the house.
Some buildings were single-storeyed and some had two or more floors, the buildings were
constructed using baked bricks of fixed size 4 (length): 2 (width): 1 (thickness). The doors of
every building opened towards the street rather than the road, the windows generally opened
towards the road.

 Roads - The roads were usually unpaved (exception-Mohenjodaro) and cut each other at right
angles, going from east to west and north to south. The construction of Oxford squares and
roads was based on the grid system. The main road was 6-9 feet wide and the subsidiary road
was 3-4 feet wide.

 Drains - Drains were constructed with baked bricks on both sides of the roads, which were
covered with big stones, manholes with lids were made at various places to clean the drains.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
17
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

The drains went along the roads to the outside of the city, where they were opened into a big
pond or river.
It is clear that this civilization was a developed urban civilization, which can guide the
construction of excellent cities in present India and encourage systematic city planning by
providing a basis for smart cities.

Water management in Harappan Civilization -

An important feature of the Harappan Civilization was their advanced water management system.
Which has the following aspects -
1. Drinking water - Construction of wells in every courtyard, river water coming into the well but
this water used to come by seeping. In this sequence, cleaning of water is in natural form, if the
house is multi-storeyed then arrangement for taking water to the upper floor in a vessel.
2. Excellent arrangement for water drainage - One wall of the house was adjacent to the street
drain. Use of baked clay pipes for drainage of water from top to bottom. A street drain is
connected to the main road drain. Arrangement of a separate drain for drainage of rain water.
3. Construction of artificial reservoir in Dholavira for water conservation, which was the first
experiment in the field of water conservation.

Economic features of Harappan Civilization -

Harappan Civilization was spread over a large area, its geographical spread was much more than
the contemporary Egypt and Mesopotamia. This was an urban civilization, so it was very natural
for its economic and social life to become complex. Under this, 9-10 sites have been identified as
urban sites while the other sites were rural sites. Naturally, the people residing in this area had
many sources of livelihood. These are as follows-
1- Animal husbandry - Sheep, goat, humped bull etc. were the main domesticated animals in large
numbers in various Harappan sites. But Harappans were probably unfamiliar with horses.
They used donkeys and camels for carrying loads.

2- Agriculture - Agriculture provided a strong base to the Harappan civilization. Because

agricultural surplus formed the basis of this advanced civilization. We get information about
agricultural activities from various evidences. For example, evidence of plowed field has been
found from Kalibangan and evidence of plow made of baked clay has been found from
Banawali (Haryana). Apart from this, we also get evidence of wheat, barley, white gram, peas,
mustard and rice in some areas from various sites. Therefore, it can be assumed that a large
population was engaged in agriculture under this civilization.

3- Industries and trades - Commodity industry, pottery making, bead making, toy making, all
these have been the means of livelihood of the people of Harappa.

4- City planning - During this period, granary, great bath and various public buildings were built
in Mohenjodaro. Due to this, workers must have got employment, so wages were also a basis of
livelihood. Evidence of workers' residences has been found from Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

5- Trade - Advanced trade was a major basis for the success of the Harappan civilization.
Evidence of both internal and external trade has been found from the Harappan civilization.
Internal trade was between various cities of the civilization and external trade was between

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
18
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

countries like Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Egypt etc. The balance of payments was in favor of
the Harappan civilization.

 Imported items - Gold from Kolar in Karnataka, Copper from Rajasthan, Shells from
Baluchistan, Silver and Tin from Mesopotamia, Lajwardmani (lapis lazuli) from Iran
and Central Asia.
 Exported items - Gold, Copper, Ivory products, Cotton textile products etc.

Note - External trade is confirmed by the Sargon inscription (2350 BC) of the famous emperor of
Akkad in Mesopotamia. According to this inscription, Mesopotamia's trade was done with the islands
named Makan, Dilman and Meluha.
6- Transport system - Transport was possible through both land and water routes in Harappan
civilization. Transport was done through bullock cart or other animal cart on land route and
boats on water route.

Others -
 Crafts and craftsmanship - An important basis of urban civilization was handicrafts,
craftsmanship and specialization of crafts, such as - making of pottery, making of stone tools,
making of copper and bronze tools, gold, silver ornaments, various types of crafts were
prevalent. Thus craftsmanship was a major source of livelihood of people.

 Exchange and standard measurement and weighing system - Barter system was prevalent in
Harappan civilization. In Harappan civilization, 4 digits or its multiplication was used in the
measurement and weighing system.
Conclusion - On the basis of the following characteristics, it can be said that the economic system
of Harappan civilization was prosperous.

Elements of Harappan urbanization -

Just as urban settlement is different from rural settlement, similarly urban civilization is also
different from rural culture. Harappan civilization was an urban civilization. Under this
civilization, the following elements of urban civilization can be revealed -

1- Size of settlement:- Urban sites are larger in size than rural sites. Generally, a site larger than
20 hectares is considered an urban site. There are many urban sites under the Harappan
civilization whose size is between 60 hectares and 100 hectares and then sites like Harappa and
Mohenjodaro are even larger in size.
2- City planning:- An important characteristic of an urban site is planned residence. In other
words, the settlement of an urban settlement is different from that of a rural settlement.
Harappan civilization is famous for its planned residence.
3- Large non-agricultural population:- A characteristic of urban civilization is a large population
engaged in non-agricultural production. There was a large number of traders and craftsmen at
Harappan urban sites and specialization of crafts was an important characteristic of urban
society.
4- Multi-ethnic society - Mediterranean or Dravidian, Proto Australoid, Mongoloid - Mongolian,
Alpine, all these ethnic diversity are also indicators of urban elements.
5- Presence of capable ruling class:- Presence of a capable ruling class is necessary to maintain
and run the urban structure. Under the Harappan civilization also, a capable ruling class was

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
19
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

present which used to extract surplus from the rural area and store it in the urban area and
redistribute it, along with this it also used to create a suitable environment for economic
activities.
6- Use of script:- Use of script is also considered an important factor of urban civilization.
Actually, a script is required for conducting administrative work and commercial trade, as we
see that a script was also in use even under the Harappan civilization.
7- Cultural diversity:- This is also an important element of urban civilization because unlike rural
places, people of different cultural groups are present at urban places. Even within the
Harappan civilization, the differences in the nature of religious beliefs, customs, burial
methods, etc. prove that people of different cultural groups were present at the urban centers.

Question - What inspiration does Harappan urbanization give to the present urbanization?
Answer - Harappan urbanization gives the following inspirations to present urbanization-
1. Harappan people first made roads, lanes and drains and then built houses. Therefore, their
drainage system proved to be unique but the problem of drainage remains a big crisis in most of
the cities of present India.
2. It is a vivid example of better governance of Harappan people. There was no attempt to violate
the rules of city planning, which is not seen in present cities.
3. The people of the Harappan ruling class spent less on themselves but tried to raise the standard
of living of the citizens.
4. Harappan people had done important experiments in the field of water conservation. Present
cities are also facing the problem of drinking water crisis but today such promptness is not seen.

Social system of Harappan civilization

Since the Harappan script has not been read, a comprehensive description of Harappan society
cannot be made, but on the basis of the remains obtained, the society had the following
characteristics -
 Class division - Harappan society was mainly divided into four classes - scholar class, warrior
class, merchant class, labor class.
 Multi-ethnic society - Four types of Harappan species have been identified from the remains
obtained.
 Mediterranean - in the highest number
 Alpine
 Proto-Australoid
 Mongoloid

 Matriarchal society and status of women - The status of women in Harappan civilization seems
to be good.
Due to the presence of a large number of clay statues of Mother Goddess obtained from the
Harappan sites, historians consider this civilization to be a matriarchal society.

 Inequality based society - The remains of the cities obtained from the civilization show that the
rich class in the society probably resided on the fort mound and the common class resided on the
city or the eastern mound. Despite all this, there is no evidence of untouchability etc. in this
society.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
20
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Educated and peace loving society - Harappan script and developed trade show that Harappans
were educated. Generally, no arms were found during excavations at Harappan sites, on the
basis of which it can be said that Harappans were peace loving.
 Food and clothing - Harappans were generally both non-vegetarians and vegetarians.
Harappans wore cotton and woolen clothes and on the basis of bead factories and cosmetics
found from Chanhudaro, it can be said that Harappans were fond of cosmetics and jewellery.
 Means of entertainment - fishing, animal fighting, playing chess, hunting etc. (evidence of chess
- Banawali).

Burial System in Harappan Civilization

 Funeral rites - The method of funeral rites reflects the thinking and life view of any community.
Harappan people had developed two different methods of death rituals - burial and cremation.
Harappan people had a more developed burial system. As we know, people belonging to
Neolithic and Chalcolithic period continued the system of burying the dead in the courtyard of
the house or inside the house. But Harappan people built their graves away from their
residential places. Evidence of burial grounds has been found from various Harappan sites such
as Harappa, Kalibanga, Lothal, Rakhigarhi etc. Three different methods of burial were
prevalent under Harappan civilization -
i. Complete burial
ii. Partial burial
iii. Cremation
Complete burial was more common among them. The dead were laid in north-south direction
and the necessary articles were also buried with them. This means that the Harappan people
had developed the concept of life after death. In partial burial, the dead were left under the open
sky for some time so that animals and birds could eat them and then the remaining part was
buried. If we look at the burial system of the Harappan people, then it is known that their vision
was practical. They did not waste their resources by building unique graveyards like Egypt.
Similarly, the Harappan burial system is an indication of social and cultural diversity which is
an essential characteristic of any urban civilization. If we look carefully, three different types of
graves are found in Kalibanga alone. Now, as far as cremation is concerned, initially it was
believed that the practice of cremation was less prevalent, but recent research has emphasized
that perhaps cremation was also widely prevalent and the proof of this is that the number of
graves is less compared to the possible population of a city.

Religious system of Harappan civilization

In the absence of literary evidence, we do not get information about the philosophy (thinking) of
Harappan religion, but the archaeological evidence obtained provides information about their
ritualistic ceremonies, which throws light on some aspects of religion, which are as follows –

1. Nature worshippers - Harappans were nature worshippers. For example, worship of the Sun,
worship of the Peepal tree, water worship, fire worship, etc.

2. Promotion of fertility power - Contribution of Harappan religion in fertility, for example, the
method of Yagya, worship of fertility, showing a plant emerging from the womb of a woman,
who was probably considered the goddess of fertility.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
21
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

3. Concept of the afterlife - Keeping objects of everyday use at the burial site of the Harappan
civilization indicates the afterlife.

4. Development of Tantric ritual - Amulets found around the necks of children from Harappan
sites indicate Tantric rituals or witchcraft.

5. Worship of the Mother Goddess - Most of the clay statues and seals found have the figure of
the Mother Goddess imprinted on them, on the basis of which it can be said that this society
must have been a worshipper of the Mother Goddess.

6. Pashupati worshipper - Seal obtained from Mohenjodaro has Pashupati mark on it, hence it is
believed that Indus residents were Pashupati worshipper.

7. Phallus and Yoni worshipper - Evidence of many lingas and figurines obtained from Harappa
sites proves that Harappans were phallus worshipper.

8. Belief in Yoga - On the basis of the statue of a yogi obtained from Mohenjodaro, it can be said
that Harappans believed in Yoga.

Conclusion/Contribution/Relevance - In the end we can say that Harappan religion

encouraged further development and it mixed with Indian life and formed the basis of later Hindu
religion, for example - concept of yajna, animal sacrifice, use of Swastika etc.

Harappan Art and Culture

Our perception about the Harappan civilization has been changing according to the new research
methods. Initially, it was believed that the Harappan people had a practical approach. Therefore,
they showed less interest in the development of art as compared to contemporary civilizations. But
new research shows that the Harappan people not only made a large number of artistic products
but also had a very deep aesthetic vision.

1. Architecture - The buildings found from the excavations of Harappa, Mohenjodaro etc. depict
the architecture of the Indus people. These people often used baked bricks in building
construction. The buildings were generally one or two storeyed. The systematic and excellent
drainage system is the best example of the scientific approach of the Harappans.

2. Sculpture -
 Alabaster sculpture - Statues made of alabaster have been found in the Harappan
civilization. For example, the statue of a sadhu with a beard found from Mohenjodaro
and two human statues found from Harappa which give knowledge of body structure.
 Metal sculpture - Human and animal statues made of copper and bronze have been
found from various sites of the Harappan civilization. A special technique was used in
the making of bronze statues which is known as the liquid wax method. The bronze
statue of a dancer found from Chanhudaro is very famous.
 Terracotta sculpture – Statues made of terracotta have also been found in the
Harappan civilization.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
22
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

3. Seal making - Harappan people made excellent quality seals by cutting and carving alabaster.
These seals were rectangular and square and animal figures and scripts were inscribed on
them. They were used to identify commercial goods. For example, about 2000 seals have been
found from Harappa.

4. Bead making - Beads were used for jewellery. They are mainly made from alabaster. Although
some beads are found made from precious materials.

5. Pottery making - Harappan people used excellent quality pottery. Their most important
pottery was black on red painting.

6. Tool making - Harappan people used stone, copper and bronze in large numbers. One of the
features of these tools is their standardization because a particular type of tools have been
found from different sites.

7. Script - Pictographic was written from right to left.

Harappan script was pictographic, which is also called Boustrophedon. The number of
basic symbols in Harappan script is 64, while the number of letters is 250 - 400. In Harappan
script, the maximum number of 4-shaped symbols and the maximum number of fish symbols are
found.

Development of science and technology

Harappan civilization represents the first urbanization in the Indian subcontinent. This
civilization has had extensive achievements in various fields. Especially the achievements of the
Harappans in the field of science and technology were commendable. Since the Harappan script
has not been read till now, we have not been able to fully know the scientific outlook of the
Harappans. Nevertheless, if we explore the available archaeological evidence, then many of their
achievements in the field of science and technology are revealed.

1. Mathematics and measurement system:-

A. The mathematics and measurement system of the Harappans appears to be developed. Till
now it was believed that Ashoka's inscriptions provide information about Indians'
knowledge of numerals. But the discovery of the Harappan civilization proved that the
Harappans were familiar with numerals. They used 16 and its multiples in their
calculations.

B. The Harappans knew how to use feet and cubic in the measurement system. Scales made of
shells, copper and ivory have been found from Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothal
respectively. Similarly, they also used a weighing system made of stone.

2. Astronomical field:- The Harappans had also achieved some achievements in the astronomical
field. They had knowledge of planets and constellations. Seven lines are inscribed behind a fish

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
23
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

on a Harappan seal. This seal shows that the Harappans were familiar with stars and
constellations.

3. Chemistry:- They knew the method of transporting copper and bronze. They knew how to
make bronze by mixing tin with copper. Apart from tin, they knew how to make stronger tools
by mixing nickel, lead and arsenic with copper. Then statues were also made from copper and
bronze. They used liquid wax method in making statues. Dancer statues have been found from
Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro.

4. Stone tools:- Better quality stone tools were made by them. Factories making stone tools have
been found from places named Sukkur and Rohri in Sindh. Standard tools were made by
them.

5. Field of medicine:- The achievement of Harappan people can also be seen in the field of
medicine. Two such infant skeletons have been found from Kalibanga and Lothal, on whose
skulls there is evidence of surgery. Then two stone human statues have been found from
Harappa which give us knowledge about their body structure.

6. Scientific Approach:- Apart from this, the scientific approach of the Harappan people is
expressed in the city-construction plan. In city construction, they laid special emphasis on
cleanliness and water management. One of the objectives of the wells built by them was to
clean the polluted river water and use it. Above all, the achievements of the Harappan people
in the field of water conservation are special. Evidence of artificial reservoir is found from a
site called Dholavira.

Conclusion:- Thus, the achievements of the Harappan people in the field of science and
technology are exemplary and commendable. The achievements they made did not disappear but
appeared again in the historical period (baked bricks, Numerology) etc. and then it merged into
Indian culture.

Harappan Political System

Such a civilization was spread across three countries of the world, seven states of India and about
13 lakh square kilometers. That civilization was not possible without a well-organized, well-
planned and powerful administration. Completely depending on archaeological evidence does not
clarify the whole picture, but historians have given their different opinions on this.

1. Priestly class rulers -

 Supporters - Piggot, Wheeler, D.D.Kaushambi
 Evidence –
 Bearded terracotta statue found from Mohenjodaro.
 Discovery of amulets in different cities shows conservatism.
 Refutation - No evidence of temple

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
24
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

2. Merchant class rulers -

 Supporter - R.S. Sharma
 Evidence –
 Presence of cities,
 Internal-external trade
 Commercial development and seals
 Refutation - Merchant class not clearly mentioned,
Others -
 Hunter - Democratic rule
 Mackay - Believes in the rule of representative rulers.
 B.B. Sturb believes in the Harappan administration as slave based administration.
 B.B. Lal - There must have been small and big states in the Indus period and each must
have had a separate headquarters.
It is clear that there are differences of opinion among scholars about Harappan political
administration but all support a systematic government and political system in Harappa. The
uniformity present in elements like uniform urban system, road system, statues, waste
management, city planning, uniform measurement and weighing system etc. in Harappa indicates
an organized administrative system.

Decline of the Harappan Civilization

There is no certainty about the decline of this civilization spread over an area of about 13 lakh sq.
km. The reason for this is the inability to read the script of the Indus Civilization and the lack of
horizontal excavation of the Indus Valley sites. However, on the basis of the archaeological
evidence obtained, we can say that the following are the reasons for the decline:

Sudden fall Gradual fall

Due to sudden collapse

1. Aryan invasion -
 According to Mortimer Wheeler, Stuart Piggot and Gordon Childe, Aryans invaded and
destroyed Harappa civilization. These scholars have presented some archaeological
evidences in support of their views. According to them, 26 skeletons found from
Mohenjodaro, on which there are wounds of sharp weapons and the 'H' graveyard found
from Harappa are considered to be the graves of the invaders. On the other hand,
presenting literary evidences also, they have identified "Harupiya" mentioned in Rigveda
with Harappa. Similarly, they have linked the word Purandar used for Indra with Aryan
invasion.
 But after detailed analysis, it is known that the archaeological evidences presented by
Mortimer Wheeler are insufficient and the literary evidences are doubtful.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
25
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

2. Flood -
 J.L. Marshall, S.R. Rao, Mr. Mackay etc. considered floods to be the reason for the decline
of Harappan civilization. They said in support of their opinion that evidence of floods has
been found in Mohenjodaro (7 times) Lothal and Chanhudaro. But it is not logical that the
Harappan civilization spread over about 13 lakh sq. km. was completely destroyed by
floods.

3. Change in the river route -

 According to H.T. Lambrick and Madho Swaroop Vats, the decline of Indus civilization
happened due to change in the course of rivers. Giving evidence of their opinion, they said,
Mohenjodaro collapsed due to change in the course of Indus river and Kalibanga collapsed
due to drying up of Ghaggar river. It is said that earlier Sutlej river and Yamuna river were
tributaries of Ghaggar (Saraswati) river, but Sutlej changed its course and joined the Indus
and The Yamuna changed its course and joined The Ganga river, as a result the flow system
of Ghaggar river weakened and all the Harappan cities situated on its banks started to decline.

4. Epidemic -
 According to Mr. Kennedy, epidemic is the reason for the decline of Harappan civilization,
giving evidence in favor of his opinion, he presented evidence of malaria from Mohenjodaro,
but on the basis of Mohenjodaro alone it cannot be said that the entire civilization declined
due to epidemic.

Gradual decline
A. Ecological imbalance - According to Mr. Fair Servis, Harappans overexploited natural resources
in the race for urbanization, resulting in ecological imbalance. Due to less rainfall, agriculture
deteriorated, as a result Harappan trade was affected and gradually the civilization collapsed.
B. 900 years of drought - According to the scholars of IIT Kharagpur, there was a drought of 900
years in the North-West, as a result of which Harappan people migrated and Harappan cities
became deserted.
C. Climatic change - According to A.N. Ghosh and Aurel Stein, the decline of Harappan civilization
was due to climate related reasons. Hence, the population migrated towards the east. Along with
this, new agricultural land developed and the number of settlements started increasing towards
the east.
On the basis of the above reasons, it can be said that the decline of Harappan civilization
was not due to any one reason but it happened gradually as a result of various factors.

Question - Did the Harappan civilization end suddenly? If not, what is your opinion in this
regard?

Answer - Due to lack of necessary study material, the issue of the emergence and decline of the
Harappan civilization has been a controversial issue in the history writing of ancient India.
Initially, its decline was explained in terms of factors like invasion, natural disaster or epidemic.
But recent research has rejected this concept.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
26
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Mortimer Wheeler presented an explanation of the decline of the Harappan civilization in the
context of Aryan invasion. He declared that its end was destructive. In support of his opinion, he
gives the example of 26 skeletons from Mohenjodaro and the cemetery R-37 from Harappa. But
basically they depend on literary evidence and try to substantiate their opinion through quotations
like 'Harupiya' and 'Purandar' mentioned in Rigveda. But the archaeological evidence presented
by them is insufficient and the literary evidence is doubtful. On the basis of new research, it has
been established that there was a time gap of about 300 to 400 years between the fall of Harappan
civilization and the invasion of Vedic Aryans. Then some scholars consider flood, earthquake or
epidemic responsible for the sudden demise of this civilization. But it is worth remembering here
that the above mentioned factors can be responsible for the fall of some places but not for the
entire civilization. Then it is not appropriate to accept the concept of sudden demise here because
the fall of civilization meant only the fall of the urban phase, not the end of civilization; this
civilization continued in a changed form till further.

Today the theory of sudden demise is not accepted in the fall of Harappan civilization because the
Harappan tradition did not end but it continued in a changed form. It was named the Later
Harappan Civilization. We can divide the Later Harappan culture into five sub-regions, viz. Sindh
region, Western Punjab and Bahawalpur, Eastern Punjab and Haryana, Kutch and Saurashtra
region and Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. In Sindh, the 'Jhukar culture' developed as a regional
culture in the Amri, Chanhudaro etc. region. The cemetery 'H' culture developed in Western
Punjab and Bahawalpur. The most interesting fact is that while the number of settlements
decreased in the region of Punjab and Bahawalpur, the number of settlements expanded in the
region of Haryana, Gujarat and Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This is the reason why today the concept
of sudden death has lost its relevance in the context of Harappan civilization.

Impact/Contribution/Relevance of Harappan Civilization

 We find the origin of most of the elements of the later Indian civilization in the ancient
civilization of India.
 The biggest reason for its relevance and importance is that it was one of the oldest civilizations
of the world and its time witnessed urbanization for the first time.

1. Contribution in the economic sector:-

 Agriculture:-
 Use of plough - For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, evidence of a plough made of
clay has been found from Banawali (Haryana). Which was used in agricultural
production.
 Crop cycle - People of this period used to produce two crops simultaneously. Which later
appears as a crop cycle.
 Cotton production - The oldest evidence of cotton in the Indian subcontinent is found in
the Harappan civilization itself.
All these characteristics continued to be prevalent in different areas of the Indian
Subcontinent later on.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
27
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Animal husbandry -
 Humpbacked bull, sheep, goat etc. were the main animals, but Harappans were probably
unfamiliar with horses.
 Donkeys and camels were used to carry loads, which are still seen on the roads of India.
 Trade:-
 The most important feature of this civilization was the advanced trade system, which led
to the discovery of new routes at that time.
 Trade was conducted through both water and land routes, which remained prevalent in
the Indian subcontinent in later periods as well.
 Example: - Persian Gulf trade route.

2. Contribution in the social field:-

 Varna system -
 In the field of social life, we find the seeds of the Chaturvarna system in the Indus Valley
civilization.
 On the basis of the remains found in the excavation of Mohenjodaro, scholars have divided
the Indus Valley society into four castes - scholars, warriors, traders and craftsmen and
laborers.
 We can call them the ancestors of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
 Status of women -
 From the majority of female statues found from the excavation of the Harappan
civilization, it can be inferred that their family was matriarchal.
 The status of women of the Harappan civilization indicates the current women
empowerment.
 The food, drink, clothing and lifestyle of the Harappan people later became a part of the
Indian way of life.
 The divided society of the Harappan civilization - ruling class, priest class, merchant
class, these later appear in the form of the caste system of Indian society such as Brahmin,
Kshatriya, and Vaishya.

3. Contribution in the religious field:-

 Many religious beliefs of the Harappan people later got assimilated in Hinduism, for this
Hinduism is largely indebted to the Harappan religion
 Such as - worship of Mother Goddess, worship of Pashupati Shiva, tree worship, Swastika
worship, fire worship, and water worship, concept of yoga and afterlife and development of
Tantric rituals etc.

4. Contribution of Harappan art:-

 Architecture -
 An important feature of the Harappan civilization was its advanced city building plan,
 Although it is true that the Harappan civilization collapsed, but its developed city building
plan influenced the form of urban structure in the later period, the features of which are
also reflected somewhere in today's smart city plan.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
28
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Sculpture -
 Stone sculpture - Statues made of stone have been found in the Harappan civilization. For
example. Statue of a sadhu with a beard found at Mohenjodaro Two human statues found
from Harappa which give us knowledge of body structure.
 The animal clay statues made at that time probably became the source of inspiration for
the animal statues depicted in Ashoka's inscriptions.
 Bronze sculpture - Human and animal statues made of copper and bronze have been found
from various sites of the Harappan civilization.
 A special technique was used in the making of bronze statues which is known as the liquid
wax method. At present, the statue of Nataraja is made using this technique.

5. Contribution in technical and scientific knowledge:-

 Mathematics and measurement system:-
 The mathematics and measurement system of the Harappan people seems to be developed.
Till now it was believed that the information about the knowledge of numerals of Indians is
provided by the inscriptions of Ashoka. But the discovery of Harappan civilization proved
that the Harappan people were familiar with numerals. They used 16 and its multiples in
their calculations.
 Harappan people knew how to use feet and cubic in the measurement system. Scales made
of shell, copper and ivory have been found from Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothal
respectively. Similarly, they also used a weighing system made of stone.
 Field of medicine:-
 The achievement of the Harappan people can also be seen in the field of medicine.
 Two such infant skeletons have been found from Kalibanga and Lothal, on whose skulls
there is a evidence of surgery.
 Then two stone human statues have been found from Harappa which give us knowledge of
their body structure.
 Knowledge of Geometry:-
 Harappans had a better understanding of arithmetic and geometry and also had knowledge
of decimal and binary system.
 Harappans used standard measurements, weights and seals and also had knowledge of
metal casting system. The future generations also benefitted from all these.

Conclusion:- Harappans' well-organized city building plan, use of new crops in agriculture,
changes in social sphere and religious beliefs as well as unique experiments in art and scientific
field continued to inspire future civilizations as a guide.

Other facts
 The first attempt to read the script of Indus Valley Civilization was made by L.A. Badel in
1925.
 According to Alexander Cunningham, Harappan script is related to Brahmi script.
 Cotton was first cultivated by the Indus people, hence the Greeks called cotton 'Sindon'.
 After independence, most Harappan sites were discovered in Gujarat.
 The stupa mound found in Mohenjodaro was built during the reign of Kushan ruler Kanishka.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
29
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Stuart Piggot called Harappa and Mohenjodaro the twin capitals of a vast empire.
 Evidence of cow, iron etc. has not been found from the Harappan civilization.
 Harappan people probably did not even build temples.
 People of Mesopotamia knew Harappan civilization by the name of Meluha.
 Evidence of all three methods of funeral rites is found from Kalibanga.
 Balakot, Allahdino and Kotdiji are other Harappan sites located in Pakistan.
 Bhagwanpura and Mitathal were other major sites located in Haryana.

Possible Questions

2 MARKERS
(1.1) Manda
(1.2) Daimabad
(1.3) Alamgirpur
(1.4) Mitathal
(1.5) Great Bathing Room of Mohenjodaro
(1.6) Sutkagendor
(1.7) Kotdiji
(1.8) Lothal
(1.9) Rangpur
(1.10) Ropar

7 MARKERS
(2.1) Explain the city planning system of Harappan Civilization.
(2.2) Comment on the administrative system of Harappan Civilization.
(2.3) Write a note on the Great Bath.
(2.4) Discuss the water management and its conservation plan in Harappan cities.
(2.5) Explain the regional expansion of Harappan Civilization.

10 MARKERS
(3.1) Explain the origin of Harappan Civilization.
(3.2) Comment on the religious aspects of Harappan Civilization.
(3.3) Explain the various factors responsible for the decline of Harappan Civilization.
(3.4) Explain the urban elements of Harappan Civilization.
(3.5) Do you believe that there were many bases of livelihood of Harappan Civilization.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
30
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Vedic Civilization (1500 BC to 600 BC)

Sources of study

Literary evidence Archaeological evidence

Ochre colour Pottery

(Rigvedic evidence) Painted Grey Ware
Mantra Interpretation of mantras
(Later Vedic
Evidence)
 Brahmana – Ritual interpretation
Four Vedas of mantras
 Aranyaka – Mysterious
 Rigveda
interpretation of mantras.
 Yajurveda
 Upanishads – Mantras representing
 Samaveda the relationship between soul and
 Atharvaveda Brahma.

 Creator of Vedic Civilization - Arya - Meaning - superior, noble, noble, excellent.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
31
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Origin of Vedic Civilization

Historians are divided into two groups regarding the origin of Aryans in India. On one hand,
orientalist historians are saying that the origin place of Aryans was in the West, while Indian
historians are looking for the roots of their origin in their own country.

Reason for the controversy -

Since the British started writing Indian history with the aim of fulfilling their colonial
interests, they wanted to prove their legitimacy by showing that the Aryans originated from the
West.
The Aryans, Vedic civilization and the Vedas have become associated with India's identity,
so there is difficulty in proving their validity from abroad.

Hence two opinions come to light regarding the origin of the Aryans -

West Germany (Pancra) Evidence-

1. Prevalence of Indo-European language
in Scandinavian region
1- 2. Similarity in physical structure
Hungary and Danube Natural basis is considered as evidence
(P. Giles) like similarity in animals-birds, wheat-
rice, vegetation etc.
Central Asia Max Muller Most recognized opinion book:Sacred of
the east, lecture on the science &
language
North Pole Bal Gangadhar Tilak Book: The Arctic homes of Arya

India L.D. Kallar Kashmir

Rajbali Pandey Madhya Pradesh
Ganganath Jha Brahmarishi Desh
Dayanand Saraswati Tibet
Evidence - Geographical location given in Rigveda

India
 Many scholars believe that the Aryans were originally residents of India and from here they
went to different parts of the world.
 Pandit Ganganath Jha says that Brahmarshi Desh, D.S. Trivedi says that Devika in Multan, L.D.
Kallar says that the original place of residence of the Aryans was Kashmir and the Himalayan
region.
 But now we must accept that India was not the original place of residence of the Aryans. If the
Aryans were residents of India, they would have first of all Aryanised their own country. The
entire southern India is not Aryan language speaking even today.
 In the north-west, the 'Brahui' language is known from Baluchistan which was a language of the
Dravidian family. This indicates that the entire India or at least a large part of it was non-Aryan
in terms of language. This is the strongest evidence against the theory of Indian origin of Aryans.'

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
32
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

North Pole
 The first scholar to believe that the original place of Aryans was North Pole was Pandit Bal
Gangadhar Tilak. Mr. Tilak is of the opinion that Rig Veda was composed by Aryans in Sapta
Sindhu region. In one of its verses, there is a praise of long-lasting dawn. Long-lasting dawn is
seen only in North Pole.
 In Mahabharata, there is a description of Sumeru mountain where there is day for six months
and night for six months. Here also there is a reference towards North Pole. Hence, we can say
that Aryans were residents of North Pole and due to this reason, the memory of their original
land remained in their mind.
 But the above opinion of Tilak is not valid because it is based on mere literature. Aryans
themselves have called Sapta Sindhu region 'created by the gods' (Devkrit Yoni). If the North
Pole had been their original country then they would have clearly mentioned it somewhere.

Asia
 Many scholars have accepted different regions of Asia as the original homeland of the Aryans.
 Max Muller considers Central Asia, Rhodes Bactria and Edward Mayer considers the Pamir
Plateau as the original homeland of the Aryans. Mayer believes that from the Pamir Plateau the
Indo-Iranian race went eastwards to Punjab and westwards to Mesopotamia. This view has also
been supported by scholars like Oldenberg and Keith.
 Brandenstein has said that the Indian dictionary reveals that the Aryans originally lived in the
plains below a mountain. This plain was the Kirghiz Plain situated to the south of the Ural
Mountains.
 Those scholars who do not accept Asia as the original homeland of the Aryans say that the spread
of the idioms of the Indo-European language family proves that it would be more logical to
search for the original homeland of the Aryans in Europe than in Asia.

Europe
 Scholars in different places of the European continent- Germany, Hungary and Southern Russia
have presented their own arguments in favour of determining the original place of the Aryans.
Penka, Hirt etc. are prominent among the scholars who consider Germany to be the original
country of the Aryans. Their arguments are as follows-
 Scandinavia, situated in central Germany, was never under foreign domination, yet the residents
here spoke European language. This proves that the original place of the Indo-European
language was here.
 The physical characteristics of the Aryans also show them to be the aborigines of Germany. For
example, one of their main characteristics is brown hair. Even today, people of Germany are
found to have brown hair.
 But if the above arguments are critically reviewed, they will be refuted very easily. Scandinavia
cannot be considered the original place of the Aryans on the basis of linguistic alone. The
language of a place not changing indicates the lack of progress and narrowness of its speakers
and not its antiquity. As far as the question of grey hair is concerned, it is not a characteristic of
the residents of Germany alone. Patanjali has also described Indian Brahmins as having grey
hair, so can we accept India as the original country of the Aryans on this basis alone?

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
33
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Southern Russia
 On the basis of certain archaeological and linguistic materials, Mayer, Peak and Gardon Childe
have accepted Southern Russia as the original home of the Aryans.
 Excavations conducted in Southern Russia have yielded remains of almost the same culture that
existed during the time of the Aryans. Excavations here have also yielded remains of a horse,
which was the favourite animal of the Aryans. According to Mr. Piggot, the Aryans lived in a
vast region of Southern Russia.
 Pottery dating back to about 30,000 BCE has been found from Southern Russia. On this basis,
Nehring has declared Southern Russia as the original homeland of the Aryans. There is an
astonishing similarity in languages, which indicates that the Indo-European and Central Russian
races had historical contact since ancient times.
 Therefore, according to the above scholars, Southern Russia can be accepted as the original
home of the Aryans.

Conclusion -
 After analysing the various opinions and evidences of historians regarding the origin of Aryans,
we can say that the origin of Aryans should be considered to be from Central Asia only.

Vedic Literature -
Veda - Sanskrit - Vid - to know knowledge
 Compiler - Krishna Dwaipayan Vedavyas
 Language - Sanskrit
 Script - Brahmi

Other names -
 Shruti - Vedas are memorized by listening
 Nitya - Knowledge of Vedas is immortal.
 Apaurusheya - Vedas were composed by Gods

Number of Vedas - Four

Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda

Rigveda
Rigveda - Rik - group of verses
 Upveda - Ayurveda (Dhanvantari)
 Reciter - Hotri/Hota
 10 Mandals, 1028 Suktas, 10,580 verses

Branches of Rigveda
 Shakal
 Vaskal
 Ashvalayana
 Shankhayana
 Mandukya

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
34
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 This is the oldest book of the world which is compared to the Iranian book Zend-Avesta.
 Four seas have been discussed in the Rigveda.
 Himalayas were called 'Himavant' in the Rigveda where many peaks have been mentioned - like-
Mujavant, Shilavant, Arjik, Sushom/Sumeru.
 The word 'Dhanva' has been used for desert in the Rigveda.
 "Asato ma sadgamaya" has been mentioned.
 The concept of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam has been given.

 Mandal –
 2-7th Mandal is the most ancient, called Gotra Mandal, Rishi Mandal, Vansh Mandal.
 Most recent Mandal - First Mandal and 10th Mandal (longest Mandal)
1. Mandal - Mridhuchanda, Dirghatama, Medhatithi, Agastya - dedicated to Agni Dev
2. Mandal - Grahatsamada - Discussion of Aryans and Non-Aryans
3. Mandal - Vishwamitra - Gayatri. The mantra which is dedicated to Savita, the wife of Surya.
4. Mandal - Vamdev - mention of agriculture (24 times)
5. Mandal - Atri - Bhajan, discussion of 87 sutras
6. Mandal - Bharadwaj - Harupiya, Indra has been called Purandar.
7. Mandal - Vashishtha - Description of Dashragya war,
8. Mandal - Discussion of Kanva and Angiras.
9. Mandal - Kashyap - Praise of Som (Wind)
10. Mandal - Vimada, Indra, Shachi, Mitra - Purusha Sukta and Nadiya Sukta, Pururava - Urvashi
dialogue, Discussion of Yama-Yami dialogue.
 In Purusha Sukta of 10th Mandal - Mention of Varna system - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya,
Shudra.
 Nadiyasukta –
 42 rivers are discussed but only 19 rivers are described.
1. Sindhu - Hiranyani River,
2. Vitasta - Jhelum
3. Parushni - Ravi
4. Vipasa - Beas
5. Shatudri - Sutlej
6. Askini - Chenab
7. Drishdwati - Ghaggar
8. Sadanira - Gandak
9. Kubha - Kabul River
11. Suvastu - Swat River
12. Gomati - Gomal River
13. Krumu – Kurram

 Most important river - Sindhu

 Most sacred river - Saraswati - Naditama, Matetama, Devitama
 Mention of Ganga - 1
 Mention of Yamuna - 3
 (Note- Dasyu has been called Anarya, Ansa (flat nose).
 Akarman (person who does not believe in Vedic rituals)
 Shishnadeva - penis worshipper
 A tribe called Puru was also known as Trasadasyu.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
35
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Major words mentioned in Rigveda

 Pita - 335  Vidatha - 122  Rashtra - 10
 Jana - 275  Sabha - 8  Sena - 20
 Indra - 250  Samiti - 9  Yamuna - 3
 Mata - 234  Vishnu - 100  Ganga - 1
 Ashwa (Horse) - 215  Varun - 30  Raja - 1
 Agni - 200  Rudra - 3  Prithvi - 1
 Gau (Cow) - 176  Brahmin - 15  Varna – 23
 Vish - 170  Kshatriya - 9  Gana - 3
 Somdevata - 144  Vaishya - 1

 Words used
 Gavishti - war (search  One who catches  Fertile land - Urvara
of cows) criminals - Ugra  Big canal - Kulya
 Aghanya - cow (not  Sutkar - Rathkar  Plow - Langal
capable of being killed) (Charioteer)  Drains made from plow
 Gauhanta - guest  Spash - Guptchar (Spy) - Sita
 Duhita - daughter  Purapa - Durgapati  Cow dung manure -
 Duhitra - son (Fort Keeper) Karish or shakrit
 Gaudhuli - evening  Distance - Gavyuti
 To measure distance -  Land suitable for cattle
Gavyatu grazing - Khilya

Political system of the Rigvedic period

Introduction -
The Rigveda Granth throws light on the life of the Rigvedic period.
Rigvedic period administrative unit

Unit Chief

Jana Raja/Gop

Vish Vishpati

Gram Gramini

Family Kulapa

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
36
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Political Organization/Administrative Unit

 In the Rigvedic period, the basic unit of Aryan administration was the family (Kutumba). Whose
head was called Kulapa, many families together formed a village, whose head was Gramini and
groups of many villages together formed Vish, whose head was called Vishpati, many Vish
together formed Jana, whose chief officer was called Raja, Gop or Janasya Gopa.

King or Emperor
 The king was the chief officer of the Jana, who had two main functions, first to lead the tribes
during the war and to perform Yagyas for the prosperity of the tribe. Identity by joining the
tribe - King of the Bharat tribe.
 The post of the king was usually hereditary, but the king was not autocratic.

Chief Administrative Officer

a. Purohit - Advisor to the king and used to perform religious rituals for the king.
b. Senani - Head of the army, looked after the military organization and operated the army in
the absence of the king.
c. Gramini - He was the head of the village, and used to discharge the duties of the king in the
village.
Note:- (Head of pasture or large group - Vrajpati), Purapa - Officer of the fort.

Military Administration -
 In the Rigvedic period, the king did not maintain a permanent army and at the time of war, the
youth of the tribe were recruited. The army of the Aryans was called militia. Army Chief -
Senapati.

Revenue Administration -
 Sabha - An institution of noble people whose job was to do justice. (Mentioned 8 times in
Rigveda)
 Mention in Atharvaveda - Daughter of Prajapati
 Chairman - Sabhapati
 Members - Sabhaye
 Election of members for one year
 Sabha also had the right to remove the Ineligible king.
 Sabha as a modern legislature
 Samiti - Every member of the tribe was involved, and used to do work related to the election of
the king. (Mentioned 9 times in Rigveda) Basically a political institution, Ishan - Sabhapati.
 Vidatha - The oldest institution of the Aryans, whose work was probably to distribute looted
goods, religious and military work. (Mentioned 122 times in the Rigveda)

Justice and punishment system-

 Police - Ugra
 Criminal - Jivagrubha
 Fine - was taken in the form of cows.
There was no formal system of laws related to justice in the Rigvedic period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
37
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

But the king used to be the supreme officer of the justice system, Sabha also worked as another
judicial institution.

In the Rigveda, crimes like theft, cheating, robbery, stealing animals etc. were prevalent, strict
punishments were given for crimes, but death penalty was not prevalent.

Rigvedic social system

 Nature - patriarchal, egalitarian society
Introduction -
 Rigveda gives us social information about the Aryans, which is as follows -
Patriarchal family -
 In this period, families were generally joint and the father had complete control over the family,
who was called Grihapati.
 The story of Rijasva and Vishwamitra gives us information that the state cannot interfere in the
rights of the father.
Varna System -
 Tenth Mandal Purusha Sukta
 Rigvedic society was divided into four Varnas - Brahmin (study or teaching), Kshatriya
(protection, governance), Vaishya (agricultural or productive Varna), Shudra (service of other
three Varnas) based on Karma, there was no class distinction.
 But Rigvedic Varna Vyavastha was not based on birth but on Karma, this is confirmed by a
mantra mentioned in Rigveda, a student says, I am a poet, my mother grinds food and my father
is a doctor. As another example Vishwamitra was Kshatriya by birth but was Brahmin by
Karma.
Condition of women -
 The condition of women was better in the Rigvedic period.
 They used to participate in the Yagya along with their husbands.
 They had the right to education, for example - Lopamudra, Vishwavara, Ghosha, Sikta, Apala
etc.
 Child marriage, Sati system etc. were not prevalent.
 Widow marriage, inter-caste marriage etc. were prevalent.
 Women used to participate in Sabha, Samiti and have property rights.
 The respect of women is confirmed by Jayadastam in Rigveda i.e. "wife is the home".
 In Shatapath Brahman, wife has been called the better half of the husband.

Tribal customs -
 Rigvedic society had some tribal customs like polygamy (Maruts and Rodasi).
 Caste system and untouchability did not exist.
Niyog system etc.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
38
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Marriage system -
 There is mention of Anulom (man of high caste and woman of low caste) and Pratilom marriage
(woman of high caste and man of low caste).

Slavery -
 Slavery was prevalent in Rigvedic society, but slaves were employed in domestic work, not in
agriculture work.
Food and drink -
 Aryans were generally vegetarian and non-vegetarian.
 Vegetarians - Rice, barley, Ksheerapkondan (DahitYav), Somras, milk, curd etc., SattutCurd -
Karambha, ApoopaGhritakatam (Malpua)
 Non-vegetarians - Sheep, goat etc.

Dress -
 Clothing - They wore clothes made of cotton, wool and deerskin.
 Four types of clothes - Vaas (cloth below the waist), Adhivas (upper garment) and Ushniya
(turban), Nivi (under garment).

Ornaments -
 Karna Shobhan (Ear Rings), Nishkagriv (Kandhaar), Karir (Head Ornaments), Ring, Bhujband
(Bracelet) etc.

Means of entertainment -
 Horse racing, chariot racing, wrestling, dance, music, gambling etc.

Rigvedic Economic System

Introduction -
 It was mainly a tribal system. Information about the economic system of Rigvedic society is
available from Rigveda, the main basis of the economy of this society was animal husbandry,
then there was evidence of agriculture and industry, which can be understood as follows -

Animal husbandry -
 Temporary life - Rigvedic Aryans used to do animal husbandry first as wealth, in which they
used to rear cows, sheep, goats, horses etc. Cows were of the highest importance for the Aryans,
cow was considered a symbol of prosperity. The most favorite animal of the Aryans was horse.

Agriculture -
 Two types of water for irrigation - 1. Swayamja - rain, pond water, 2. Khanitraya - well or by
digging the land.
 Agriculture was the second occupation of the Aryans, because at this time land was unimportant.
Nevertheless, agriculture is mentioned 24 times in the Rigveda and other sentences related to
agriculture are mentioned.
 Like - Langal (plough), Sita (furrows made from plough) etc. They produced crops like Yava
(barley), Vrihi (rice) etc.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
39
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Industries -
 Rigvedic Aryans usually worked in textile industry, carpentry, labour, charioteer, potter etc.
 Probably the word Ayas was used in the Rigveda in the form of bronze or copper, which shows
that the Aryans also had knowledge of metal craft.

Trade -
 In the Rigveda, mainly internal trade was prevalent, which was done by carts, chariots and
animals, the group of people who traveled to distant areas for trade were called Pani.
 There is no mention of sea trade in Rigveda, however there is a description of the journey of
Bhujya, which shows that Rigvedic Aryans had knowledge of boats. In this period, the
moneylender class was called Vekanat.

Medium of exchange -
 In Rigveda, the medium of exchange was largely barter system, but possibly cows, horses,
Nishkas etc. would also have been used for exchange.

Religious life of Rigvedic Aryans

Nature worshipper -
 When Rigvedic Aryans failed to understand the mysteries of nature, they started worshipping
nature as gods like Sun, Earth, Water, Fire etc.

Praise and sacrifice -

 The method of worship of Aryans was very simple. They used to praise and perform sacrifices
to please the gods, and as a result, they wished for wealth, grains, etc., for their sons and
grandsons.

Lack of temples and idol worship -

 There is no mention of any kind of temple or idol in Rigveda, but they used to praise and perform
sacrifices to please the gods.

Concept of heaven and hell -

 Aryans believed that people who do good deeds and virtue enjoy happiness in heaven. People
with immoral thoughts and evil people will burn in the fire of hell.

Concept of Rita -
 Rita means morality, the concept of Rita was emphasized to maintain morality among
Rigvedic Aryans. Varun Deva used to regulate moral rules in nature, hence Varun Deva has
been called Ritasyagopa.

Categories of Gods -
 According to Rigveda, Aryans had a total of 33 Gods.

Sky Gods -
 Polytheists
 Dominance of male sentiment

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
40
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Dyau - (Sky) - The oldest God of Aryans

 Varun - (Iranian - Ahuramazda), Greek (Uranus) - God of the sea - creator of the earth, sun,
regulator of the world etc.
 Mitra - God of oaths and promises
 Surya, Vishnu etc.
 Savita - wife of Surya
 Usha - Goddess of morning
 Ashwin - God of crisis, physician
 Pushan - God of animals

Space Gods -
 Indra - God of rain, storm, hurricane and lightning, Purandar
 Rudra - God with a very angry nature, temperament, Kritavas (wearer of skin), Trayambaka
 Marut - God of storm
 Aditi - Mother of gods and goddess who gives freedom from bondage

Terrestrial Gods -
 Agni - Mediator between humans and gods
 Som - God of joy of Aryans and god of vegetation
 Brihaspati - Guru of gods
 Saraswati - Goddess of speech

(Note- Henotheism - (Whenever Rigvedic sages prayed to any god, they considered him supreme and
attributed all the qualities to him. Max Muller has called this tendency Henotheism.)

Rigvedic Philosophy
In the Vedas we find many stages of philosophical development. The basic reason for
this is that in the Vedas we find harmony between philosophy and religion. Both philosophy
and religion are related to experience.
Dr. Radhakrishnan has called the hymns of the Rigveda as indicative of a
philosophical tendency.
He believes that the Rigvedic hymns are philosophical in the sense that they try to explain
the mystery of the world not by any superhuman insight or extraordinary divine inspiration
but by independent reasoning.
1. World View -
 Rigveda - In philosophy, the world is considered to be true. It is said in Vedic mantras that
God has created the world from pre-existing matter. For example, the description of the
process of creation is found in the Nasadeep Sukta of Rigveda.
 In other Suktas of the Veda, the world is considered to have originated from fire.
 Apart from this, the earth, sky, day, night, water etc. are considered to have originated
from Som.

2. Relation between the Jivatma and the Parmatma –

 Knowledge and happiness, which are the ultimate goals, can be achieved through the unity
of the Jivatma and the Parmatma. Therefore, according to the Rigveda, the unity of the
Jivatma and the Parmatma is the only means to achieve the ultimate goal.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
41
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

3. Vedic Monotheism –
 The desire of the human heart could not be satisfied with polytheism, which god should be
considered superior, this led to the development of the tendency of skepticism. Because
religious consciousness forces us to accept only one deity as the best deity. Dr.
Radhakrishnan has said that 'we cannot accept polytheism because religious consciousness
is contrary to it'. This is the reason why Vedic philosophy transitions towards monotheism.

4. Rigvedic monotheism or Advaitvad –

 The Advaitism of Rigveda is centered on two Suktas.
 Purush Sukta - The glory of the Supreme Being has been mentioned in Purush Sukta. In this, the
entire world has been seen in one form and the unity of the original existence has been
emphasized. It has been said that whatever is there and whatever will be, all are included in one
element. A glimpse of world unity is seen in this.
 Nasadiya Sukta - A strong example of Advaitism is found in Nasadiya Sukta, which has been
established as the flower of Indian ideology. A glimpse of Nirgun Brahma is seen here.

Conclusion - On the basis of the following characteristics it can be said that the elements of
philosophy were present even in the Rigvedic period.

Latervedic period 1000-600 BC

 In Indian history, that period is called Latervedic period, in which Samveda, Yajurveda,
Atharvaveda, Brahmin texts, Aranyakas, Upanishads etc. were composed.
 In Latervedic, Aryans conquered Yamuna, Ganga and southern perennial rivers, and expanded
Aryavarta to Himalayas in the north, Gandhara in the west, Videha in the east and Narmada
river in the south.
 It is mentioned in Shatapath Brahman text that Videha Madhav, with the help of his guru
Rahugan, cleaned the area from Saraswati river to Gandak (Sadandra) river by fire.
 Magadha and Anga were all non-Aryan kingdoms, which were called Vratya in Atharvaveda.
 Rigvedic people united and started forming big Janapadas. For example - Puru and Bharat
tribes together established Kuru, Turvash and Krivi tribes together established Panchal
Janapada.
 Panchals were described as superior in Shatpath Brahman and Kurus in Atharvaveda, the last
king of Kurus was Nichakshu who shifted his capital from Hastinapur to Kaushambi
 Rigvedic system started becoming complex in the Latervedic period.

Later Vedic period

Literary sources Archaeological

sources.

Yajurveda Samveda Atharva Brahmin Aranyaka Upanishad Painted Gray Pottery

-veda texts

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
42
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Samveda -
 Sama - singing poetry book
 Reciter - Udgata
 Upveda - Gandharvaveda (Narada)
 Most of the mantras are taken from Rigveda.
 Considered to be the father of Indian music.

Yajurveda - Reader –
 Recieten- Adhvaryu
 Upveda - Dhanurveda (Vishwamitra)
 Yagya - Mention of methods and rituals
 In both prose and poetry
a. Krishna Yajurveda – poetic and prose
b. Shukla Yajurveda - poctic – it is also called Vajasaneyi Samhita.

Atharvaveda -
 Reciter - Brahma
 Upveda - Shilpaveda (Vishwakarma)
 Description of mesmirism, witchcraft, ghosts and medicines is found.
 Parikshit is called the god of the mortal world.
 Mention of Sabha-Samiti
 Said to be the daughters of prajapati.
 It is also called Brahmaveda, Shresthveda, Laukikaveda, Navinveda, Lokpriyaveda.
 Mention of Karish is found.
 Kuru and Panchal Janapada are described as Shrestha and Magadh Janapada is described as
Vratya.
 Prithuvainya is mentioned as a plough
Note-Mahabharata is called Panchamveda.

Brahman texts -
Based on rituals for the explanation of Vedic mantras
Original Karma - Yoga subject

1. Brahmans of Rigveda –
Aitereya Brahman - Women are said to be the cause of all sufferings.
Kaushitaki Brahman - composed by Shankhayana Rishi.
2. Brahmans of Yajurveda - Women are said to be the better half of men.
a. Shatpath - In the context of Ashvamedha, Janak, Dushyant and Jan are discussed.
b. Taittiriya - Man's conduct should be like that of gods. In this, mind is considered to be the
supreme Prajapati.
3. Brahmans of Samaveda –
a. Panchavisha - There is mention of the disappearance and reappearance of river Saraswati.
b. Shadavisha - 26 chapters - Name of Tandakshesha Brahman
c. Jaiminiya Brahman
4. Atharvaveda - The only Brahman - Gopath - There is a discussion of the concept of Kevalya.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
43
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Aranyaka -
 Literature written in the forest.
 These texts were contemplated upon in the forest.
 Subject matter - chapters, contemplation and philosophy etc.
 There is no Aranyaka of Atharvaveda.
 Opposition to yajna and rituals.

Upanishad/Vedanta -
 Subject - philosophical
 Number - 108
 Number according to Shankaracharya - 10
 Authentic Upanishads - 13
 Dara Shikoh translated 52 Upanishads in the name of "Sirr-e-Akbar".

 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad - Yajurveda

 The largest Upanishad
 There is clear evidence of reincarnation.
 It mentions the conversation between sage Yagyavalkya and Gargi (woman).

 Chandogya Upanishad - Samaveda

 It mentions Krishna as son of devaki and disciple of Angiras.
 The story of sage Satyakam Jabali is discussed.
 Name of Panchamveda - 3 ashrams are mentioned.

 Mundakaopanishad - Atharvaveda
 Yagyas are compared to broken boats.
 India's national motto Satyameva Jayate is taken from here.

 Jabalopanishad - Yajurveda
 There is mention of all the four ashrams.

 Kathopanishad - Yajurveda
 Description of Yama-Nachiketa dialogue

 Mandukya Upanishad - Atharvaveda

 The smallest Upanishad

 Ishopanishad - Yajurveda - mention of yagya valakya and Shvetketu dialogue

 Shvetashvatoshanishad - Yajurveda - mentions the concept of bhakti, principles of Yoga,
Sankhya and Vedanta and ideas related to the world.

Vedanga -
 Are the last Treatises of the Vedic literature.
 Shudra - Rules related to rituals.
 Shiksha - Vedic pronunciation - Nose of Vedas
 Kalpa - Hands of Vedas
 Vyakaran - Panini - Mouth of Vedas

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
44
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Nirukta - Yaska Rishi - First use of the word caste - Ears of Vedas
 Mention of the meaning of Vedic words - Etymology
 Chhand - Pingal Rishi - Feet of Vedas, Cover of Vedas
 Jyotish - Lagadhamuni - Eyes of Vedas
 Understanding of the time of Yagya and rituals
a. Shrauta Sutra - Kalpa Vidhan of Vedic rituals, in this, Havan, Yoga, Ishtiya and Satra are
envisaged. Shulva Sutra is its part. From this, geometry started.
b. Grihya Sutra - Description of 16 sanskaras, 8 types of marriages.
c. Dharma Sutra - It is the rule of 4 Purusharth, Varnashram Dharma, personal conduct, duties
of king and subjects etc.
d. Shulva sutra - Geometrical knowledge related to the construction of Yagya altar is
mentioned.

Sanskara

Meaning Purpose Elements Types Importance

Meaning
 Religion has two aspects, one of which is faith and the other is action.
 Faith is the intangible aspect of religion, while action is the tangible aspect of religion. The
practical aspect of religion includes rites, rituals, rules and ceremonies etc.
 For the moral, mental and spiritual development of man and for the emergence of strength,
courage, wisdom and divine qualities in him, Sanskar have been prescribed in the scriptures.
 The word 'Sanskar' is formed by adding the suffix 'Ghan' to the root 'Kri' with the prefix 'Sam',
which literally means refinement, purity or sanctity. In this way, in the Hindu system, Sanskara
have been prescribed with the aim of refining or purifying the body of a person so that he can
become worthy of personal and social development and the parushartha of Dharma, Artha,
Kama and Moksha.
 The word Sacrament has been used in English for Sanskar, which means religious rituals.
 Any person attains dual status only through these sanskars. Every person is a Shudra by birth
but due to these sanskars he falls into the category of Dwij - Janmana Jaayte Shudrah Sanskarad
Dwij Uchyate.

Purpose of Sanskars
 To generate devotion towards spiritual values.
 Development of moral qualities.
 To protect from evil forces.
 To get the blessings of the gods.
 Desire for material happiness and prosperity.
 Expression of joy.
 Inspiration to assume roles according to the time.
 Development of social uniformity.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
45
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Elements of Sanskars

Aastha (faith)
 The performance of Sanskars is associated with the belief of the person that by performing them,
desired results can be achieved and protection can be provided from evil forces.

Agni (fire)
 Fire is considered to be the medium between man and God, therefore, Sanskars are performed
by keeping Agni as a witness, lighting it and offering sacrifices in the fire.

Yagna and Ahuti, Bali, Tarpan, Daan

 Sanskars are performed through many rituals. In these rituals and activities, there is provision
for performing Yagya, offering sacrifices, animal sacrifice, Tarpan and Daan etc. Nowadays, the
practice of offering sacrifices has almost ended.

Worship and Prayer

 An important element of Sanskars is the worship and adoration of Ishtdev (chosen deities).

Use of water
 Water is also a symbol of purity, that is why before performing the rituals, the house is purified
with water and water is also used for personal purity.

East direction
 East direction is considered sacred for performing sanskars. All sanskars are performed by
applying kumkum and keeping the face towards the east.

Other symbolic objects

 Symbolically, other objects like stone, kusha, mango leaves, turmeric, flowers, coconut etc. have
also been used to perform rituals.

Prohibition
 A person has to follow some prohibitions such as those related to food, movement, place, time
etc.

Social participation
 While performing rituals, the presence of members of the society is considered necessary.

Social consent
 The presence of other people is considered mandatory for performing rituals. Unless other
people are present or become witnesses to the rituals, the performance of rituals is not acceptable
to the society.

Types of sanskars
 There is a difference of opinion among scholars about the number of rituals, but those rituals
can be classified into the following three types -

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
46
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Prenatal sanskars – Garbhadhan, Pumsavana, Simantonnayana.

 Childhood rituals - Jatakarma, Namkaran, Nishkramana, Annaprashana, Chudakarana,
Karnavedhan.
 Education related rituals - Vidyarambha, Upanayan, Vedarambha, Keshant, Samavartana.
 Marriage rituals
 Funeral rites.
Scholars have enumerated the sanskars mentioned in various scriptures under these sanskars.

(1) Garbhadhan
 This was the first sanskars of life through which a man implanted his seed in his wife's womb.
 This sanskars started from the late Vedic period.
 The appropriate time and environment for this is mentioned in the Sutras and Smritis. For this
it was necessary that the woman should be in her period.
 The fourth to sixteenth nights after the period are considered suitable for conception.
 In most of the Grihyasutras and Smritis, the fourth night is considered pure. Garbhadhan was
prohibited on the eighth, fifteenth, eighteenth and thirtieth nights.
 Only the night time was suitable for Garbhadhan, this act was prohibited during the day.
 It is said in the Prashnopanishad that a woman who conceives during the day gives birth to
unfortunate, weak and short-lived children. But this rule was relaxed for those who lived abroad,
away from their wives. The last hour of the night was also considered to be suitable for
conception.
 It was believed that conception during the even nights would result in a son and during the odd
nights a daughter.
 In ancient times, the system of Niyog was also prevalent, under which a woman would conceive
from her husband's brother or a person of the same clan, if her husband died or became
impotent, to have a child. But this has been condemned in most of the scriptures. Manu has called
it "Pashudharm".

(2) Pumsavana
 This sanskar was performed in the third month of pregnancy to beget a son.
 Pumsavan means “the ritual or deed which results in the birth of a son” (Pumaan prasuyate
yena karmana tatpunsavanamiritam).
 Through this sanskar, the deities who protected the fetus in the womb were appeased through
worship.
 This sanskar was performed when the moon was in Pushya Nakshatra because this time was
considered suitable for begetting a son.
 At night, the juice of the bark of the banyan tree was squeezed out and poured into the right
nostril of the woman.
 This eliminated the possibility of abortion and removed all obstacles.
 The purpose of Pumsavan ritual was to bring welfare to the family and through it, to the society.

(3)Simantonnayana
 This sanskar was performed from the fourth to the eighth month of pregnancy.
 In this, the hair of the woman (Simanta) was raised. There was a belief that the body of a
pregnant woman is obstructed by ghosts and some religious acts should be performed to prevent
them. This sanskar was prescribed for this very purpose.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
47
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Through this, the prosperity of the pregnant woman and the longevity of the foetus were wished
for. On the day this sanskar was performed, the woman would fast. The man would worship the
mother and sacrifices would be made to the Prajapati deities. At this time, he would keep a bunch
of raw Udumber fruits and He held three royal forks with a white mark.
 The woman would put fragrant oil in her hair and enter the yajna mandap where her husband
would raise her hair amidst the recitation of Vedic mantras. Later, a red mark started being
made on the body of the pregnant woman so that ghosts and spirits would be scared and stay
away from her. With this ritual, the woman was provided with happiness and solace.

(4) Jaatkarma
 A sanskara called Jaatkarma was performed at the time of the child's birth.
 It was usually performed before the child's umbilical cord was cut. His father would go to him
after taking a ceremonial bath. He would tough and smell his son.
 On this occasion he would recite blessing mantras in his ears, wishing for long life and wisdom.
 The child was then fed honey and ghee, and then breastfed for the first time.
 After the completion of the sanskar, gifts were given to the Brahmins and alms were distributed.
Everyone prayed for a long and healthy life for the mother and the child.

(5) Naamkaran (Naamdheya)

 The “Naamkaran” sanskar was performed on the tenth or twelfth day of the child’s birth, in
which the child was named.
 Naamkaran had a very important place in ancient Hindu society. According to Brihaspati, the
name is the first means of public interaction. It is the basis of virtue and fortune. It is through
this that a man achieves fame.
 A detailed description of this sanskar is found in ancient scriptures. An auspicious date,
constellation and auspicious time were selected for this ceremony. It was kept in mind that the
name of the child should be indicative of the family, community and caste.
 The mother and the child would take a bath. After that, the mother would soak the child’s head
in water and cover it with a clean cloth and give it to the father. Then sacrifices were offered to
Prajapati constellation gods, Agni, Som etc. The father would touch the breath of the child and
then the child would be named. At the end of the sanskar, a feast was served to the Brahmin.

(6) Nishkramana
 This sanskar was performed in the third or fourth month of the child's birth in which the child
was taken out of the house for the first time.
 This sanskar was performed by the parents. On that day a square portion of the courtyard of
the house was plastered with cow dung and mud. A Swastika symbol was made on it and rice
was sprinkled.
 The child was bathed, dressed in new clothes and taken in front of the yajna and Vedic mantras
were recited. Then the mother would take the child out and the child would be shown the sun
for the first time. This would also bring him in contact with the outside environment of the house.

(7) Annaprashana
 In the sixth month of the child's life, a sanskara called Annaprashana was performed in which
cooked food was fed to the child for the first time. It was prescribed to feed milk, ghee, curd and
cooked rice.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
48
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 In Grihya Sutras, there is also a provision for feeding meat of various birds and fish during this
sanskara.
 Later, the practice of feeding only milk and rice became popular.
 On the day of Annaprashana, food was cooked in a sacred manner with Vedic mantras. First of
all, an oblation was offered to Vagdevi. Finally, the father of the child would mix all the food
grains and make the child eat them. Thereafter, this sanskara would end by giving a feast to the
Brahmins.
 The purpose of this sanskara was that at an appropriate time, the child should stop drinking
mother's milk and become capable of surviving on food etc.

(8) Chudakarana (Chaula Karma)

 An important sanskara after Annaprashana was Chudakarana or Chaulakarma in which the
hair of the child was cut for the first time.
 According to Grihyasutras, this sanskara should be performed before the end of the first year of
birth or the end of the third year.
 Some Smriti writers keep its duration up to the fifth and seventh year.
 Ashvalayana is of the opinion that Chudakarma is commendable to be performed in the third or
fifth year, but it can also be performed at the time of seventh year or Upanayana.
 Earlier this sanskara was performed at home, but later it started being performed in a temple
in front of the deity.
 An auspicious day and time was fixed for this. In the beginning, Sankalp, Ganesh Puja, Mangal
Shraddha etc. were performed and food was served to the Brahmins.
 Thereafter the mother would bathe the child, put on new clothes and sit facing west of the
sacrificial fire. After this, the child's hair was cut during the prayers. The cut hair was hidden in
cow dung.
 Butter or curd was applied on the child's head. The belief behind covering the hair in cow dung
was that they were body parts and hence they should not fall prey to witchcraft by the enemies.
For this reason they were kept out of everyone's reach.
 The idea behind this sanskara was to make the child aware of cleanliness and hygiene which
were essential for health.

(9) Karnavedhan
 In this sanskara, the child's ear was pierced and a 'wali' or 'kundal' was put in it.
 Sushruta has described its purpose as protection and decoration.
 There is a difference of opinion about its time. Different scholars describe it from the tenth day
of birth to the fifth year.
 For ear-piercing, needles of gold, silver and ayas (iron) were used according to one's ability.
Different types of needles were used for children of different castes.
 There is a rule that the ear-piercing of a Kshatriya child was done with a golden needle, of a
Brahmin and a Vaishya with a silver needle and of a Shudra with an iron needle.
 It was performed in a religious manner. The child was made to sit facing the east. He was given
sweets to eat. After that, amidst the Vedic mantras, first the right ear and then the left ear were
pierced. Karnavedhan was a mandatory ritual and not performing it was considered a sin.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
49
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

(10) Vidyarambha
 When the child's brain became capable of receiving education, then this sanskar was performed
in which he was taught alphabets. This is why people also call it "Akshararambha".
 Its time is said to be the fifth year of birth or before the Upanayan ceremony.
 Vidyarambha sanskara was performed on an auspicious day and time. On that day, the child
was bathed and decorated with fragrant substances and clothes. First, Ganesha, Saraswati,
Lakshmi and the family deities were worshipped. After that, the teacher would sit facing the east
and get the child to start his Vidyarambha by making him write "Om", Swastika, Namah
Siddhaya etc. on a piece of paper.
 The child would worship the Guru and read what he had written three times.
 The child would offer clothes and ornaments to the Guru and would circumambulate the deities
three times. The Brahmins present would bless him.
 On completion of the ceremony, a turban was presented to the Guru. Vidyarambha ceremony
was related to the child's intelligence and knowledge. This brought out the inherent intellectual
qualities in him.

(11) Upanayana
 In ancient Hindu sanskara, “Upanayana” had the greatest importance, through which a child
became entitled to acquire complete knowledge. In fact, his intellectual development began with
this sanskara.
 The literal meaning of “Upanayana” is to take near. It means taking the child to the Guru for
education. The antiquity of this sanskara goes back to prehistoric times.
 This was a popular sanskara in the Vedic era. In the Rigveda, the word “Brahamacharya” has
been mentioned at two places in the sense of the life of a religious student.
 A detailed description of this ritual is found in the Sutra and Smriti literature.

Age for Upanayana

 The age of the student for Upanayana is found in ancient texts.
 The age of eight, eleven and twelve years was determined for Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya
students respectively.
 Bauddhayana is of the opinion that the Upanayana ceremony should be performed between the
ages of eight and sixteen.
 There is no sanction for receiving Vedic education after sixteen years. The different ages fixed
for Upanayana for Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya children were due to their family traditions
and not the concept of caste discrimination.

Purpose of Upanayana
 The purpose of the Upanayana ceremony was mainly educational.
 According to Yagyavalkya, its supreme aim is to study the Vedas. According to him, the Acharya
should teach the Vedas and conduct to the initiated disciple.
 Over time, its purpose became religious and it started being performed as a ritual.
 It is prescribed in Manusmriti that Upanayana purifies both the worldly and the spiritual life.

(12) Vedarambh
 This sanskar is first mentioned in Vyas Smriti.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
50
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 In the beginning, Upanayana and the study of Vedas usually started at the same time. The study
of Vedas was started with Gayatri Mantra. Over time, the study of Vedas slowed down and
Sanskrit was no longer a spoken language. Now Upanayana became a physical sanskar with
which the child started receiving education in his own language instead of studying Vedas.
 Therefore, sociologists, with the aim of maintaining the tradition of studying Vedas, gave it the
form of a new sanskar and separated Upanayana from it.
 This was a completely educational sanskar which started with the child's study of Vedas. At the
beginning of the Vedadhyayan sanskar, mother worship was done. Thereafter, the Acharya
would light the cosmic fire and make the student sit to its west.
 If the study of Rigveda was to be started, then two offering of ghee were made to the earth and
fire, while studying Yajurveda, oblations were offered to space and air, while studying Samveda,
offering were made to Dyaus and Sun and while studying Atharvaveda, offerings were made to
the directions and the moon.
 It is said in Manusmriti that the student should pronounce the word “Om” at the beginning and
at the end of the study of Vedas. If it is not uttered in the beginning, the study gets ruined and if
it is not done at the end, it does not continue.

(13) Keshantha or Godan

 While studying with the Guru, the student was first made to shave his beard & moustache at
the age of sixteen. This is called the Keshantha Sanskar.
 On this occasion, a cow was given to the Guru as Dakshina. This is why it is also called the Godan
Sanskar.
 Through this Sanskar, the student was reminded once again of the vows of celibacy and he again
vowed to follow them.
 The method of Keshantha Sanskar was similar to the Chudakarma. The barber would shave the
student's beard and moustache amidst Vedic mantras. The hair was immersed in water. Then
the student would give a cow to the Guru as Dakshina. In the end, he would observe a vow of
silence and lead a life of strict discipline for a year.

(14) Samavartana
 When the student returned to his home after completing his education in Gurukul, a ceremony
called Samavartana was performed. Its literal meaning is - "Returning to one's home from the
Guru's ashram."
 It is also called "Snaan" because on this occasion bathing was the most important activity. After
this the student became a "graduate".
 There was no age limit for Samavartana Sanskar. Generally it was performed only after the
student had completed his studies.
 Rajbali Pandey is of the opinion that Samavartana Sanskar was initially similar to the modern
convocation ceremony.
 It was performed only for those students who completed their education formally by following
all the vows of Brahmacharya Ashram. Over time this rule became relaxed.
 Samavartana Sanskar allowed a person to enter the Grihasthashram.

(15) Vivaha
 This is the most important ritual of ancient Hindu society, the importance of which is still present
today. The Grihasthashram (householding life) started with this sanskara.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
51
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 The word “Vivaha” is formed from the root “vaha” with the prefix “vi”, which literally means
“taking or delivering the bride to the groom’s house.” But since ancient times, this word denotes
the entire sanskara.
 It has been recognized as a sacred religious institution in Hindu society, the purpose of which
was to fulfill various purusharthas with the cooperation of husband and wife.

 Marriage was described as an essential sanskara, which was a religious and social obligation for
every person to perform. It was considered necessary for all classes to perform it. Yagyavalkya
has clearly written – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, whoever he may be, if he is not
married, he is not fit for karma.

(16) Antyeshti Ceremony

 The last rites of human life are Antyeshti which are performed at the time of death. Its purpose
is to provide peace and happiness to the dead soul in heaven.
 According to Baudhayana, a person wins the world through the sanskara performed after birth
and through this antyeshti sanskara he conquers heaven.
 The practice of burning, burying or throwing away the dead body was prevalent in Hindu
society. The thirteenth day after cremation was usually the thirteenth day and in this Pinddaan,
Shraddh and food was served to Brahmins. After this the family of the deceased became pure.
All these rituals are performed according to the rules even today in Hindu society.
 Thus, after discussing all the sanskara, we reach the conclusion that their ideal was very lofty.
In fact, Hindu thinkers made these laws keeping in mind the all-round development of a person.
Sanskars were definitely helpful in both the physical and spiritual development of a person.

Utility or importance of Sanskars

 Making a person capable by adorning him with good qualities
 Making the worldly and spiritual life of a person from birth to death happy
 Contains the concept of all-round development of human life
 Making a person aware and conscious of his duties
 Making a person well behaved and of good character
 Enhancing personality by providing purity to a person
 Helpful in the socialization of a person
 Made a person familiar with the rules and regulations of society, due to which a person gradually
started adjusting himself in the society
 Made a person imbued with moral and cultural elements
 Worked to take a person from ignorance to knowledge
 They uplifted and prospered the person and the society, this was their ultimate and real
importance.

8 Types of Vivaha -
 Conducive to religion -
 Brahma Vivaha
 God Vivaha
 Arsha Vivaha
 Prajapati Vivaha

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
52
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Contrary to religion -
 Gandharva Vivaha
 Asura Vivaha
 Rakshasa Vivaha
 Paisach Vivaha

4 Purushartha -
1. Dharma
2. Artha
3. Kama
4. Moksha

Ashram system -
1. Brahmacharya Ashram
2. Grihastha ashram
3. Vanprastha Ashram
4. Sannyasa Ashram

Mention of the panch mahayajna and tri rina

a. Brahma Yajna
b. Pitru Yajna
c. Deva Yajna
d. Bhuth Yajna
e. Atithi Yajna

Tri Rina -
a. Rishi Rina
b. Pitra Rina
c. Deva Rina

Smriti texts
 Maharishi Manu - Hindu Law Code
1. Manu Smriti - (Shunga period)
 Mention of 7 types of slaves
 Support of Sati Pratha
 Son should repay the debt taken by the father.

2. Narada Smriti - (Gupta period)

 Opposed Sati Pratha
 Right of women to remarry
 Mention of 15 types of slaves
 Mention of the word Dinar for the first time
3. Maitrayani Samhita - Compared women to Liquor and gambling.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
53
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Epic -
1. Ramayana - (9 BC)
 Author - Valmiki
 Language - Sanskrit
 Script - Brahmi
 It is also called Adikavya.
 It is also called the Chaturvishati Samhita.
 It has seven Kandas - Balkanda, Ayodhyakanda, Aranyakanda, Kishkindhakanda, Sundar
Kanda, Lankakanda and Uttara Kanda.

2. Mahabharata - (9 BC)
 Author - Maharishi Ved Vyas
 Language - Sanskrit, Script - Brahmi
 It describes 18 parvas.
 Its sixth parva is called Bhishma Parva (Gita Gyan).
 It is the world's largest epic.
 It is called Jayasamhita, Bharat, Mahabharata, Shatasahastri Samhita (1,000,00)
 Bharat - 8000 verses
 Mahabharata - 24,000 verses
 Faizi translated it into Persian under the name - Razmnama (Akbar period).

3. Puranas - These contain descriptions of the genealogy of ancient kings. These were compiled by
sage Lomaharsha and his son Ugrasrava.
 The number of these is 18.
 Matsya Purana - the most ancient, information about the Shtavahana and Shunga dynasties
 Vishnu Purana - information about the Mauryas
 Vayu Purana - information about the Gupta dynasty
 Linga Purana - description of Shiva's 28 chariots
 Skanda Purana - the largest
 Bhavishya Purana - the smallest
 Garuda Purana - the newest Purana

 Five subjects of Puranas -

1. Sarga - Creation of the world
2. Pratisarga - Creation again after Pralaya
3. Vamsa - Description of the lineages of gods and sages
4. Manvantara - Difference between two Manus, astronomical period of time measurement
5. Vamsanucharit - Genealogy of the mighty kings of Kaliyuga.
 In the Later vedic period, the king was called - (Balihada) - tax collector

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
54
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Political system of Later vedic period

Introduction -
 In Later vedic period, Aryan civilization was moving towards east and south. From Himalayas
to Vindhyachal, the area was under the influence of Aryans. According to the information
received from Later vedic literature, we can understand Later vedic political system according
to the following points.

Rise of Janapadas -
 In Later vedic period, Rigvedic people got united and took the form of Janapadas, like Kuru
Janapadas were formed by Bharatas and Purus and Panchal Janapadas were formed by
Turvush and Krivi.
 At this time, large regional Janapadas emerged in place of tribal people.

King -
 In this period also, the post of king was hereditary, but compared to Rigvedic period, the powers
of kings of Later vedic period increased immensely. To prove his divine nature, the king started
performing big yajnas like Ashvamedha yajna, Rajsuya (the king got divine powers), Vajpayee
yajna (chariot race) etc.

 In the Later vedic period, the king started taking big titles like - According to Aitereya Brahman
- Samraat of the East, Swarat of the West, Virat of the North, Bhoja of the South, and raja of
Madhyadesh etc. were the titles used.

Chief Government Officer -

 In Later vedic administration, there was expansion of government officers, who were called
Ratnin.
 According to Shatpath Brahman, the number of Ratnis is 12 which are as follows -
1. Purohit - Chief Priest - Rajguru
2. Yuvraj - Successor
3. Mahishi - King's wife, Queen consort
4. Senani - Army Chief
5. Sut (Sarathi) - King's charioteer
6. Gramini - Village Chief
7. Kshatra/Kshatri - Fort gatekeeper
8. Sangrahit - (Treasurer)
9. Bhagdudh - (Tax collector)
10. Akshavapa - (Dice thrower, accountant), head of income-expenditure calculation
11. Govikartan - (Forest officer)
12. Palagala - (King's friend and jester, messenger)

Sabha, Samiti and Vidatha -

 Vidatha had become extinct in the later Vedic period. Sabha and Samiti existed but due to the
increase in the powers of the king, their powers were undoubtedly reduced, but the king did not
become autocratic, even in the post Vedic period, the king tried to get the support of Sabha and
Samitis.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
55
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Revenue Administration -
 With the expansion of regular agriculture, a permanent tax system was established for the first
time, now Bali (tax) became regular which was probably 1/6th of the produce which was collected
by an officer named Bhagdudh.

Military Organization -
 The army was still temporary. Young men were recruited during the war.

Justice and Penal System -

 The king was the supreme judicial officer. Village level justice was administered by Gramya
Vadin. Physical torture, fines etc. were prevalent as punishments. Jal Pariksha and Agni
Pariksha were prevalent for proving the crime.

Social system of Later vedic period

Introduction -
 This was the period of change in the life of Later vedic Aryans, Aryans left the tribal system and
started a permanent life.

Patriarchal family -
 The society of Later vedic Aryans was patriarchal. All important decisions of the family were
taken by the father. On the basis of the story of Ajigarta and Shunahshep, it can be said that
even the state cannot interfere in family matters. This does not mean at all that there was no
sweetness in the relationship between father and son.

Varna system -
 In the Latervedic period, the Chaturvarna system was no longer based on karma, but became
based on birth. The first three varnas (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya) were called Dwij and the
Upanayan ceremony was taken away from the Shudras.

Condition of women -
 In the Later vedic period, the status of women declined comparatively. In Maitrayani Samhita,
women were compared to alcohol and gambling.
 The practice of child marriage started increasing. The Upanayan ceremony was taken away
from the women of the general category. Entry of women in Sabha, Samiti was forbidden, but
still women of high families could receive education. In the Later vedic period, some scholars
were discussed in which Gargi, Maitrayani etc. are prominent. The practice of Sati was partial.

Egalitarian -
 Despite the caste system becoming complex, there was no untouchability. According to Shatpath
Brahman, Ratnins like Govikartan Taksha (carpenter) and Rathakar who were Shudras also
had the right to Upanayan ceremony.

Marriage system -
 Anulom and Pratilom marriages were prevalent. 8 marriages have been mentioned in
Grihasutra. Along with this, widow marriage and Niyog system were also prevalent.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
56
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Inter-caste marriages are also commonly seen.

Slave system -
 Here also slaves were used for domestic work, not for production work.

Gotra system -
 In Atharvaveda, for the first time, there is a mention of the establishment of Gotra in the society
on the basis of cows, in which the word Gotra was used for all the children born from the same
male.

Ashram system -
 There is a description of Brahmacharya Ashram, Grihastha Ashram, Vanaprastha Ashram,
Sanyas Ashram.

Food and drink -

 Aryans were generally vegetarian and non-vegetarian.
 Vegetarian - Consumption of rice, barley, Ksheerapkondan (curd + yava), Somras, milk, curd
etc., Sattu + curd - Karambha, Apoop Ghritavatam (Malpua),
 Non-vegetarian - Sheep, goat etc.

Dress -
 Clothing - They used to wear clothes made of cotton, wool and deerskin
 Clothing of four types - Vaas (cloth below the waist), Adhivas (shirt), and Ushniya (turban), Nivi
(undergarment)

Ornaments -
 Karna Shobhan (ear rings), Nishkagriv (necklaces), Karir (head ornaments), ring,
Bhujvand(Bracelet) etc.

Means of entertainment -
 Horse racing, chariot racing, wrestling, dance, music, gambling etc.

Religious system of Later vedic period

Rise of new gods -
 Latervedic Aryans were also pluralists, but now Prajapati (former Indra) took the top position
among the gods and the prominence of Indra, Varun, Agni etc. ended and they were replaced by
Rudra (Shiva) and Vishnu.

Yajna and rituals -

 In the Latervedic period, more emphasis was given on yagyas and rituals and big yagyas were
performed to please the gods, due to which animals were sacrificed on a large scale and emphasis
was laid on correct mantra pronunciation.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
57
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Panch Mahayajna -
1. Brahma Yajna - gratitude towards the ancient sages.
2. Deva Yajna - gratitude towards the gods.
3. Pitru Yajna - gratitude towards the ancestors.
4. Atithi Yajna - service to guests, donations, dakshina etc.
5. Bhuta Yajna - Every family feeds animals and birds, feeds fishes etc.

 Tri Rina -
 A man is told to be free from three rina in the household life.
1. Pitru Rina -
2. Rishi Rina –
3. Deva Rina -
 Sixteen Samskaras
Philosophical stream -
 This is also called Upanishadic stream. In this, yajna, animal sacrifice, rituals were condemned
and emphasis was laid on the path of knowledge, as a result, the seeds of new religions
(Buddhism, Jainism etc.) were sown.

Conclusion -
 Religion had changed from Rigvedic period to Latervedic period, Rigvedic liberal religion was
now moving towards complexity.

Economic system of Latervedic period

Introduction -
 The Latervedic economy was not based on animal husbandry but on agriculture, the details of
which we get from Latervedic texts as follows.

Agricultural system -
 With the coming of stability in the life of Aryans, the importance of agriculture increased.
Description of Gondhuna (wheat), Vrihi (rice), Yava (barley) etc. is found in Latervedic texts.

 There is a mention of a plough with 24 bulls in Kathak Samhita, along with this, there is a
mention of ploughing, threshing, sowing and harvesting in Shatapath Brahman.

Animal husbandry -
 In the Latervedic period, animal husbandry had become secondary, even after this, cows, bulls,
horses, sheep-goats etc. were reared. Which were used for agriculture, transportation, milk-
curd.
Industries -
 A list of professions and occupations is found in Yajurveda. In this period, metal business was
prominent along with charioteer, leather worker, potter, in which gold, silver, copper, iron
(Krishna Ayaska) etc. are mentioned.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
58
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Trade -
 In Aitereya Brahman, the word 'Shreshthi' might have been used for the president of the trade
union.
 At this time, trade was in an advanced stage. Trade had become prevalent internally, which was
done through river or land route in different places of the country. Along with this, there is a
mention of Kusidi in Shatpath Brahman, who used to do the work of usury.
Medium of exchange -
 Cows, horses, Nishka and barter etc. were the medium of exchange.
 Along with this, Shatman, Krishnal, Pada etc. started being used as weights.

Conclusion -
 In this way, Latervedic shows the economy of Aryans, which seems to be moving from
subsistence economy to surplus economy.

Comparative study of Rigvedic period and Latervedic period

Political Structure

Question: Explain the important characteristics of the political structure of the Rigvedic period,
show the element of development in it till the post-Vedic period?
Basis Rigvedic Period Latervedic period

Form of state  The Rigvedic political  In this period the tribal structure
structure was based on a started breaking down and region
tribal structure, hence the based states developed.
state remained people  Example - Kuru, Panchal etc.
based during this period.
Status of king  The status of the king was  The status of the king became more
not clear but the king was clear than before and the king also
identified with his tribe. started taking big titles. For
 The king was called example, he started taking titles
Janasya Gopa (head of the like Sarvbhoomipati, Ekarat,
tribe). Sarvajanin.
 In the Brahmin text named
Aitereya, some important yagyas
like

Ashvamedha, Rajsuya etc. were

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
59
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

mentioned, due to this the prestige

of the king increased as compared
to before.
Virat (North)

Swarat Raja Samrat

(West) Madhyadesh (East)

Bhoj(South)

Tax system  The tax system was not  In this period the tax system was
established in the Rigvedic comparatively established.
period.  Bali now became a compulsory tax.
 In the Rigveda, we find the Then along with Bali, details of
details of only one tax, customs duty and share (1/16th
'Bali'. But this too was not a part of agricultural production)
regular tax but a voluntary also started coming.
gift.
 The main source of state
income was the loot of war.
State institutions  During this period some  By the post Vedic period, the tribal
tribal institutions started structure had started breaking
controlling the kingship. down, along with this the tribal
 These institutions were institutions also started weakening.
Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha and  In the book named Shatapath
Gana. Brahman, there is a mention of
 Sabha was an institution of Sabha and Samiti, but now their
senior people which was importance had diminished. While
associated with judicial institutions like Vidtha and Gana
work. Samiti was probably had disappeared.
associated with educational
work.
 The institution called
Vidatha was the oldest
institution of the Aryans.
Probably associated with
military or cultural work.
And whose work was
probably to distribute the
looted goods. (Mentioned
122 times in Rigveda)
 Gana gives a sense of a
republican system.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
60
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Military and  During this period,  Even in this period, bureaucracy

bureaucracy professional bureaucracy and permanent army independent
and permanent army were of blood relation could not be
not formed. formed.
 In Rigveda, only people of  But in this period, an increase in
blood relation were the number of officers can be seen.
recruited in government  In the book named Satpath
service. Example - Details Brahman, 12 Ratnins are
of Yuvraj, Sainani, mentioned.
Gramani, Vishpati,
Badpati (head of pasture)
and Purapa (guard of fort)
etc. are available.
Unit of  In this period, the smallest  Even during this period, the family
administration unit of administration was or kul remained the smallest unit of
the family or kul. administration.
 Above it was the village,  But during this period, people
Vish and above Vish was started living a permanent life.
Jan. Therefore, the Janapada was
 The word Jan has been established as the highest unit of
mentioned many times in administration.
the Rigveda. But the word
Janapada has not been
mentioned even once.

Justice and penal  In the Rigvedic period,  Even in the later period, the king
system there was no formal system was the supreme judicial officer.
of laws related to justice, Justice at the village level was
but the king used to be the administered by the Gramya
supreme authority of the Vadin. Physical torture, fines etc.
justice system. were prevalent as punishments. Jal
 Fines were taken in the Pariksha and Agni Pariksha were
form of cows. prevalent for proving the crime.
 Sabha was an institution of
senior people which was
associated with judicial
work.
Key terminology  Purohit - Advisor to the  According to Shatapath Brahman,
king and used to perform the number of Ratnis is 12 which
religious rituals for the are as follows-
king. 1. Purohit - Chief Priest - Rajguru
 Senani - Chief of the army, 2. Yuvraj - Successor
looked after the military 3. Mahishi - King's wife, Queen
organization and operated consort
4. Senani - Army Chief

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
61
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

the army in the absence of 5. Sut (Sarathi) - King's charioteer

the king. 6. Gramini - Village Chief
 Gramini - He was the head 7. Kshatra/Kshatri - Fort gatekeeper
of the village and used to 8. Sangrahit - (Treasurer)
perform the duties of the 9. Bhagdudh - (Tax collector)
king in the village. 10. Akshavap - (Dice thrower,
 Note:- (Head of pasture or accountant), head of income-
large group - Vrajpati), expenditure calculation
Purap - Officer of the fort. 11. Govikartan - (Forest officer)
12. Palagal - (King's friend and jester,
messenger)

Economic structure

Question - Underline the transformation of the economy of the Vedic period.

Answer -
Base Rigvedic period Latervedic period

Agriculture -  The economy of the Rigvedic  Agricultural activities became

Animal Husbandry period was based on a tribal more important in the economy of
structure and the role of animal the Latervedic period. During this
husbandry in the economy was period, Vedic Aryans settled in the
important. The proof of this is upper doab of Ganga-Yamuna.
that almost all the important During this period, the use of iron
activities related to life have started. It was probably used in
been expressed in the agriculture as well. Here, it
terminology of animal became easier to clear forests with
husbandry. For example, the the help of sickles and axes.
king was called Gopati, a rich  Information about the increasing
person was called Gomat, a importance of agriculture is found
daughter was called Duhita, the in a text called Satpath Brahman.
unit of time measurement was Where King Janak is shown
called Godhuli and the unit of ploughing with a plough.
distance measurement was  An increase was seen in the
called Gavyatu. number of crops. For example, in
 The Rigvedic Aryans were also the Rigveda, only one crop Yava
associated with agricultural (barley) is mentioned. Whereas in
activities. Because some the later Vedic texts, details of
terminology related to Godhuma (wheat) and vrihi (rice)
agriculture is used in the are also found.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
62
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Rigveda. For example, the field

was called Kshetra and the
plough was called Lagal. Apart
from this, separate words are
also found in the Rigveda for
sowing and harvesting of crops.
Industry - Business  In the Rigvedic period, we get  Industrial activities were
information about various types encouraged in the later Vedic
of industries. Such as carpentry, period.
gemstone making, leather work,  In a book Vajasaneyi Samhita,
weaving and making of metal there is a mention of various types
tools. of industries. In this period,
 important industries were chariot
 The word 'Ayas' is used in the making, carpentry, pottery,
Rigveda. 'Ayas' is identified with weaving, along with the
copper or bronze, in the same manufacture of glass bangles and
way the word 'Suvarna' is other types of jewellery.
identified with gold.  In the later Vedic period, along
with copper, bronze and gold, the
use of iron and silver also started
as metals. Because in the later
Vedic text, along with the words
Shyamayas, Krishnaayas, the use
of the word Rajat (silver) also
started.
Trade  The role of trade was limited in  The role of trade in the economy of
the Rigvedic economy based on the later Vedic period definitely
tribal relations. And the increased, for example, words like
exchange of goods was mainly Gadh, Sangha and Shresthi are
done through the gift system. mentioned in the Later Vedic texts.
 Still, we get evidence of trade.
Because we get the details of
traders called Pani. Who
probably came from non-Aryan
groups. And used to exchange
some goods with the Vedic
Aryans.
Medium of  Currency was not developed in  In the later Vedic period, along
Exchange the Rigvedic period. Rather, the with Nishka and Shataman, there
barter system was prevalent at is mention of a coin called
this time. Krishnal. But this was also not a
regular coin.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
63
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Hence, the barter system was

prevalent even in the later Vedic
period.
Special  The economy of the Rigvedic  Although the word Nagar has been
period was a rural economy. used in the Latervedic text
 The Rigveda gives a description Taitreya Aranyaka. But there is no
of a fort but not of a city. such place in this period which can
be clearly identified as a city.
 Although some signs of a city are
found at places like Hastinapur
and Kaushambi. But these should
also be considered as the pre-city
stage. These can be called proto-
urban places.

Social structure

Aadhaar Rigvedic Period Latervedic period

Varna system  Rigvedic society was based on  In this period the fourth Varna
tribal structure. Hence, the system was being established. 4
feeling of equality was more Varnas Brahmin, Kshatriya,
dominant in it. Vaishya and Shudra were
 In this period, the Varna status established. Now a clear
used to change with the change distinction was made between
in profession. For example, them.
Sage Vishwamitra was a  In the story of Purush Sukta, four
Kshatriya by birth, but became Varnas have been shown
a priest by profession. emerging from the four parts of
Similarly, the descendants of the original man. For example,
Sage Bhrigu were priests by Brahmin from the mouth,
birth, but became kings by Kshatriya from the arms, Vaishya
profession. from the thigh and Shudra from
 In the Rigveda, we get the the feet.
details of three Varnas -  Brahmin was the intellectual
Purohit, Rajanya, and the rest leader of the society, Kshatriya
of the people. Since the first was the protector of the society
discussion of the fourth Varna and Vaishya was the only
system is found in the Purusha producer and tax paying Varna.
Sukta of the tenth Mandal of the Shudras were the ones whose job
Rigveda, it is considered to be a was to serve the above three
later part. Therefore, it has

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
64
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

been linked to the Latervedic Varnas. Their status was the

period. lowest.
Status of women  Rigvedic society was a  During this period, a comparative
patriarchal society. Still, the decline in the social status of
status of women was good women is observed.
during this period.  In the book named Aitereya
 Although brave sons were Brahman, sons are described as
desired, the birth of daughters the protectors of the family and
was not discouraged. daughters as the cause of sorrow.
 Women had the right to Also, during this period, entry of
education, to participate in women in the assembly was
yagna, to have Upanayan prohibited.
ceremony participate in the  But women still had the right to
proceedings of the sabha, to education and the right to
study the Vedas. Some hymns of participate in the yagya along with
the Vedas have also been their husbands. And there is
written by women. For mention of some learned women.
example, Ghosha, Apala, For example, Gargi, Maitrayani,
Lopamudra etc. etc.
Marriage customs  In this period, there is mention  Anuloma and Pratiloma
of Anuloma (man of high caste marriages were prevalent in this
and woman of low caste) and period too. 8 marriages have been
Pratiloma marriage (woman of mentioned in Grihasutra. Along
high caste and man of low with this, widow marriage and
caste). Niyog system were also prevalent.
 Polygamy was a common Inter-caste marriages are also
feature in the Rigvedic period. commonly seen.
That is, a man could marry  A major feature of the Latervedic
more than one woman. society was the development of the
 But in the Rigvedic period, we concept of Gotra. The word Gotra
also get evidence of polyandry. is derived from the word Goshtha.
For example, we get the People whose cows were tied
information that Surya, the together belonged to one Goshtha.
daughter of Surya, had  In this period, the life of Vedic
relations with two Ashwani Aryans was divided into four
brothers. parts by the development of the
Ashram system. Such as
Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha and Sanyasa.
Slavery  Slavery was prevalent in the  Here also the Slaves were engaged
Rigvedic society, but slaves in domestic works, not in
were employed in domestic production works.
work and not in agricultural  Gotra System - In Atharvaveda,
work. for the first time, there is a

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
65
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

mention of the establishment of

Gotra in the society on the basis of
cows, in which the word Gotra
was used for all the children born
from the same original man.
 Ashram System - There is a
description of Brahmacharya
Ashram, Grihastha Ashram,
Vanaprastha Ashram, Sanyasa
Ashram.
Food and drink  Aryans were generally  Aryans were generally vegetarian
vegetarian and non-vegetarian. and non-vegetarian.
 Vegetarians consumed rice,  Vegetarians consumed rice,
barley, ksheerapakondena Ksheerapakodana (curd, barley),
(Curd + yava), somrasa, milk, Somarasa, milk, curd etc., Sattu +
curd etc., sattu + curd, Dahi = Karambha,
karambh, apoopadhrutaktam Apoopadhritvattam (Malpurva),
(malpua) non-vegetarians used to eat lentils,
 Non-vegetarians consumed goat etc.
sheep, goat etc.
Clothes  Clothing- They wore clothes  Clothing- They wore clothes made
made of cotton, wool and of cotton, wool and deerskin
deerskin.  There were four types of clothes-
 There were four types of Vaas (clothing below the waist),
clothes- Vaas (clothing below Adhivas (Upper Garment),
the waist), Adhivas (tunic), and Ushniya (turban), Nivi
Ushniya (turban), Nivi (undergarment)
(undergarment)
Jewellery  Karna Shobhan (ear rings),  Karna Shoman (earring),
Nishkagriv (necklace), Karir Nishkagriv (necklace), Karir
(head ornaments), ring (head ornament), ring, Bhujvand
Bhujvand (Bracelet). etc.
Means of  Horse racing, chariot racing,  Horse racing, chariot racing,
entertainment wrestling, dance, music, wrestling, dance, music, gambling
gambling. etc.
 Horse racing, chariot racing,
wrestling, dance, music,
gambling etc.

Question:- Explain the status of women in the Rigvedic period.

Answer:- We get information about the social life of the Rigvedic period from the Rigveda.
At this time the society was somewhat egalitarian. This society was basically patriarchal but the
status of women was better.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
66
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Status of women rights

1. Right to education:-
 Daughters were provided education through Upanayana Sanskar. Example:- Apala, Ghosha
etc.
 And women also had the right to study Vedas.
2. Political participation:- Women had prominent positions in institutions called Sabha-Samiti.
3. Social rights:- Marriage tradition
 In this period, there is mention of Anuloma (man of high caste and woman of low caste) and
Pratilom marriage (woman of high caste and man of low caste).
 Polygamy was a common feature in the Rigvedic period. That is, a man could marry more
than one woman.
 But in the Rigvedic period, we also get evidence of polyandry. For example, we get this
information. That Surya, the daughter of the Sun, had relations with two Ashwani brothers.
4. Economic rights:- Women did not have a share in the property, but on the occasion of marriage,
they were given gifts, which only women had the right to.
 Religious rights:- Women had the right to participate in yagnas along with their husbands.

Others:- Women had the right to Niyoga as per Vedas.

 Although brave sons were desired, but the birth of daughters was not discouraged.
 Women had the right to education, to participate in yagnas, to perform Upanayan Sanskara
Participete in the proceedings of the Sabha, to study the Vedas etc. Some hymns of the Vedas
have also been written by women. For example, Ghosha, Apala, Lopamudra etc.
 Conclusion:- It can be seen in some examples that women were not given rights to higher
positions in property and politics, but the status of women during Rigvedic period reflects the
civilized society of the contemporary times.

Question:- Explain the status of women in the Latervedic period.

Answer:- We get information about the social life of this period from Atharvaveda and Brahman
texts.
This period saw a transitional system in the social structure, the society of this period was also
egalitarian to some extent.

 Status of women rights

1. Political rights:- Women's participation in the institutions called Sabha-Samiti was reduced
or ended.
2. Economic rights:- Even at this time, women did not have a share in property, and the gifts
received in marriage were divided into " Saudayika and Asaudayika ".
Saudayika - Domestic gifts, with freedom to sell the gifts received in marriage
Asaudayika - Women could not sell those gifts received in marriage which were given by
persons other than family members.
3. Right to education:- At this time, the right of women to perform Upanayan Sanskar was
limited, at this time women of some upper castes were given the right to education.
4. Social rights:- A decline was seen in the social rights of women, at this time divorce and widow
remarriage were prohibited.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
67
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Social status of women during this period -

 A comparative decline in the social status of women is seen during this period. In the book
Aitereya Brahman, sons are said to be the protectors of the family and daughters are the
cause of sorrow. Also, during this period, women were barred from entering sabha.
 But women still had the right to education and the right to participate in the yagya along
with their husbands. And there is mention of some learned women. For example, Gargi,
Maitrayani, etc.

 In this period also, Anulom and Pratilom marriages were prevalent. 8 marriages are
mentioned in Grihasutra.
 Along with this, widow marriage and Niyog system were also prevalent. Inter-caste
marriages are also commonly seen.

5. Development of the concept of Gotra - A major feature of the Latervedic society was the
development of the concept of Gotra. The word Gotra is derived from the word Goshtha.
People whose cows were tied together belonged to one Goshtha.

6. Religious rights:-
 The role of women increased in the religious field. Hence, they got the right to sit with their
husbands in yagnas. (Brahmin texts)
 Some Brahmin texts compared women to 'Alcohol and Gambling'. (Aitereya Brahman)

Conclusion:- The period of decline in the status of women started from the above period. Which
became the reason for the pitiable condition of women in the later period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
68
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Religious Structure

Basis Rigvedic period Later Vedic period

 Divinization of  The specialty of Rigvedic religion  Even in the Later Vedic

nature was the deification of nature, i.e. the period, deification of nature
mysteries of nature which the remained a common feature,
Rigvedic Aryans could not solve, i.e. the elements of nature
they accepted them as gods. For were declared as gods.
example - Sun, Moon, Fire, Earth
etc.
 Praise and  The method of worship of the  In the Later Vedic period,
sacrifice Aryans was very simple. They used more emphasis was laid on
to offer prayers and perform yajnas and rituals and large
sacrifices to please the gods, and as a yajnas were performed to
result, they wished for wealth, please the gods, due to which
grains etc. for their sons and animals were sacrificed on a
grandsons. large scale and emphasis was
laid on pure pronunciation of
mantras.
 Polytheism  There was a tendency of polytheism  The nature of Latervedic
in Rigvedic religion, here 33 gods religion is also polytheistic and
have been imagined. They have been the element of religious
divided into skygods, spacegods and monotheism is also found in it.
terrestrial gods.  Then its further development
is seen in the form of
monotheism or advaitvada.
Which emerges in the thinking
of Upanishads.
 Other features  Concept of Rita:- Rita means  Panch Mahayajna:-
morality, the concept of Rita was  Brahma Yajna - Gratitude
emphasized to maintain morality towards ancient sages.
among Rigvedic Aryans. Varun Dev  Dev Yajna - Gratitude
used to regulate moral rules in towards Gods.
nature, hence Varun Dev is called  Pitru Yajna - Gratitude
Rtasyagopa. towards ancestors.
Sky Gods:-  Atithi Yajna - Service to
 Polytheistic guests, donations, etc.
 Dominance of male sentiment  Tri Rina - It is said that a man
 Dyau- (sky) - the oldest god of is freed from three rina in the
Aryans household life.
 Varun - (Iranian -  Pitru Rin
Ahuramazda), Greek (Uranas) -  Rishi Rin

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
69
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

God of the sea - creator of the  Deva Rin

earth, sun, regulator of the world  Philosophical stream:- It is
etc. also called Upanishadic
Space Gods:- stream. In this, yajna, animal
 Indra - God of rain, storm, sacrifice, rituals were
hurricane and lightning, condemned and emphasis was
Purandar given on the path of
 Rudra - God with a very angry knowledge, as a result, the
nature, Kritavas (one who wears seeds of new religions
skin), Tryambaka (Buddhism, Jainism etc.) were
 Marut - God of storm sown.
 Aditi - Mother of gods and
goddess who gives freedom from
bondage
Terrestial gods:-
 Agni - Mediator between
humans and gods.
 Som - God of joy of Aryans and
god of vegetation
 Brihaspati - Guru of gods
 Saraswati - Goddess of speech
 Note- Henotheism - Rigvedic sages
considered whichever god they
prayed to as supreme and attributed
all the qualities to him, Max Muller
has called this tendency as
Henotheism)
 Conclusion:- There was a change in religion from the Rigvedic period to the later-Vedic period,
the Rigvedic liberal religion was now moving towards complexity.

Some important things and their modern names

 Hiranya - Gold
 Trupu - Tin
 Taksha - Carpenter
 Kaivarta - Fisherman
 Kaush - Silk
 Mugd - urad
 Mridang - Moong
 Sabha - Narishtha (debate) Atharvaveda
 Shatapath Brahman describes the complete process of agriculture - harvesting, sowing,
ploughing, threshing etc.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
70
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Mahajanapada period

Sources of study
Compared to Vedic period, there is abundance of literary material as study source in this
period. Along with religious literature, non-religious literature and foreign literature are also
available.

1. Religious literature:
 Brahmin literature - Some Upanishads, six Vedangas, Kalpasutra has special importance
among the six Vedangas. Under this, Shrauta Sutra, Grihasutra and Dharma Sutra, then
Baudhayana, Apaastava and commentaries of Gautam and Vashisht on Sutra literature are
also important.
 Buddhist and Jain literature - Tripitaka such as Suta Pitaka, Vinayapitaka and
Abhidhammapitaka are important in Buddhist literature. In Suta Pitaka also, Angutara
Nikaya, Dirgha Nikaya etc. throw special light on the political, economic and social system
of this period. Similarly, Bhadrabahucharit, Kalpasutra, Bhagwatisutra etc. are important
under Jain literature. Above all, Buddhist and Jain literature which is written in Pali and
Prakrit respectively, shows an alternative viewpoint in history writing and also expresses the
viewpoint of relatively lower classes of the society.

2. Non-religious literature: -
 In this we can count Kautilya's Arthashashtra because some part of Kautilya's Arthashashtra is
of pre-Mauryan period.

3. Foreign Literature:-
 During this period, Iranian and Greek invasion took place in the North West. Therefore, some
Greek writers have also thrown light on the history of the North West. Herodotus first wrote
about it, after which some scholars who came with Alexander, Niryacus, Cassius, Anaxicrates
etc. threw light on the region of the North West. In a way, if we look at it, the only source we
have to know the history of the North West is the Greek description. Above all, when William
Jones identified the word Sandrocottus used by the Greek writer with Chandragupta Maurya,
then the mysteries of Indian history got solved automatically.
 Archaeological Evidence:- Literary evidence has its own limitations. Literary texts were written
much later, so the question of authenticity arises here. Naturally, the importance of
archaeological materials is established there-
 Northern Black Polished Pottery- It is linked to the Mahajanapada period. Its spread is much
more than that of the painted grey ware. About 1500 sites of this have been found and it is spread
from Taxila in the north-west to Tamluk (Bengal) in the east and Amravati in the south. This
ware is more advanced than the earlier ware and it shows the advanced material condition.
 Punch-mark coins Punch-mark coins are believed to have been in circulation in the Indian
subcontinent from about 5th century BC. These coins were made of silver and copper and many
types of pictures were made on them. In this period, punch-mark coins of the period of Nanda
rulers have been found from Golakpur in Patna. These coins were issued by trading
corporations, not by dynasties.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
71
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Others -
 Before the birth of Mahatma Buddha, in the 6th century BC, India was divided into 16
Mahajanapadas and 10 republic states.
 These Mahajanapadas were the result of land expansion of 8 Vedic Janapadas and creation of
new Mahajanapadas.
 Buddhist text Anguttar Nikaya and Jain text Bhagwati Sutra mention 16 Mahajanapadas.

Political situation of 6th century BC -

 The 6th century BC is considered to be an important transformative period in Indian history,
during this period Mahajanapadas emerged. It is also called the 'Mahajanapada period'.
 Its information is found in the Buddhist text 'Anguttara Nikaya' the Jain text 'Bhagwati Sutra'
and Panini's Ashtadhyayi (Grammar-22).
 This period is associated with the early states, the increasing use of iron and the development of
coins which brought revolutionary changes in the physical and political life.

Characteristics of the Mahajanapada period -

1. Rise of Mahajanapadas - The Janapadas of the Latervedic period now started turning into
Mahajanapadas. For example - Chedi, Avanti, Magadha, etc.
2. Lack of universal power - There was a lack of central power in the entire north and central
India. The entire country was divided into small units.
3. Government systems - Mostly Mahajanapadas had monarchical systems while information
about republican systems is available in 10 states. Example - Koliya, Lichchhavi
4. King - With the increase in the powers of the king, the desire for expansion of the 'empire'
increased. Efforts were made by the kings to expand the state.
5. Revenue system - Now the revenue system became permanent. The officers of the king used
to collect taxes.
6. Imperialism - The concept of empire took concrete form. Example - Rise of Magadha.
7. Permanent administration and military system - With the increase in the forms of the state,
administration and army were established as per the need. First of all, the tradition of
keeping a permanent army started developing. Example - Bimbisara.
8. Rise of new dynasties - Many new dynasties, big and small, were established in different
regions. Example - Haryanka dynasty in Magadha, Kuru dynasty in Indraprastha.
9. External invasion - External invaders took advantage of the absence of central power in
northwestern India. Iranian and Greek invasions began, e.g. Darius-I, Alexander.
The sixth century BC was the period of state formation, in which the state and the
king were recognized. Along with this, the importance of empire expansion, administration,
diplomatic and political relations was established.

According to Anguttar Nikaya, there were 16 Mahajanapadas and 10 republic states

1. Kasi - Capital - Varanasi
 Region - Varanasi and its nearby areas.
 It was annexed to Magadha by Ajatashatru.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
72
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

2. Kosala - Capital - Shravasti

 Present Faizabad
 It was annexed to Magadha by Ajatashatru.
 The republic of Shakyas also came under it.
3. Vajji Sangh - Capital - Vaishali
 They were also called Ashtakul states.
 They included eight republics.
 This was also annexed to Magadha by Ajatashatru.
4. Malla -
 Malla Mahajanapada was formed by combining two republics.
 Mallas of Kushinara - Capital - Kushinagar.
 Area - In modern Deoria and Gorakhpur area.
 According to Valmiki Ramayana - The Descendants of Chandraketumal, son of Laxman,
later established the Malla Republic.
 Mallas of Pava - Capital - Pavapuri.
 A place called Padrauna.
 Note:- Mahatma Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana in Kushinagar and Mahavir Swami
attained Nirvana in Pava.
5. Chedi - Capital - Shuktimati
 Area - Eastern part of present Bundelkhand.
 Mention of Chedi King Shishupal is found in the Mahabharata period.
6. Vatsa - Capital - Kaushambi
 Area - Present Allahabad and Kaushambi district.
 The last ruler of the Kuru dynasty, Nichakshu, established the capital in Kaushambi.
 Merged into Magadha by Shishunaga.
7. Kuru - Capital - Indraprastha
 Delhi, some areas of Haryana.
 At the time of Buddha, the king here was Koravya.
 Kuru merged with Magadha by Mahapadmananda.
8. Anga - Capital - Champa (Ancient name - Malini)
 Region - Modern Bhagalpur and Munger district (Bihar)
 Brahmadatta was killed by Bimbisara and merged into Magadha
9. Magadha - Capital - Girivraja/Rajagriha
 Region - Patna, Gaya, Shahabad
10. Panchala - Ahicchattra/Kampilya
 Region - Western Uttar Pradesh - Bareilly - Badaun and Farukhabad
 Merged into Magadha by Mahapadmananda
11. Matsya - Capital - Viratnagar
 Region - Areas near Jaipur
12. Shurasena - Capital - Mathura
 Modern Mathura
 At the time of Buddha, the king here was Avanti Putra.
 Shursen was merged by Mahapadmananda
13. Asmaka - Capital - Potali/Patan
 Region - On the south bank of Godavari river

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
73
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 During the time of Buddha, Asmaka was conquered and merged in Avanti kingdom.
 The only Mahajanapada situated in South India
 Merged in Magadha by Mahapadmananda
14. Avanti - Capital Ujjain
 Merged in Magadha kingdom by Shishunaga.
 Northern Avanti - Ujjaini
 Southern Avanti - Mahishmati.
 Chandpradyot was the ruler during Buddha's time.
15. Gandhara - Taxila
 Region - Eastern region of Pakistan and Afghanistan.
16. Kamboja - Hatak/Rajpur
 Modern Hazara district of Pakistan.
 Kautilya has called Kamboja kingdom as Vartashastropjivi.
Note -
 Kalinga and Anga - Famous for elephants
 Kashi - Famous for cotton cloth
 Kamboja - Famous for horses

Anarchic Republic
 Anarchic Republic (Ganasangh) refers to the system of governance in ancient times where there
was relatively more equality among people and a group ruled instead of a single ruler. In the
Pali texts, there is mention of 10 anarchic republics in the foothills of the Himalayas.
 According to the Pali texts, the Shakyas of Kapilavastu, the Bhaggas of Sumsumgiri, the
Kalamas of Keshputra, the Koliyas of Ragrama, the Moriyas of Pippalivana, the Bullis of
Alkapp, the Mallas of Pava, the Mallas of Kushinagar, the Videhas of Mithila and the Licchavis
of Vaishali were included in the republics.
 These anarchic republics were different from the contemporary monarchy in their nature. While
in monarchy the power was vested in one person, in an anarchic republic the power was vested
in a group of people. For example, in the context of the Lichchhavis of Vaishali, we get the
information that 7707 kings used to sit together in the hall.
 Thus we see that in the republic the power was vested in the elite group. These elites had the
right to keep their own army and collect taxes.
 If looked at carefully, these anarchic republics actually represented oligarchy.

1. Shakyas of Kapilvastu -
 It was located in the Terai region of Nepal and its capital was Kapilavastu.
 Its main city included Devdah. Buddha's mother was the daughter of Devdah.
 The Shakya republic was proud of its blood purity and to protect it, did not marry outside
its caste.
 Lord Buddha also belonged to the Shakya caste.

2. Koliyas of Ramgrama -
 The capital of Ramgram has been identified with Ramgarh lake located in the present
Gorakhpur district.
 They were settled to the east of the Shakyas and the boundary between the two was
determined by the Rohini river.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
74
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 There were frequent disputes between the Shakyas and Kolis, one such dispute was mediated
by Mahatma Buddha.

3. Mallas of Kushinara -
 In Valmiki Ramayana, he is said to be a descendant of Chandraketu Malla, son of
Lakshmana.
 A statue of Mahatma Buddha in the Nirvana posture has been found in a small temple here.
4. Mallas of Pava -
 It was located in the modern Deoria district.
 The people of this republic were of military nature.

5. Moriyas of Pipphalivana -
 Chandragupta Maurya belonged to this dynasty.
 According to Mahavansh Tika, to escape the atrocities of Kosala King Vidudabha, a branch
of Shakyas established a city named Piplivan in the foothills of the Himalayas.

6. Videhas of Mithila -
 Initially it was monarchical and later became a republic.
 Videha was also a member of the Vajji Sangha.
 The capital Mithila is identified with present Janakpur.

7. Lichchhavis of Vaishali -
 In the Licchavi and Shakya republics, the ruling class belonged to the same clan and caste.
 They ruled collectively. In the context of the Licchavi of Vaishali, it is known that 7707 kings
used to sit together in the assembly hall.
 Their administrative system was simple, it included the king, vice-king, commander and
treasurer.

8. Bullies of Allakappa -
 It was situated between Shahabad, Ara and Muzaffarpur districts of modern Bihar State.
 This republic was a Buddhist follower, it built a stupa on the remains of Buddha after his
Mahaparinirvana.
9. Bhaggas of Sumsumgiri -
 Was located in present Chunar area.

10. Kalamas of Keshputra -

 It was situated to the west of Kaushal.
 Alara Kalama belonged to this republic.

Reasons for the fall of anarchic republics

 If we look closely, the economic base of the contemporary monarchy was stronger than that of
these republics. For example, most of the Mahajanapadas were established in fertile plains. On
the other hand, these republics of North India were located in the foothills of the Himalayas,
which was a backward region in terms of agricultural production.
 These anarchic republics could not separate themselves from monarchy at the level of
organization and ideology. For example, the designations of many officials working under these
republics are similar to what we see in contemporary monarchy. Similarly, these republics also

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
75
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

imposed the same kind of strict restrictions on their subjects as is seen in contemporary
monarchy. For example, it is said that once when Mahatma Buddha was on a journey to Pava,
the Malla republic issued an order to the people that they would stand on the road to welcome
Mahatma Buddha. Similarly, in Vaishali, girls could be married only from one locality to
another; they were not allowed to marry freely.
 These anarchic republics were representing a backward system. They still wanted to maintain
the same tribal sense of equality which was left behind with the development of monarchy and
caste system. This is the reason why they failed to face the monarchy and were ultimately
swallowed by the monarchy.
 If we look closely, these republics were not republics but a kind of aristocracy. Common people
did not participate in it. Rather, only a handful of aristocrats were representing it. Therefore, it
is very natural that they did not have the full cooperation and support of their people.

Economic changes taking place in the 6th century B.C.

1. Agricultural Economy -
 In comparison to the earlier period, the agricultural economy was spread widely in this period.
The area of the middle Ganga valley was very fertile.
 The use of iron made two works easier here, one was deforestation and the other was deep
ploughing. For example, information is available from Sutta, Nipat and Ashtadhyayi that the
land was ploughed two to three times. This increased production.
 At this time, slaves and labourers were also employed in agriculture, which increased the surplus
of the agricultural sector and this contributed to its further development.

2. Crafts development -
 Agricultural surplus paved the way for the development of crafts. Information about 18 types of
crafts is available in Buddhist texts. As a result of craft development, craft specialization got
encouragement.
 Then, as a result of craft development, craftsmen of a particular type started settling in a
particular area; for example, information about a colony of potters is available from Vaishali.

3. Shreni system -
 In the Mahajanapada period, to avoid competition among themselves, the craftsmen started
producing by organizing themselves in groups. The organization of craftsmen was called Shreni.
 The head of Shrenis was Pramukh or Jyeshtak Halata. Information has been received from a
Buddhist text that 100 families of craftsmen used to work under two Jyeshtaks.
 Shrenis played an important role in the economic life of this period. The quality of goods was
decided by them. Along with this, the price of goods was also decided by them. Shrenis had their
own flags, their own identity and their own seal. Shrenis had their own laws which ran parallel
to the state laws.
 Shrenis also had participation in social life. It is said that if a woman wanted to become a member
of the Buddhist Sangha, she had to take permission from her husband as well as her husband's
Shreni.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
76
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

4. Commerce-Trade -
 Agricultural surplus and craft development strengthened commercial activities. Trade goods of
this period included both agricultural and non-agricultural products. Important trade routes
existed.
 Buddhist and Jain monks followed the same routes that were being used by traders, for example,
Mahatma Buddha crossed many trade routes in his journey from Rajagriha to Kushinagar.
 The royal physician Jivak also travelled from Takshila to Shravasti and Rajagriha. Information
about 'Uttarpath' is found as an important trade route during this period.
 Panini was familiar with it. This route connected Takshila to Rajagriha. Caravans of traders
used to travel on this route. For example, such trade caravans have also been mentioned in
contemporary texts that used to carry goods on 1000 carts. The organization of traders was
called Nigam and the head of the organization of traders was Shresthi.

Foreign Trade
(a) Maritime routes: - The Pali texts of this period also throw light on foreign trade.

There is a mention of maritime traders in Angutara Nikaya and it is told about them that
they also kept a bird on their ship which could give directions and point towards the land.
There is also a description of the route towards West Asia in these. Similarly, there is a
description of maritime languages in Jataka Katha as well. We also get information that
probably sandalwood and pearls were sent to West Asia from the eastern and western coast
of India and these were also exported to the Mediterranean region.

(b) Land route:- One route went from Takshila to northern Afghanistan and Iran and raw
materials like silver, gold, lapis lazuli, jade were obtained from there. Takshila and
Charsadda were important trade centres. In that period India also had trade with the eastern
region, for example a route from Bengal went towards Myanmar. Probably this was also an
important route and raw materials were obtained from there.

5. Money lending system/usury -

 Since currency had developed in this period, the development of money lending system could
also be seen in this period.
 We get information from Buddhist texts that during this period moneylenders or mahajans used
to give loans to traders on interest. On one hand, this fulfilled the capital requirement of traders
and on the other hand, moneylenders also got income in the form of interest.
 Gautama, an important sutrakar of this period, has also mentioned interest as the main source
of income during this period. Then during this period, Buddhism and Jainism recognized money
lending or mahajani.
 Hence, this was a major reason that Buddhism and Jainism also got the support of traders.

6. Development of money economy -

 An important feature of the economy during the Mahajanapada period was the development of
a monetary economy. Although we find mention of some coins in the Vedic period too, but these
were not regular coins.
 In fact, regular coins came into use during this period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
77
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 We get information about monetary activities in contemporary texts. For example, it is known
from Buddhist texts that a householder of Saketa had gifted 16,000 coins to the royal physician
Jivaka after his son recovered from illness.
 Similarly, an important householder of Kashi, Anathapinda had purchased 'Jetvan Vihar' and
offered it to Buddha.
 Thus, the use of currency in buying and selling had started during this period.

Conclusion- In the sixth century B.C., the extensive changes taking place in the field of
agriculture, the development of new crafts, the organisation of crafts in the form of shreni
(guilds), the discovery of new trade routes and the circulation of regular currency once again
created the background for urbanisation after several decades.

Reasons for the second urbanisation

After the fall of the Saindhava cities, for the first time we get the details of the cities
from the texts of this period. The following reasons are visible to be responsible for this
urbanization.

 Political reasons -
 Some cities like Pataliputra, Champa, Rajgriha etc. came into existence because the kings of that
time developed these cities as capitals. As a result, economic activities increased here.
 The political and social conditions of that time also contributed to the growth of urbanization.
 Huge monarchies emerged in this era. Some of their cities like Rajgriha, Pataliputra, Varanasi,
Shravasti, Takshila etc. were important from strategic and trade point of view. Along with the
king and administrative officers, a large number of craftsmen, artisans and traders also settled
here, as a result of which the cities with capitals also became major centers of industry and trade.
 The victories of some great kings of this era also encouraged trade and commerce, like
Bimbisara's victory over Ang linked the internal trade of the Ganga valley with foreign trade.
Ajatashatru's victory over Kashi and the Vajji Sangha gave Magadha control over the trade
route through the Ganga river.

 Economic reasons -
 Use of iron -
 Both literature and archeological evidence clearly indicate that at this time the tools of the
people - plough, shovel, hoe etc. were being used for agriculture in the Ganga valley.
 This evidence has been found from places like Chirand, Vaishali, Sonpur, Champa, Jakhera
etc.
 Paddy started being sown through transplantation method, due to which there was an
increase in production and farmers started getting surplus of their produce in large
quantities. As a result, the path for the development of cities was paved.

 Circulation of regular coins -

 Although there is mention of Nishka, Shataman etc. in Vedic literature, yet they cannot be
identified as coins with certainty. There are definite indications that by the end of seventh
century BC, coins were being used regularly. It is called 'Kahapana' in Pali literature and
'Karshapana' in Sanskrit.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
78
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 The oldest coins found in the excavations cannot be from before the Buddha period because
at this time the trade associations started using them by putting their own stamps. Since they
were made by stamping, these coins are called punch-marked coins.
 Development of crafts and industries -
 There was a need for a market to sell the surplus production.
 Hence, gradually the cities were transformed into markets and the number of craftsmen and
traders living in them increased considerably.
 As a result, business and industry had reached a highly developed stage in northern India
during the Buddha's time.
 Eighteen types of businesses are mentioned in the Jatak texts, some of the major ones among
them are - carpenter, blacksmith, cobbler, painter etc.

 Progress of trade and commerce -

 The rapid pace of urbanization was both the cause and the result of the unprecedented
progress of trade and commerce during this period. Major cities were located at the
crossroads of commercial highways that connected different regions. Major cities turned into
markets where traders from different places started arriving to sell their goods.
 In Jatak texts, there is mention of traders going from Champa to Suvarnabhumi (Burma)
and from Pataliputra to Lanka via Tamralipti.
 Bhrigukachchh and Sopara were famous ports in western India where traders from different
countries brought and took goods in their ships.
 The amazing progress in the field of trade and business encouraged the accumulation of
wealth in the society and big traders accumulated immense wealth. On the basis of their
wealth, they started claiming social superiority and became a political leader.

 Support of emerging religious ideology -

 Brahmin religion in its original form was a supporter of rural life.
 On the contrary, the Jain and Buddhist religions, which emerged in the sixth century BC,
had a viewpoint that supported urban life. Trade and commerce were the foundations of
urbanization and both the religions openly supported them.
 The principles of non-violence and frugality of Jainism were in accordance with the
sentiments of traders.
 Buddha did not condemn the practice of lending and usury, while Brahmin texts and writers
condemn it. According to Apastambha, Brahmins should not take food at the house of a
moneylender.
 Thus, by supporting urban life and city economy by Mahavira and Buddha, the growth of
urbanization also got a religious basis.

Social changes during the Mahajanapadas

 If we look at the society and its system till the sixth century BC, we find that by this time the
tribal society had been completely replaced by the caste-based society. Now the basis of caste
division had started being determined by birth instead of karma.

1. Caste system -
 Caste and class were being clearly defined.
 There were four main classes in the society - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
79
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 In Buddhist texts also the society is shown to be divided into the above mentioned four
Varnas, but here the position of Kshatriyas is placed above Brahmin.
 In Pali texts the Varna order was presented as - Babhan, Khattiya, Vessa, Sudda. Till this
time the Varna system was not as rigid as it is seen in later times. For example both Brahmin
and Kshatriya are shown to be doing different work from the work prescribed for them.
 In Jataka tales two categories of Brahmins are mentioned - real Brahmin and worldly
Brahmin.
 Brahmins of the first category used to perform the works prescribed by religion but worldly
Brahmins are shown to be associated with agriculture and animal husbandry.
 According to tradition the main duty of Kshatriya caste was to protect religion. But here we
see an attempt by the Kshatriya Varna to establish itself as the highest class in the society.
Since the power of monarchical states was increasing during this period and a huge empire
like Magadha was emerging, the power and dominance of the Kshatriyas had increased. The
Kshatriyas were very proud of their purity of blood. For example, the Shakyas of Kapilvastu
refused to marry the daughter of their clan to the Kosala king Prasenjit. Thus, the Kshatriya
Varna was in a strong position during this period.
 As a result of the urban revolution in the Ganga valley and due to the remarkable progress
in trade and commerce, the Vaishya Varna became the most prosperous Varna of the society.
 The condition of the Shudras in the society was pathetic.

2. Emergence of new Castes -

 As a result of the development of different types of cities, the emergence of some low
professional groups is also seen in this period. Most of them are considered to be 'low caste'
or 'low occupation' (Hin Sip). Chandala, Pukkas, Nishad etc. were castes of this category.
Their condition was very pathetic.
 Any kind of contact with them was avoided, even their shadow and touch was avoided. For
example, in "Setaketu Jataka" we find a Brahmin running away from a Chandala in fear so
that he does not become impure by the touch of air on his body.
 At one place in "Chittasambhuta" Jataka, it is mentioned that after seeing a Chandala, the
daughter of a merchant goes to her house and washes her eyes with perfumed water. The
above example points towards the very low status of these Hin Sippa castes.

3. Status of women -
 The description of the condition of women in Buddhist literature clearly shows that their
condition had deteriorated as compared to the Vedic period, especially their social and
educational rights had been curtailed.
 Even progressive thinkers like Mahatma Buddha were prejudiced against women. This is the
reason why he flatly refused to admit women into the Sangha. Then even if women were
admitted into the Sangha on the request of Anand, strict rules were made regarding the
conduct of women and women were considered inferior to the monks and were kept under
the monks. Buddha even commented that now this religion will not be able to be permanent.
Despite the above description, the condition of women can be considered better as compared
to the later period.
 Women of the upper class used to receive education. There is evidence of many bhikshuni
writing poems. These poems can be seen in the Buddhist text called “Therigatha”.
 Prostitution was also prevalent in this period but generally prostitutes were not looked down
upon in society. For example, we can see Amrapali, the courtesan of Vaishali. She was quite
wealthy. She had donated a mango grove to the monk community.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
80
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

4. Marriage tradition-
 The marriage age of women decreased as compared to the Vedic period. Generally,
marriages were based on the wishes of the parents, however, Gandharva marriage and
Swayamvar marriage (among the upper castes) were also prevalent. For example, it is said
in the 'Mahavagga' Jataka that Magadh king Bimbisara had five hundred queens.
 According to Buddhist literature, endogamy was also prevalent, such as the Shakyas used to
marry the girls of their own clan. Mahavira's daughter was also married to his sister's son
Jamali. The practice of dowry had probably started during this period because there is a
mention of Kashi being given to Magadh ruler Bimbisara by the Kosala king on the occasion
of his marriage with Kosala Devi.
 Thus, it can be seen that the society of the Buddha's time was going through a process of
transition and then the social changes taking place during this period also paved the way for
the emergence of opposing sects.

Religious condition during Mahajanapada period

1.Multiplicity of religious sects -

In comparison to the earlier period, there was a multiplicity of religious sects in this period.
While Buddhist scriptures mention 62 religious sects, Jain scriptures mention 363 religious sects.

2. Ideological upheaval and intellectual revolution -

 There was not only diversity among the religious sects but there were also deep ideological
differences among them. For example, the Upanishads talk of one supreme soul, while the Jains
talk of many souls, while Buddhism rejects the very existence of the soul.
 A pleasant surprise was that the kind of religious ideological freedom we see in that period was
rare in other parts of the world.

3. Development of the concept of karma, rebirth and salvation -

 The influential religious sects of this period such as Upanishad, Jain sect, Buddhist sect etc.
accepted these concepts.
 Somewhere the concept of karma and rebirth was also related to the economic and social
transformation of that time.
 In fact, the concept of karma and rebirth could have proved to be much more effective in
bringing stability in a society based on economic and social inequality.

4. The importance of the path of renunciation -

 During this period the path of renunciation was encouraged.
Reason -
 Growing economic and social inequality was leading some people towards a life of renunciation.
Secondly, during this period, agricultural surplus could support a life of renunciation.

5. Emergence of atheistic sects -

During this period, there were some thinkers who rejected the existence of karma, rebirth and
soul. They were called atheist thinkers. Example – Ucchedavada (Annihilationist) , Akriyanada.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
81
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Religious movements in the 6th century B.C.

 In the sixth century BC, in the middle Ganga valley region of North India, while on the one hand
the foundation of the vast empire of Magadha was being laid, on the other hand, a religious-
intellectual movement was started against the Vedic Brahmin rituals and flaws.
Sect Founder

Buddhism Gautam Buddha

Ajivika (fatalist/fatalist) Makkhali Putra Goshala

Uchchhadvadi Ajit Kesakamblin

(materialist/randomist)

Ghor akriyavadi/Akarmavadi Puran Kassapa

Nityavadi/ Ghor akritvadi Pukudh Kachchayana

Sandehvadi (Agnostic/Agnostic) Sanjaya Veluputta/Velathiputta

Jainism Mahavira Swami (Nigantha Nataputta) (actual founder)

Ajivika sect -
 Makkhali Goshala was born in the cowshed of a person named Gobahula in a village named
Saravan in Shravasti.
 Goshal's mother name was Bhadda and father name was Mankha.
 Bhikshus named Nandavachch and Kis Sankis (Kis Sankichch) played a major role in the rise
of Ajivika religion. Makkhali Goshala was the founder and promoter of the Ajivika sect.
 The main center/propagation center of Ajivika sect was the house of a potter woman named
Halahala in Shravasti.
 Ajivikas believe that all creatures are subject to destiny/fate, karmas have no effect on human
life. They called the process of rebirth as Mandal Moksha.
 According to Goshala, birth and death, happiness-sorrow, world and salvation all depend on
past karmas.
 Makkhali Goshal died during the war when Magadh's ruler Ajatashatru attacked the Vajji
Sangha.
 After the death of Makkhali Goshala, his followers joined Puran Kassap and Pukudha
Kachchayan.
 Mahavir Swami and Goshal first met in Nalanda. Bhagwati Sutra describes the violent conflict
between Mahavir Swami and Makkhali Goshala.
 Goshala and Mahavir Swami lived together in Nalanda for 6 years. Ajivikas, like Jain
Digambaras, lived naked and led a tough life.
 Ajivikas as a religious sect are described in Patanjali's Mahabhashya.
 In the south, Goshala has been called an indescribable deity.
 Ajivikas worshipped the Ashoka tree. They were called hattapalekhan because they ate food on
their palms and ekdandin because they hold a stick.
 Varahamihir calls Aajivaks as Ekdandins and Banbhatta calls them Maskarin.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
82
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Uchchedavadi (Nihilist)
Founder - Ajit Kesa Kamblin
 Ajit Kesa Kamblin was the first materialist thinker of India.
 According to him, there is no accumulated result of karma in the form of sin or virtue,
everything is destroyed after death.
 He did not believe in reincarnation
 His philosophy was similar to Charvaka philosophy.

Ghor Akriyauadi -
Founder – Puran Kassap
 According to Ghor akriyauadi, karmas have no effect on a person.
 Its proponent Puran Kassap took Jal Samadhi in Shravasti.

Nityavadi -
Founder - Pukudh Kachchayan
 Nityavadi sect has considered seven elements in the world as eternal – earth, water, fire,
air, happiness, sorrow and soul. The founder of Nityavada was Pukudh Kachchayan.
Sandehvaadi -
Founder - Sanjay Veluputt
 Sanjay Veluputta, the founder of, has been described as a restless serpent.
 Sariputra and Mahamodgalyayana were disciples of Sanjay Veluputta before joining the
Buddhist Sangha.
 Sanjay said that it is impossible to have definite knowledge of the other world, the soul in its
original state, the state after liberation from karma, and so on, and hence they cannot be
classified into the four categories of existence and non-existence.
 He neither accepted any view nor refuted any.

Reasons for the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism

Mahavir Swami said - 'He who is free from sins and impurities like gold purified by heat in
fire and is free from attachment, hatred and fear, is a Brahmin.'
Role -
 During this period, new religions emerged not only in India but all over the world, such as
Confucius in China, Zoroaster in Iran and Pythagoras in Greece. In India, many new
religions emerged against Brahmin rituals, whose number was stated to be 62 according to
Buddhist texts and 368 according to Jain texts. The following are the reasons for the origin
of new religions -

Discontentment of Kshatriya Varna -

 Despite being economically and politically first, Kshatriyas had second place in the caste
system of society.
 As a result, during the time of Kshatriyas, other Brahmin religions emerged, which were run
by Kshatriyas.

Discontent of the Vaishyas -

 In the 6th century BC, with the growth of agriculture and trade, the economic condition of
the Vaishyas strengthened, but in the caste system of society, the Vaishyas still had the second
place.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
83
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Along with this, the Brahmin religion declared usury and money lending system as
unrighteous, as a result of which discontent grew among the Vaishyas and they helped
Buddhism and Jainism financially.

Discontent among the Shudras

 Shudras had the lowest status in the brahmanical system, they had neither the right to
education nor to perform yajnas, generally Shudras were considered untouchable, over time
anger arose among the Shudras and they adopted Jain and Buddhist religions as well as
supported them.

Dissatisfaction among women

 The positive rights of women of the Rigvedic period were taken away by the time of the
Latervedic period, now women neither had the right to education, nor to sit in the yajna with
their husbands. On the other hand, Buddhism and Jainism gave positive rights to women
and also allowed them to enter the Sangha.

 Reasons for the rise of Buddhism and Jainism -

The social, economic and religious conditions of the 6th century BC created a background for
the establishment of new religions, which led to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.

The main reasons for the rise are:

1. Social reasons -
 Complexities and discrimination in the caste system.
 Powerless status of Shudras and women.
 Kshatriya class challenging the supremacy of Brahmins.
 Giving the concept of egalitarian society and simple living.
2. Economic reasons -
 Agriculture based economy and the need for livestock in it.
 Restrictions on overseas trade in Vedic religion.
 Vaishya (merchant) class being dissatisfied with Vedic religion.
 The poor class being dissatisfied with the extravagant expenditure on rituals.
3. Religious reasons -
 Complexities of Vedic religion
 Excess of rituals
 Brahmanism - arbitrary system of one religion
 Vedic religious texts were written in Sanskrit, which was difficult for the common people to
understand.
 Teachings of Buddhism and Jainism - truth, non-violence etc.
4. Other reasons -
 Personality of Mahavir Gautam Buddha
 Common people's language (Prakrit and Pali) was important for communication, influence
of 'Upanishad' philosophy

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
84
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Jainism

 The word Jain is derived from 'Jin', which means winner.

 In Rigveda, two Tirthankaras Rishabhdev and Arishtanemi are mentioned. Their symbols are
bull and conch.
 In Bhagwat Purana, Rishabhdev is considered to be the incarnation of Vishnu.
 Arishtanemi is said to be the brother of Vasudev Krishna.
 Tirthankara - means the one who helps to cross the ocean of the world and shows the path of
salvation.
 Historical Tirthankaras - Parshvanath (23rd) and Mahavira (24th).
 The 19th Tirthankara Mallinath lived in the guise of a woman (symbol - urn).

 Bull - Rishabhdev –
 Founder - Jainism
 Birth - Ayodhya
 Death - Kailash Mountain
 Snake - Parshvanath 23rd Tirthankar
 Father - King of Kashi Ashwasen
 Mother - Vama
 Renunciation of home at the age of 30, penance, attainment of Kaivalya on the 84th day on
Sammed mountain.
 Wife – Prabhavati
 Nirvana - at the age of 100 on Sammed mountain (Jharkhand-Giridih district).
 First disciple – Mother Vama and wife Prabhavati.
 President of the Bhikshuni Sangha of Parshvanath - Pushpachula
 Parshvanath had propounded 4 Mahavratas - Ahimsa, Satya, Aparigraha and Asteya.

 Mahavir Swami - 24th Tirthankara

 Actual Founder
 Birth- 540 BC in Kundagram near Vaishali.
 Childhood name- Vardhaman
 Father- Siddhartha (Gyatrika clan)
 Mother- Trishala/Bidehadatta- Chetak's sister
 Marriage- Yashoda (Kundinya gotra)
 Daughter- Anojja/Priyadarshana
 Son-in-law- Jamali
 Brother- Nandivardhan
 Renounced home at the age of 30, after 13 months he started living completely naked.
 Met Makkhaliputra Gosal in Nalanda, Gosal did penance with Mahavir for 6 years and later
founded the Ajivika sect.
 After 12 years of rigorous penance, he attained Kaivalya at the age of 42, in Jrimbhik village,
under the river Rijupalika, under a Sal tree.
Note: The first Jain bhikshuni was Chandana, daughter of Radha Dadhivahan, the ruler of
Champa.
 Chandana was the head of Mahavir Swami's bhikshuni community.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
85
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 After attaining Kaivalya, Mahavir became 'Jin' (victor), 'Arh' (worthy), 'Nirgranth' (free from
bondage), 'Arhat' (worshipable).
 Mahavir Swami was called Niganth Nath Putra in Buddhist literature.
Note: Acharang Sutra - Mahavir's penance and physical suffering are described.
 Mahavir Swami gave his first sermon on the Vitulachal mountain (Rajagriha) of Rajgriha.
 14 years after Mahavir Swami attained Kaivalya, a rebellion took place which was led by Jamali.
In the 16th year of attaining Kaivalya, another rebellion took place which was led by
Teestagupta.
 At the age of 72, in 486 BC, Mahavir Swami attained Nirvana in the palace of Mallaraja Sastipala
at a place called Pava.
 He added the 5th Mahavrat Brahmacharya.
 He gave his sermons in Prakrit language.
 Out of the 11 Ganadhars of Mahavir Swami, only one Ganadhar Sudharman survived after his
death - who was the first president of the Sangha.
Jain Councils -
 First Jain Council -
 Place - Pataliputra
 President - Sthulabhadra
 Time - 300 BC
 Reign - Chandragupta Maurya
 Work - 12 parts were edited.
 Jainism was divided into two parts - Digambar and Shvetambara.
 Second Jain Council
 Place - Vallabhi
 President - Devardhi-Kshemashram
 Time - 512 AD
 Work - Religious texts were finally compiled and written in Ardhamagadhi and the number of
Agamas was fixed as 84.
 Jain literature is called Agama, which has 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirna, 6 Chhedasutra,
4 Moolsutras.
 Note - Jain monasteries of Karnataka are called Basdis

Jain Philosophy
Triratna -
 Triratna - Jainism talks about following the Triratna to end the karma of the previous birth and
to avoid the karma of this birth.
 Samyak Shraddha/Darshan - Belief in tirthankars
 Samyak Gyan - Knowledge of the jain greed
 Samyak Aacharana - Following good character and good conduct and being indifferent to
the things of the external world with equal sorrow and happiness is the Samyak Aacharana.
 Bhikshu - Jain follower who is a Sanyasi.
 Sravaka - Jain follower who is a householder.
 By following the Triratna, the flow of karmas towards the soul stops. This is called Samvara.
 When the effect of the karmas already in the soul starts to end, it is called Nirjara.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
86
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 When the remnant of the attainment of karma from the soul is completely finished, then it is
called Moksha.
 The creature being attracted towards karma is called asrava.

Ananta Chatushtya -
 After moksha or nirvana, the creature is freed from the cycle of life and death and attains infinite
Ananta Gyan, Ananta darshan, Ananta Virya,k Ananta sukh.

Gyan -
Knowledge in Jainism - mention of 5 types of knowledge.
 Mati - Knowledge obtained through senses.
 Shruti - Knowledge obtained through hearing.
 Avadhi - Divine knowledge.
 Manah Paryay - Knowledge of knowing the things in the mind of other persons.
 Kaivalya - Complete knowledge obtained by Nirgranths and Jindriyas.
Syadvaad/Anekantvaad/Saptabhanginamaya Siddhanta-
 This is basically the theory of relativity of knowledge. In this, all our decisions regarding
worldly things can neither be fully accepted nor fully rejected.
a. It
b. is not
c. is and is not
d. cannot be said
e. It is but cannot be said
f. It is not there and cannot be said
g. is, is not and cannot be said.
 Panchamahavrata – Satya, Ahinsa, asteya, aparigraha, brahmacharya - to be followed by a
bhikshu.
 Anuvrata - Satya, Ahinsa, asteya, aparigraha, brahmacharya - to be followed by a Sravaka.

18 sins in Jainism -
1.Pranatipata (Violence) 2. Mrushavada (Untruth) 3. Adattadan (Theft) 4. Maithun (Unchaste) 5.
Parigraha (Possessiveness) 6. Krodh (Anger) 7. Mana (Arrogance) 8. Maya (Deceit) 9. Lobh (Greed)
10. Rag (Attachment) 11. Dwesh (Hatred) 12. Kalah (Quarreling) 13. Abhyakhyan (Accusation) 14.
Paishunya (Gossip) 15. Parparivada (Criticism) 16. Liking and disliking (Rati-arati) 17. Maya-
mrushavada (Malice) 18. Mithya-darshan-shalya (Wrong beliefs)

Karmavada -
 Jainism expresses belief in the results of karma. Karma is the reason for birth and death and
only by getting rid of it can a person move towards Kaivalya.
 Atmavada -
 Jainism believes in the existence of soul (consciousness).
 Reincarnation - Reincarnation is accepted in Jainism.
 Atheism - Jainism does not believe in any omnipresent, omnipotent and eternal God. They refute
the existence of God.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
87
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Explanation of the world - According to Jain philosophy, this universe is made up of living and
non-living things (Pudgal, physical elements, Aakash, Dharma, Adharma, kaal) and the world is
eternal since time immemorial.

Difference between Digambaras and Shvetambaras

 Shvetambaras do not consider it necessary to renounce clothes to attain salvation, while
Digambaras do.
 Shvetambaras consider women to be entitled to Nirvana in this life itself, while Digambaras
forbid it.
 Shvetambaras consider Mahavira to be married, while Digambaras consider him to be
unmarried.
 Shvetambaras consider the 19th Tirthankara (Mallinath) to be a woman, while Digambaras
consider him to be a man.
 According to Shvetambaras, people need food even after attaining Kaivalya. But Digambaras
advocate fasting.

 Major rulers who believed in

Jainism -
 Udayin, Kharvela, Chandragupta Maurya, Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha
 Last Refuge of Jainism in India - Chalukyas of Gujarat

Reasons for the success of Jainism -

 Jainism spread in India during the life time of mahavira and even after his death. Many reasons
contributed to the success or development of Jainism. Which are as follows
 Support of the dynasties of that time -
 The dynasties played an important role in the success of Jainism, Mahavir Swami himself
was from a royal family, and kings like Udayin, Kharvela, Chandragupta Maurya donated
money to Jainism, which ensured the success of Jainism.

 Support of Vaishyas -
 Jainism condemned sacrifices against Brahmin religion, which protected livestock and
spread agriculture, which was in the interest of Vaishyas. Along with this, Jainism
supported usury and sea trade, due to which the Vaishya class also supported Jainism.

 Simple propogation medium -

 Jains propagated their religion in simple and understandable language Prakrit, which was
the language of the common people of that time, instead of a complex language like
Sanskrit, as a result of which people easily got connected to Jainism.

 Abandonment of the policy of discrimination -

 One of the main reasons for the success of Jainism was that it abandoned the
discriminatory policy of Brahmin religion and brought people of all castes on one level. In
Jainism, all castes could attain nirvana.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
88
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 Simple form of Jainism -

 Jainism was free from ostentation unlike Brahmin religion, nor was there any need of a
priest to attain salvation.
 By following Triratna and Panchmahavrata, a person of every caste could attain salvation.
 Sallekhana - Jainism talks about the process of Sallekhana, which involves giving up the
body through fasting - Chandragupta Maurya also did it.

Reasons for the decline of Jainism -

Maintaining relations with Brahmin religion -
 Like Brahmin religion, Jainism also had devotion, existence of gods etc. As a result, people
did not find anything new in this religion which could attract them towards it.

Extreme physical suffering -

 Jainism laid great emphasis on difficult penance and self-torture. Not wearing clothes,
burning the body in the sun, plucking out hair etc. were such rules which were not possible
for everyone to follow.

Extreme non-violence -
 The form of extreme non-violence proved to be impractical, it was not possible for a
Kshatriya to live without war and for a farmer to live without farming.
 Similarly, the common people had to walk after clearing the path, drink water after
filtering it and cover the mouth with a cloth while breathing, all this was impractical.

 Persistence of caste system -

 Jainism could not completely reject the caste system, Mahavir Swami believed that birth in
a caste was due to the deeds of a person's previous life.

 Lack of proper royal patronage -

 Initially Jains got royal patronage but later on after Chalukyas, Jains did not get royal
patronage.

 Other reasons -
 Rise of Buddhism, revival of Brahminism, division in Jainism etc.

Contribution/importance of Jainism -

1. It attacked the Brahminic rituals and rejected the tradition of Vedas.

2. It opposed the caste system and gave religious freedom to women.
3. It also laid great emphasis on non-violence.
4. Jains created folk languages and developed languages like Prakrit, Ardhamagadhi.
5. New business classes grew and new cities were built.
6. Jainism gave approval to money lending and profiteering and it also maintained relations
with the business class, as a result of which commerce and trade got encouraged.
7. On one hand, Jainism gave approval to the social inequality of that time by emphasizing on
the concept of non-stealing, on the other hand, by accepting the concept of non-possession, it
also showed sympathy towards the poor class.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
89
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Relevance of Jainism:-
 Jainism has put a lot of emphasis on non-violence. This can be useful for the present society
which is plagued with violence.
 The concept of Syadvaad propounded by Jains. Syadvaad has tried to establish that any truth
has seven stages, therefore, one should make statements after careful consideration.
 This concept has attacked the fundamental basis of violence i.e. the people who take violent
steps try to prove that they are the real representatives of truth and are taking these steps to
establish truth.
 But the question arises that when the truth itself is not certain, then where is the place for
violence. Gandhi, who came from Gujarat, was influenced by the Syadvaad of Jains. In this
way, Gandhi's non-violence was also inspired by Syadvaad. For the present world which is
plagued with violence and counter-violence, Syadvaad can prove to be a kind of life-giver.
Buddhism
 According to Mahatma Buddha, 'Vedic religion is devoid of knowledge, Vedic mantras are
only waterless deserts and pathless jungles.'
 Mahatma Buddha said - 'A man endowed with character and wisdom is a Brahmin.'

Gautam Buddha -
 Birth - 563 BC in Lumbini village of Kapilvastu
 Death - 483 BC
 Father - Shuddhodhan who was the head of Shakya clan
 Mother - Mahamaya - who was the princess of Kauliya clan
 Aunt - Prajapati Gautami - brought him up.
 Wife - Yashodhara (also known as Bimba, Gopa, Bhadakacchana)
 Son - Rahul (meaning Bandhan)
 Charioteer - Channa (Chhandak)
 Horse - Kanthaka (Ketaka)
 Half brother - Anand
 Cousin - Devadatta
 The light of Asia - Gautam Buddha

Four scenes related to Gautam Buddha's life -

Seeing which, the feeling of renunciation arose in his mind -
1. Old man
2. Sick man
3. Dead man
4. Sanyasi

Major events of Buddha's life -

1. Mahabhinishkramana - The event of renunciation by Buddha.
2. Sambodhi - The event of attaining knowledge.
3. Dharmachakrapravartan - The event of the first sermon by Buddha.
4. Mahaparinirvana - Death of Buddha

 After leaving home, Buddha went to Vaishali and sent back Channa from Anoma river
where he made Alara Kalam his Guru. (According to Sankhya philosophy), he then went to
the ashram of Ramputra of Rajgriha.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
90
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 After Rajgriha, Gautam Buddha went to Uruvela near Gaya where he met five devotee
Brahmins including Kodinya. Gautam Buddha started rigorous penance together with them
but later Buddha broke his penance by eating kheer from the hands of a girl named Sujata.
As a result, his Brahmin companions left him.
 From Uruvela, Siddhartha went to Gaya. In the 6th year of his renunciation of home, at the
age of 35, Siddhartha attained enlightenment under a peepal tree on the banks of the
Niranjana/Punpun river. Thereafter, Gautama was called Buddha. He was also called
Tathagata, meaning "one whose knowledge is true".
 On the 49th day of his samadhi, he attained supreme knowledge.

 Buddha first made Banjaras Tapasso and Mallic his disciples in Bodhgaya.
 After that, Buddha came to Sarnath, where he gave his first sermon to five Brahmins - which
is called Dharmachakrapravartan in Buddhism.
 After Sarnath, Buddha went to Uruvela, where he made three brothers uruvilya Kashyap,
Nadi Kashyap and Gaya Kashyap his disciples.
 After this, Buddha reached Rajgriha where Emperor Bimbisara welcomed him and donated
Venuvana. In Rajgriha itself, two scholars of Kashi, Sariputra and Mahamaudgalyana
became his disciples.
 While travelling, Buddha reached Kapilavastu where Gautami expressed her desire to
become a Buddhist, but Buddha refused, but made Anand, son of Prajapati, her disciple.
 Later on reaching Vaishali, on the request of Anand, Buddha allowed Prajapati Gautami to
enter the Sangha, thus this was the first entry of a woman into the Sangha.
 In Vaishali itself, the Lichchhavis built the famous Kutagrashaal in Mahavan and Vaishali's
chief courtesan Amrapali became his disciple, who donated a mango grove.
 After Vaishali, Buddha went to Sumsumargiri, the capital of Bhaggas, where he spent his
eighth rainy season and made Bodhi Kumar his disciple.
 After Sumsumargiri, Buddha went to Kaushambi, where influenced by a Buddhist monk
named Pindola, Udayan adopted Buddhism and provided Ghoshitaram Vihar.
 Mahatma Buddha gave most of his sermons (21 times) in Shravasti, the capital of Kosala
country, and also had the most followers.
 After this, Gautam Buddha reached Kushinara, the capital of Mallas, where he got Illness
while eating at a goldsmith named Chunda, due to which Gautam Buddha died at the age of
80 in 486 BC.
 Gautam Buddha gave his last sermon to a person named Subhadda.
Note - Devadatta first tried to create a rift in the Buddha Sangha.
 Mahatma Buddha gave his sermons in Pali language and Mahavir Swami gave his sermons
in Prakrit language.

Buddhist Council
First Buddhist Council - 483 BC -
 Place - Rajgriha Saptaparni Cave
 Ruler - Ajatashatru
 President - Mahakassapa
 Work - Compilation of Suttapitaka - Teachings of Buddha (Compiled by Ananda)
 Vinayapitaka - About the discipline of Buddhist monks (Compiled by Upali)

Second Buddhist Council - 383 BC -

 Place - Vaishali
 Ruler - Kalashoka

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
91
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

 President - Sabbakami
 Work - In this Buddhist Sangha was divided into Sthavira and Mahasanghika

Third Buddhist Council - 251 BC -

 Place - Pataliputra
 Ruler - Ashoka
 President - Mogaliputtatissa
 Work - In this the third Pitaka Abhidhammapitaka (Buddhist philosophy) was compiled.

Fourth Buddhist Council - 1 A.D. -

 Place - Kundalavana (Kashmir)
 Ruler - Kanishka
 President - Vasumitra
 Vice President - Ashwaghosha
 Work - Buddhism divided into two sects - Hinayana and Mahayana
 5 major symbols related to Buddha's life -
Event symbol
 Birth - Lotus and bull
 Leaving home - Horse
 Knowledge - Peepal (Bodhi tree)
 Mahapari Nirvana - Stupa
 Dharma Chakrapravartan - Chakra

Buddhist Sangha -
Minimum age for entry into Buddhist Sangha was 15 years.
 Anusavana - Proposal reading in the Sangha assembly is called Anusavana
 Upasampada - To get entry into Sangha
 Asana Pragyapaka - Officials sitting in the Sangha assembly
 Rapti - Information given before the proposal.
 Chhand - The opinion was called Chhand.
 Nissadha - After entering the Sangha, the monks had to Study under the supervision of the
Acharya for some time.
 Kanthin - A ceremony was organized to give clothes to the monks.
 Patimokkha - It is a collection of rules and prohibitions for Buddhist monks.
 Uposatha - The gathering of monks on any holy occasion for discussion was called Uposatha.
 Mananta - Boycott of Sangha for a limited period.
 Parivasa - Boycott of Sangha forever.
 Sannivinaya - Facility for a criminal to appeal.
Note - Buddhist Sangha was based on the republican system. Entry of underage people, thieves,
murderers, indebted persons, servants of the king, slaves and sick people was prohibited in the
Sangha.

Pavaran -
A ceremony called Pavaran was organized in Buddhist monasteries. This ceremony was held to
admit a new person into the Buddhist Sangha in which his head was shaved and yellow clothes were
given to him.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
92
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Eight relics of Buddhism -

 Pava and Kushinagar  Moriya
 Shakya  Brahmin of Vethdweep
 Lichchhavi  Ajatashatru
 Bulli of Alakappa
 Koliya of Ramgrama
Vajrayana -
 Around the 7th century, the influence of Tantra-Mantra started increasing in Buddhism, as a
result of which the Vajrayana sect emerged.
 Information about this is available in the book Arya Manjusrimulakalpa and Guhya Samaj. In
this, the consumption of Panchamakaras - alcohol, meat, sex, fish, mudra was supported.
 One of its sub-branches - Kalachakrayana.
Concept of Bodhisattva -
 Any person who has attained enlightenment by developing Bodhichitta but instead of attaining
Nirvana, helps other people to attain enlightenment.

 Major Bodhisattvas-
a) Avalokiteshwara/Padmapani
 Special quality - compassion
 Painting in Ajanta cave.
b) Manjushri
 Refining the intelligence of action
 He is shown carrying a sword in one hand which destroys ignorance.
 In the other hand is a book containing 10 rules.
c) Vajrapani
 Strict Bodhisattva
 He has a thunderbolt in his hand.
d) Maitreya
 Future Bodhisattva
e) Kshitigarbha -
 He is considered the banishment of hell.
 Bodhisattva after Maitreya.
 Buddha has called the state of diminishing of desire as Nirvana.
 “The world is full of sorrows” – Buddha took this principle from the Upanishads.
Important Buddhist Monasteries of India -
a. Tabo Monastery - Himachal Pradesh
b. Namgyal Monastery - Himachal Pradesh
c. Hemis Monastery - Ladakh
d. Thikse, Monastery - Ladakh
e. Shashur Monastery - Himachal Pradesh
f. mindrolling Monastery - Dehradun
g. Rumtek Monastery - Gangtok
h. Twang Monastery - Arunachal Pradesh
i. Namdroling Monastery - Mysore
j. Bodhimanda Monastery - Bihar (Gaya)

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214, 7970002214
93
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont.7524821440,7000360672
 Powered by

Philosophy of Buddhism
 Aryasaiya (Noble Truths)
Buddha has preached four noble truths regarding worldly suffering, these are -
1. Dukh (Pain)
2. Dukh samudaya (reason)
3. Dukh Nirodh (remedy)
4. Nirodhgamini Pratipada (Eightfold Path)

 Astangika marg (Eight fold path)

The sufferings of human life can be ended through the eightfold path
1. Samyak drishti - the power to recognize truth and falsehood
2. Samyak sankalpa- determination without desire and violence
3. Samyak vahi - truth and soft speech
4. Samyak karma - good deeds, charity, mercy , Good conduct, non-violence
5. Samyak Jeev – simple living
6. Samyak Vyayam – judicious efforts
7. Samyak Smriti – being judiciously aware of one's actions
8. Samyak Samadhi – concentration of mind.
 Principle of Pratityasamutpada -
 Pratitya (the existence of an object) Samutpada (origin of another object) This is also called the
principle of cause and effect, which believes that the origin of every action depends on the cause
and as long as there is a cause, the effect will happen. When the cause ends, the effect also ends.
 Atheism -
 In Buddhist philosophy, there is no concept of any almighty God.

 Atheism -
 In Buddhist philosophy, immortality of soul is not accepted. Soul is nothing other than the union
of Panchaskandha.

 Mechanical explanation of the world -

 According to Buddhist belief, the universe is running mechanically according to physical laws.

 Opposition to Vedic rituals -

 In Buddhist philosophy, Vedic rituals are opposed.

 Reincarnation -
 In Buddhism, reincarnation is accepted.

 Dwadash Nida (Twelve Nidanes)

 Collective name of every sorrow prevailing in the world
1. jati (birth)
2. Bhawa (worldly existence)
3. upadana (Grasping)
4. Tanha (craving)
5. vedana (feeling)

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
94
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

6.sparsh (contact)
7.Shadayatan (the six sense bases)
8.Namarupa (name & form)
9.Vigyana (consciousnesh)
Sanskara (formations)
10.
Avidha (fundamental ignorance)
11.
Jaramarana (old age 8 death)
12.
 The fundamental cause of death is Avidya
 It is also called Dwadash Nidan Chakra.
 kshanikavada (doctrine of momentariness)
 In Buddhism, every thing in creation is considered ephemeral. It is considered to be transitory
and it is said that these returns are variable.
 Madhyamvarga/Madhyam Pratipada-
 While giving advice to Kaudinya, Bhadiya, Mahanaam, Ashvajit, Bapp, he said that always
avoid extremes, neither there should be excessive sorrow nor excessive happiness in life.

 Ten Principles-
 For a virtuous and moral life, a person should follow ten principles -
1. Satya (truth)
2. Ahinsa (Non – violence)
3. Asteya (Non – stealing)
4. Aparigraha (Non possession)
5. Brahmacharya
6. Avoiding adultery
7. Not consuming intoxicants
8. Not eating food at odd hours
9. Giving up comfortable bedding
10. Avoiding singing and dancing

Reasons for the rapid rise and spread of Buddhism

1. Practical approach -
Buddhism gave practical principles to maintain the progress of the then material system and to
solve problems.
2. Personality of Buddha -
Buddhism's personality itself was attractive and impressive. He himself had implemented the
principles in his life, which impressed the common people.
3. Simple preaching -
Buddhism stayed away from philosophical debates and gave simple messages to solve problems
in this world. And his message language was Pali, which was the language of the common people
of that time, due to which people easily understood and accepted the messages.
4. Royal patronage -
Buddhism received patronage from great kings from the very beginning, among whom
Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Ashoka, Kanishka and Harshvardhan were prominent.
5. Role of Buddhist Sangha -
Buddhism was systematically propagated through the Sangha.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
95
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

6. Buddhist Councils -
Buddhist Councils organized from time to time also worked to spread Buddhism.
7. Buddhist educational institutions
Colleges like Takshila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, Sompur also contributed in spreading the
Buddhist philosophy.
8. Idea of social equality
Unlike Vedic religion, Buddhism talked about social equality, due to which many sections of the
society were attracted towards Buddhism.
9. Support to new economic system
Vedic religion was against economic changes in the 6th century BC, it was killing livestock
through sacrifice, which was unfavorable for the new agriculture. Brahmin religion was also
against urbanization and usury.
 Conclusion
Thus, due to the above-mentioned reasons, Buddhism became a global religion. Now it had
spread from the Ganga valley to far-off countries.

Reasons for the decline of Buddhism

Introduction -
Buddhism remained an important religion not only of India but also of Asia for a long time, but over
time it disappeared, the main reasons for which were as follows -
1. Evils that entered Buddhism -
The Brahmin customs that Buddhism was spread by opposing them, over time the same rituals
were adopted by the Buddhists, for example - idol worship, adopting Brahmin gods, believing in
tantra-mantra, etc. Due to all this, Buddhism declined.
2. Corruption in Buddhist Sanghas -
There was widespread corruption in the Buddhist Sangha, which led to the moral degradation
of Buddhist monks.
3. Lack of patronage -
After Kanishka and Harshvardhan, the Palas were the last Buddhist patrons.
4. Attack by Vedic preachers -
Vedic preachers like Kumaril Bhatt and Shankaracharya also defeated Buddhist scholars on the
basis of logic.
5. Taking help of Sanskrit -
In the beginning, one of the reasons for the immense success of Buddhism was that Buddhists
chose the common man's language Pali for propagation, but later Buddhists used Sanskrit for
propagation, due to which they got distanced from the common people.
6. External attack -
Buddhism was also negatively affected by the attack of Huns and Muslims.
Other reasons -
Division in Buddhism, internal flaws, lack of strong social system.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
96
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Impact/Contribution of Buddhism on Indian Society and Culture

Introduction -
Buddhism deeply influenced every aspect of Indian culture and increased the glory of India and
made an invaluable contribution by leaving its indelible mark on every aspect of Indian culture.
a. Egalitarian society - Buddhism strongly opposed the caste system, discrimination, untouchability
and tied the entire society together.
b. Buddhism made an invaluable contribution in the development of Pali and Sanskrit literature
and composed many literatures, which include Tripitaka, Anguttar Nikay, Buddhacharita,
Milindapanho etc.
c. Buddhism developed architecture, sculpture and painting and brought it to its peak. Example -
Gandhara and Mathura art style.
d. Gave colleges like Nalanda, Vikramshila, Sompur in the educational field.
e. Buddhism also opened the doors of salvation for women and Shudras and gave them a
respectable place in the society.
f. Buddhism enhanced morality and ethics in society through 10 principles.
g. Established a strong tradition of protest in Indian society and inspired later thinkers like Kabir
and Nanak to Periyar Naicker and Narayan Guru.
 Conclusion -
Buddhism has given its invaluable contribution to India in social, religious and cultural fields.

Comparative study of Buddhism and Jainism -

 Similarities -
1. Both the religions oppose the Vedas and oppose caste system and untouchability.
2. Both the religions used the language of the common people, Prakrit and Pali, for preaching.
3. Both the philosophies believe in the concept of rebirth.
4. Both the philosophies emphasize on Karmavada.
5. Both the philosophies explain the world mechanically, according to them this universe is
running like a machine.
6. The founders of both the religions belonged to the Kshatriya clan.

 Differences -
1. There is a difference in the Tri ratnas of both religions. While Jainism has Samyak Darshan,
Gyan and Aachar, Buddhism has Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
2. In Jainism, it is necessary to give up the body to attain Nirvana, but in Buddhism it is not
necessary to give up the body to attain Nirvana.
3. Jainism emphasizes on extreme physical suffering, but Buddhism emphasizes on the middle
path.
4. Jainism accepts the existence of soul, but Buddhism has denied the existence of soul.
5. In Jainism, non-violence was considered to be impractical, while in Buddhistism, practical
non-violence was talked about.
6. Buddhism spread outside India as well, but Jainism remained confined to India.

Shaivism
 Source
 In Rigveda, Shiva was called Rudra for the first time.
 In Avetashvara Upanishad, information about Shiva's praise is available for the first time.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
97
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Shiva is mentioned in Prayag Prashasti.

 Shaivism is also mentioned in Patanjali Mahabhashya.
 Shiva's oldest idol is found in Renigunta (A.P).
 Linga worship is mentioned in Matsya Purana.
 Worship of Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh is considered to have started from Gupta period.
 In Kaushitiki Brahmin and Shatapath Brahmin, mention of the eight forms of Shiva is
found.
Shaivism - In Vaman Purana, four sects of Shaivism are discussed.
1. Shaiva
2. Pashupata
3. Kapalika
4. Kalamukha
1- Shaiva Sect -
 According to Shaiva Sect, there are three gems of world.
 Shiva (doer)
 Shakti (cause)
 Bindu (material)
 There are four bondages
 Vidha
 Kriya
 Yoga
 Charcha
 Three padartha
 pati (Shiva)
 pashu (living being)
 Pasha (Bondage)
 Upamiteshwara was a Shaiva Acharya.
Five forms of His works
Shiva

Ishaan - Head Creation

Tatpurusha - Maintenance
Mouth

AGhora - Heart Destruction

amadeva - Transformation
Cavity

Sadyojata - Feet Balance

2- Pashupata
 It is the oldest Shaiv sect.
 Founded in 200 BC by Lakulish.
Twenty-eighth and last incarnation of Shiva
 Centre point - Nepal Kathmandu, Pashupatinath Temple
 Main book - written by Pashupata Sutra (Maheshwar).

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
98
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The oldest depiction of Pashupata sect is on the coins of Kushan ruler Huvishka.
 Udyotkar was Pashupata Acharya.
 Lakulish had written a book named Pancharth Vidya or Panchadhyayi. The followers of this
sect were called Pancharthik.
 Pashupata Acharya Bhav Brihaspati was honored by the Parmara kings.
 In the Mathura pillar inscription of Chandragupta II, there is a mention of a Pashupata
follower named Uditacharya (Ayonditacharya). Uditacharya established Kapileshwar and
Upmateshwar Shivlings.
 In the Karamdanda inscription of Kumargupta I, there is a mention of the establishment of a
Shivling named Prithviswar by his minister Prithvisena.

3- Kapalik
 Their favorite deity is Bhairava, who is considered to be the incarnation of Lord Shankar.
 Centre - Sri Shail (Himalayas)
 Practice of human sacrifice
 They considered meat, wine and women as means.
 In Sangam literature, Kapalikas have been described as staunch Shaivites.
 Kapalikas sect and Kalamukh a sect believed in Chiradama Yoga method.
 Kapaliks have been satirized in Bhavbhuti's books named Malatimadhava and Gatha
Saptashati of hala.
 Kapalika sect was of demonic nature. In this, human sacrifice was offered to Bhairava.
 Meat, wine and women are considered to be the main part of sadhana among Kapalikas.

4- Kalamukh (He is called Mahavratghar in Shiva Purana)

Founder
 Centre - Kedareshwar temple in Belgaum.
 They were even more extreme than Kapalikas.
 They used to eat human skulls.
 They used to eat human flesh.
 They used to apply ashes from cremation grounds.
 Shaiv saints in South India are called Nayanars.
 There were 63 major Nayanar saints. Their collection of verses is called Tirumurai.
 Kashmiri Shaivism - The founder of this sect was Vasugupta. Kashmiri Shaivism was
philosophical and based on knowledge.
 Somananda was the founder of Kashmiri Shaivism's Pratyabhigya philosophy.
 Kashmiri Shaivism has two branches -
1. Spandashastra, 2. Pratyavigyan Shastra.

 Lingapatha sect
 Expanse - Karnataka
 Establishment - The founder of Lingayat sect was Allaprabhu and his disciple Basava
(Basava Raja). He was the minister of Kaluchari ruler Vijjals. The actual founder was
Basava.
 They considered 63 Nayanar saints as their Guru.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
99
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Lingayat sect is influenced by Islam. This sect was against idol worship, rebirth, Vedas,
rituals, Brahmins and Jains.
 Akka Mahadevi was a female saint of this sect.
 Basava is said to be the incarnation of Kudal Sangam Dev and Nandi.
 The first Acharyas of Lingayat sect were Renuk, Daruna, Ghantakarna and Vishwakarna.
The saintly sayings of these Acharyas are collected in a Kannada book called Vachanshastra.
 They eradicated Jainism from Mysore.
 Lingayats were against cremation. That is why they are buried.
 Lingayats wear a silver capsule around their neck
 Nath sect
 Establishment - Matsyendranath/Machchhandarnath (10th century)
 Centre - Peshawar,
 Alakh Niranjan was There proclamation.
 Similarity with Vajrayani Buddhists
 Women have a prominent place in the Nath Sadhana system.
 Nathpanthi Yogis made the Sufis practice Hatha Yoga.
 Gorakhnath, born in Rawalpindi (Pakistan), a disciple of Matsyendranath, propagated the
Nath faith in the 10th-11th century.
 The sadhana of the Nath sect was similar to the sadhana of Vajrayani Buddhists, so
Matsyendranath has been accepted as the incarnation of Avalokiteshvara in eastern India.
 In Tibet, Matsyendranath has been considered as Siddha Luipada.
 Shakya sect
There were two classes
 Kaula Margi (Vamachari)
 Samayachari (Dakshinachari)
Kaula Margi - Worship of Panchamakara
Wine, meat, fish, currency, sex,
 Three centers of Shakti worship -
 Kashmir – Shankya form
 Kachi
 Kamakhya (Assam) - Kaam Pradhan
 Three main forms
 Saumya form
 Prachand form
 Kaam Pradhan form
 Jabalpur - 64 Yogini Temple
 In the society, usually the mild form of the goddess is worshipped.
 The temple of Sharda Devi located in Jammu is a symbol of the mild form of Shakti,
which is famous today as Vaishno Devi.
 Extremist sects like Kapalik and Kalamukh worship the fierce form of the goddess. The
fierce form is worshipped in the forms of Durga, Chandi, Kapali, Kali, Bhairavi etc. The
Kali temple of Calcutta is famous.
 Shakta people worship the Kamarupini Devi. They call the goddess Anand Bhairavi,
Tripur Sundari, Lalita etc. The Kamakhya temple of Assam is in this form.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
100
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The temple of 64 Yoginis near Bhedaghat (Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh) is related to

Shakti worship. There are also 64 Yogini temples in Khajuraho, Sambhalpur (Orissa),
Lalitpur (Uttar Pradesh).
 In India, Shakti is worshipped more in the name of Durga and Mahishasura Mardini.
 Durga Puja is mentioned in Markandeya Purana.
 Saptmaatrika is depicted on a seal obtained from Mohenjodaro.
 The oldest statue of Mahishasura Mardini has been found from Tonk, which is of the
post-Mauryan period.
 In South India Meenakshi is considered to be the wife of Shiva.

Bhagwat Dharma (Vaishnav Dharma)

Mention of nine types of devotion
 Founder - Vasudev Krishna of Vrishni clan
 His devotees were called Bhagwat. Nine types of devotion are mentioned in Bhagwat Dharma.
 The first mention of Shri Krishna is found in Chandogya Upanishad. In this, Krishna is
described as the son of Devaki and disciple of sage Ghora Angiras.
 The first mention of worship of Shri Krishna is in Ashtadhyayi.
 Vasudev Krishna is considered to be the incarnation of Vishnu.
 According to Aitereya Brahman, when Vasudev was equated with Narayan, the worshippers
of Narayan were called Pancharatrika and Pancharatra Dharma developed.
 The principles of Bhagwat Dharma are contained in Bhagvad Gita. The principle of
incarnation is given in Bhagvad Gita.
 The main center of Bhagwat Dharma was Mathura. The Gupta period was the peak period of
Bhagwat religion.
 Bhagwat religion is related to Sankhya, Yoga and Vedanta philosophy.
 Heliodorus, the ambassador of Greek king Antialcidas, established the Garuda flag in honour
of Vishnu (Vasudev) in Besnagar of Vidisha during the period of ninth Shuga ruler
Bhagbhadra and got a pillar constructed and an inscription engraved.
 The first epigraphic evidence related to Bhagwat religion is the Garuda pillar inscription of
Heliodorus.
 In the Jain religious text Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Vasudev was called by the name Keshav and
Vasudev has been described as a contemporary of the 22nd Tirthankara Arishtanemi.
 Bhagwat religion is also called Vaishnav religion.
 The devotees of Lord Vishnu were called Vaishnavs. Vaishnav religion became popular in the
middle of the 5th century AD.
 The oldest mention of Vishnu is found in the Rig Veda, in which Vishnu has been described as
the god of the sky and the form of the Sun.
 Maximum 24 incarnations of Vishnu have been mentioned, but in

Matsya Purana the names of ten incarnations are found

1. Matsya 2. Kurma (Tortaise) 3. varaha (pig) 4. Narasimha
5. Vamana 6. Parashuram 7. Ram 8. Krishna
9. Buddha
10. Kalki (Kali)

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
101
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 In Dashavatar, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Narasimha are from Satyayuga. And Ram is
considered to be related to Treta Yuga, Krishna and Buddha fromDwapara Yuga and Kalki
to Kali Yuga.
 Matsya, Kurma and Varaha are considered related to Prajapati.
 The oldest statue of Varaha, which is from the Kushan period, has been found in Mathura.
 The oldest depiction of Narasimha is found on a seal obtained from Basarh (Vaishali).
 Varaha avatar is the most popular among the incarnations of Vishnu.
 In this, Varaha rescues the earth from the ocean. The first mention of Varaha is in the
Rigveda and the mention of Narasimha avatar is in the Taittireeya Aranyaka.
 In the Shatpath Brahman, there is a mention of the Matsya avatar of the Lord at the time of
flood and the Kurma avatar is also mentioned in the Shatpath Brahman.
 In the Taittireeya Brahman and the Rigveda, there is a mention of Vishnu measuring the
entire universe in three steps in the form of Vaman avatar.
 Apart from Matsya Purana, the description of the ten incarnations of Vishnu is also found in
Dashavatara Charit written by Kshemendra and Geeta Govinda written by Jaydev.
 Megasthenes has mentioned Shri Krishna by the name of Heralls.
 The first mention of Avatarvaad is in Bhagwad Gita. Bhagwad Gita is a part of Bhishma
Parva of Mahabharata.

 In a first century AD article from a place called Mora near Mathura, there is a mention of
worship of the idols of Vasudev, Sankarshan, Pradyumna, Samba and Aniruddha (first
recorded evidence of worship of five Vrishni heroes) by a foreign woman called Tos.
 The first recorded evidence of worship of Panch Vrishni heroes is Mora inscription.
 Samba was related to Surya worship. Samba is one of the five Vrishni heroes.

Names of the five Vrishni heroes

Vasudev Krishna son of devaki

Sankarshan (Balram) son of rohini

Pradyumna son of rukmani

Samba son of jambavati

Aniruddha son of pradyumna

 Narayana, Narasimha and Vamana are considered divine incarnations and the remaining
seven are considered human incarnations.
 Varaha, Rama and Krishna are more popular among Vishnu incarnations.
 Kalki will take incarnation in future.
 Four Vrishni warriors including Vasudeva Krishna have been worshipped in the form of
Chaturvyuha.
 Four main deities of Chaturvyuha
 First mention of Chaturvyuha worship is found in Vishnu Samhita
1. Vasudeva 2. Sankarshan
3. Pradyumna 4. Aniruddha

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
102
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Main deities of Pancharatra Vyuha -

1. Vasudeva 2. Lakshmi
3. Sankarshan 4. Pradyumna
5. Aniruddha
 Pancharatra was the main sect of Vaishnava religion. It developed around the third century
BC. The first mention of Pancharatra is found in the Narayani section of Mahabharata.
 The main deity of Pancharatra was Narayan Vishnu. The first mention of Narayan is found in
Shatapath Brahman.

 There are five things in Pancharatra -

1. Paramtattva 2. Mukti
3. Yukti 4. Yoga
5. Vishaya.
 Hence, it is called Pancharatra.
 In South India, the worshippers of Bhagavata religion were called Alvars. The main Alvar
saints were Tirumangai, Periya Alvar and Nammalvar.
 There were twelve main Alvar saints.
 A female Alvar saint named Andal considered herself to be the lover of Vishnu.
 King Kulasekhar of Kerala was an Alvar saint and a devotee of Vishnu. Kulasekhar also had
immense faith in Ram. Kulasekhar wrote a book named Perumal Tirumoli.
 The worship of Vasudeva and Sankarshan is mentioned in the Ghosundi inscription
(Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) of the second century BC of King Sarvatata.
 The worship of Sankarshan (Balram) and Vasudeva is mentioned in the Nanaghat inscription
of the Satavahanas of the first century BC.
 The Satvat sect is related to Vaishnavism.
 Vasuki Naag was used as a rope during the Samudra Manthan. The oldest statue of Vishnu
has been found from Malhar (Chhattisgarh).
 Vasudev was first worshipped by the Bhagavats.
 Devaki and Krishna are mentioned in the inner inscription of Skandagupta.
 Geeta is called the essence of Upanishads.
 Sankarshan is said to be the incarnation of Sheshnag. Sankarshan is also called Haldhar. A
plough is also engraved in his statue.
 Lakshmi is said to be the daughter of Prajapati in Shatapath Brahman.
 The state symbol of Gupta, Eastern Chalukya of vengi, Rashtrakuta and Shilahara dynasty of
Konkan was Garuda, while that of Western Chalukyas was Varaha.
 Pallava ruler Dantivarman is said to be the incarnation of Vishnu.
 Radha-Krishna's love story was glorified in Jaydev's Geeta Govinda.
 In the early medieval period, Vaishnava bhakti mainly saw the rise of Radha-Krishna sect,
cowherd culture and expression of Raasleela.
 Skandagupta's Junagarh inscription contains the first recorded description of Lakshmi's
identification with Vishnu.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
103
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Rise of Magadha
 Introduction - In the 6th century BC, Magadha was only one of the 16 Mahajanapadas, but later
on Magadha absorbed other Mahajanapadas. This is called the rise of Magadha, the reasons for
which are as follows-

Reasons -
1. Special geographical location of Magadha -
 Magadha's capital Rajgriha (Giribraaj) was surrounded by various hills and had extensive
natural wealth. On this basis, it could not only avoid direct attack of enemies but could also
resist the attack for a long time. Magadha's second capital Pataliputra was like a water fort
situated at the confluence of Ganga, Gandak and Son rivers.

2. Political reasons - The military and diplomatic success of the ambitious Magadha rulers also
became the reason for the success of the Magadha Empire, for example, Bimbisara, the
founder of the Haryanka dynasty, adopted many types of methods in order to promote the
Magadha Empire. First, he emphasized on military expansion and annexed the Anga
Mahajanapada to the Magadha Empire. Secondly, like the European rulers of the 16th and
17th centuries, he strengthened his political diplomatic position through matrimonial relations.
For example, he established matrimonial relations with Kosala, Vajji Sangha, Madra region,
and Videha region. He received the Kashi region from Kosala as dowry. Then he strengthened
his position through diplomatic relations. For example, he had diplomatic relations with Avanti
and Takshasika. On the other hand, Bimbisara also took steps for administrative reforms. For
example, creation of a permanent army, measurement of land, etc.

 Military organization - There was a high availability of minerals and forests in the
geographical location of Magadha, strong weapons were made from minerals like iron and
elephants were captured from the forests and included in the army, which strengthened the
military organization of Magadha.

3. Economic reasons - Magadha was situated in the Ganga river valley due to which the soil there
was alluvial and fertile, which led to high production in agriculture. The people of Magadha
learnt the method of planting paddy, which increased agricultural production. Apart from this,
Pataliputra was a trade centre, which increased the wealth in the city, as a result, the people
became economically prosperous and started paying more taxes to their king.
Due to the abundance of rivers, the economic and trade importance of this region had
increased.

4. Social reasons - The society of Magadha was liberal in comparison to the society of other
Mahajanapadas, due to which the people of Magadha accepted the change easily, and
continued to do usury and money lending, which were unrighteous according to Brahmin texts.

5. Natural resources -
 Magadha was also in a profitable position in terms of natural resources.
 There was abundance of forests, elephants and wood in Magadha. Hence, while construction
work got a boost due to wood, a strong elephant army was established due to the availability of
elephants.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
104
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 magadha was also in an advantageous position in terms of iron reserves. The iron reserves
available in this region were successfully used for the manufacture of weapons and agricultural
equipment.
Conclusion - All the above reasons played an important role in the rise of Magadha.

Dynasty / Pitrahanta dynasty

 Bimbisara - 544 B.C. - 492 B.C. / Nickname - Shrenika, Seniya
 Founder of Haryanka Dynasty - Bimbisara
 Settled a city named Rajgriha and made it his capital, architect - (by Mahagovind)
 Its royal physician was Jivak, whom Bimbisara sent to Mahatma Buddha and Avanti's ruler
Chandpradyot.
 Bimbisara donated Venuvan to Mahatma Buddha

kingdom expansion of Bimbisara -

Bimbisara adopted the three-point policy for kingdom expansion
 Maritime relations policy -
 With Lichchhavis - Chellana, daughter of Lichchhavi king Chetak (Chetak's sister Trishala,
mother of Mahavira)
 Kosala kingdom - Mahakosala, sister of Kosal king Prasenjit
 Madra Desh - Princess of Madra Desh - Kshema
 Friendship policy - Bimbisara established friendly relations with Avanti king Chandpradyot by
sending Jeevak to him, and also established friendship with Gandhara's ruler Pushkarsarin.
 War and attack policy - Bimbisara defeated Magadha's neighbouring kingdom Anga's ruler
Brahmadatta and merged Anga with Magadha, and made his son Ajatashatru the governor of
Anga.

 Ajatashatru (492 B.C. - 460 B.C.) -

 Nickname - Kunik
 Mother - Kosala - According to Buddhist beliefs
 Chellana - According to Jain beliefs
 He organized the first Buddhist Council.
 Ajatashatru, with the help of his ministers Vassakar and Sunidhi, created a rift in the Vajji
Sangha and won over the Vajji Sangha with weapons like Maha Shilakantak and Rathmusal.
 Ajatashatru attacked Prasenjit, the ruler of Kosala, and captured Kashi. As a result of the treaty,
Prasenjit married his daughter Bajira to Ajatashatru and gave Kashi as dowry.
 Buddhist follower

 Udayin - (460 B.C. - 444 B.C.) -

 Established Pataliputra and made it the capital.
 Jain follower

 Nagadashak -
 Last ruler
 Murder - Amatya Shishunaga
 He was called Darshaka in the Puranas

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
105
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Shishunaga dynasty
 Shishunaga - 412 B.C. - 398 B.C.
 Founder - Shishunaga
 Capital - Vaishali
 He merged Vatsa and Avanti Mahajanapadas into Magadha

 Kalashoka - 398 B.C. - 366 B.C. / Nickname - Kakavarna

 He again made Pataliputra the capital of Magadha.
 Organised the Second Buddhist Council

 Nandivardhan/Mahanandin
 Last ruler
 Murdered by Mahapadmananda

Nanda Dynasty/Mahabodhi Dynasty

 Mahapadmananda -
 Other name - Napitdas - (mother was a prostitute and father was a barber)
 Title - Sarvakshatrantaka - Destroyer of Kshatriyas
 Ugrasen - Owner of a fierce army
 Parashurama-II
 Anullandhita shashak (unrelenting ruley) - Sole ruler of the earth
 Ekarat
 Major work - Conquered Kalinga and merged it with Magadha, and built a canal named Tinsuli
there (Information - Hathi Gumpha inscription) and brought Jinsen's idol from the King of
Kalinga.
 Other victories - Ikshwaku, Panchala, Kekaya (Kashi), Haihaya, Kalinga, Ashmaka, Kuru,
Maithil, Shurasena, Vitihotra etc.
 There were total 9 kings in Nanda dynasty, hence it is also called Navnand dynasty -

 Dhananand – Agrammes -
 Attack of Alexander
 Defeated - by Chandragupta Maurya.
 His contemporaries - Sthulabhadra, vararuchi

Foreign Invasion on India

Reasons -
1. Political Anarchy -
 When the states of central India were falling prey to the expansionist policy of the Magadh
Empire, an atmosphere of extreme political anarchy and chaos prevailed in the
northwestern region. This region was divided into many small states, for example Madra,
Kamboj, Gandhara etc. Out of the various Mahajanapadas mentioned in the contemporary
literature, only Kamboj and Gandhara were in this region. No such sovereign power center
had developed within these small states that could establish political unity among them.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
106
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

2. Fertile region of the north-west -

 The fertile valley of the Indus made this region prosperous. This region produced more
surplus in agriculture than other regions. Because the Indus and its tributaries brought
new alluvial soil here every year and created a rich fertile region.

3. Presence of important trade routes -

 The economic context of this was that India's main trade route Uttarapath passed through
this area and went to Central Asia. Control over this route meant benefiting from the
richest sources of land route trade.
Conclusion - In order to fulfill their imperialist ambitions and to fulfill their economic interests, the
initial foreign invasions started in India, the following are the main ones - Iranian and Greek
invasions

Iranian invasion / Persian or Achaemenid

 Achaemenid dynasty - Founder - Cyrus -
Achaemenid invader of India - Cyrus II - First foreigner

 Darius / Darabaha - I
 First successful foreign invasion on India
 He conquered Kamboj, Gandhara and Sindh of India and made it the 20th province of Persia.
From which he received 360 tons of gold every year - according to Herodotus
 This campaign of Darabah-I is mentioned in Behistun, Persepolis and NAQSH – e- Rustam
inscriptions.

 Kshayarsha/Xerxes -
 He maintained his influence over the Indian region won by his father.
 Darius-III - Defeated by Alexander in the Battle of Uruvela (331 BC).

Effect of Iranian invasion on India

 Political effect -
 The hollowness of India's western border was exposed, attracted by which the Greeks
attacked India.
 As a result of Iranian invasion, the kshatrapa/satrapa system started in India, which was
later adopted by Shakas and Kushans.

 Economic effect -
 The trade route between India and Persia was discovered, after which the traders of both the
nations started trading in each other's country, which encouraged commerce and trade.

 Cultural effect -
 The Iranian Aramaic script became popular on the northwestern border of India, which later
led to the development of Kharosthi script, which was written right-left like Arabic script.
 Iranian influence is also believed to be on Ashoka's pillar inscriptions and Iranian influence
can be seen on the architecture of the Mauryas.
 The practice of lighting fire, keeping female bodyguards.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
107
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Note – Probably Ashoka got the inspiration of circulation of inscriptions from the Iranian
ruler Darius-I.

Encouragement to geographical discoveries -

 Darius-I sent Scylax, who discovered the Indus route.

Greek Invasion
 Alexander - Birth - 356 BC
 Name - Alexander
 Father - Philip II
 Mother - Olympia
 Guru - Aristotle
 Coronation - 336 BC (ruler of Macedonia at the age of 20)
 Invasion of India - 326 BC
 Period of stay in India - 19 months
 Death - 323 BC Babylon (32 years)
 331 BC Defeated Persian ruler Darius - III in the battle of Uruvela (Persians gave him the
title of Alexander).
 Alexander's Invasion of India - Alexander invaded India in 326 BC. After capturing Bactria and
Afghanistan, he reached Takshila. Takshila's ruler Ambhi surrendered before Alexander and
promised to support him fully in conquering India (India's first traitor - Ambhi).
 Alexander was strongly opposed by Porus, the ruler of Poravas/Puru nation. The battle of
Vitasta/Hydaspes took place between Alexander and Porus in 326 BC on the banks of Jhelum
river, in which Alexander probably won. Later, pleased with Bravery of porus, the nation was
returned to him.
 After winning the Hydaspes war, Alexander won many republics between Jhelum and Beas
river, in which Malava, Massaga, Kshudaka, Shivi and Patala were prominent.
 Malava Republic - While fighting with them, Alexander was injured and he got all the women,
men and children of this place killed.
 Massaga Republic - In the war with this republic, women also fought with Alexander.
 Patal Republic - It was situated on the banks of the river Beas. This was the last campaign of
Alexander. After this, Alexander's army refused to cross the river Beas.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
108
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Indo-greek – Ruler (Greek attack)

Alexander  Seleucus Diodotus  Demetrius  Menander

 Treaty of Babylon -
 Division of Alexander's empire after his death -
 Northern and western regions of the Indus river - Philip
 Seleucus got the empire of Greece.
 Ambhi got the area between Indus and Jhelum.
 The area between Jhelum and Beas river - Porus got it
 During the return of Alexander - Alexander's army got divided into two parts at the mouth of
Indus river - Water route - Nearchus, Land route - Craterus
 Two cities were built - Bucephala - in memory of the horse
 Nikaia (victory city) - to commemorate Porus' victory
 Alexandria - (Kabul)
 Herodotus - Historica - Father of History
 Greek writers who came to India with Alexander -
 Aristobulus
 Onesicritus
 Nearchus
 Greek writers after Alexander -
 Megasthenes - Indica
 Pliny - Natural History
 Arrian - Alexander's Invasion (Indians were better than other rulers of that time in the art
of war.
 Ptolemy - Geography
Effect of Alexander's invasion on India
Introduction - Alexander's invasion was just like a storm for northwestern India, yet Alexander's
invasion did produce indirect and long-term effects to a large extent, which can be understood on
the basis of the following points
 Integration of India's northwestern border -
 As a result of Alexander's invasion, political unity spread among the Indians, this work was
later done by Chandragupta Maurya.
 Trade doors of Greece and India opened -
 As a result of the invasion, Indians and Greeks came closer to each other, due to which trade
was carried out between the two countries through land and water routes and India
succeeded in trading with the West.
 Geographical discovery -
 Alexander sent a fleet under his commander Nearchus to explore the waterways and ports
from the Indus River to the mouth of the Euphrates River.
 Due to which the trade between India and West Asia increased.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
109
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Chronology of Indian History -

 Chronology of Indian History started after Alexander's invasion, which was started by Greek
historians.

 Cultural Influence -
 There was an exchange of ideas between Indian and Greek cultures. Greek astrology and art
arrived in India.
 Hellenistic art of Greece became popular in northwestern India, which later on is seen in the
Gandhara art style.
 uluk style coins started being made in India, just like Greek coins.
Greek influence was felt on the animal figures adorning the top of Mauryan pillars.

 Establishment of New Cities -

 During Alexander's stay in India, many new cities were established and Greek settlements
were settled, for example, Nikaia, Bucephala , Alexandria etc.

Conclusion - Overall, the Greek invasion under Alexander started a process of cultural exchange
between India and Greece, the culmination of which can be seen during the period of Indo-Greek
rulers.
Maurya Empire

Sources of Mauryan
History

Literary Sources Archaeological Sources

Native Literature Inscriptions Punch Marked Coins Pottery

Foreign Literature

Issued by Northern
Merchant Black
Guilds Polished
A. Arthashastra - Ware
 It has a total of 15 chapters, 180 chapters and 6000 verses. In Kautilya's Arthashastra, neither
its author nor any Maurya ruler nor the Maurya capital Pataliputra is mentioned.
 Since Kautilya's Arthashastra is written on realistic politics, it has been compared with
Machiavelli's 'The Prince' and Kautilya is called the Machiavelli of India.
 Information obtained from Arthashastra -
 Saptanga Siddhanta -
Kautilya has considered 7 parts of the state under Saptanga Siddhant - Raja (lord), Amatya
(minister), Janapada, ourga, kosh, sena, mitra

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
110
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Tirtha -
Kautilya has called the highest officials of the state as Tirtha, their total number is said to be
18.
 Intelligence System -
There is a description of the intelligence system in Arthashastra, in which the spy has been
called the gudh purush.
 Information about Shudra Varna -
Kautilya called Shudras as Aryans for the first time. According to Arthashastra, Shudras were
also allowed to join the army along with the other three Varnas.
 Slavery -
Kautilya has described 9 types of slaves.
 Land Revenue -
According to Arthashastra, land revenue was 1/6th.

Mudrarakshasa - Written by - Vishakhadatta -

 This gives information about the conspiracies of Chanakya.
 This is the first detective play in Sanskrit literature.
 This also gives a description of the society and culture of the Mauryan period.
B. Purana -
 Vishnu Purana tells us that Chandragupta was born to a woman named Mura, the wife of
King Nanda.

C. Other Sanskrit texts -

 Ashtadhyayi, Mahabhasya, Kathasaritsagar - Somdeva, Brihatkathamanjari - Kshemendra

D. Buddhist literature -
 Description of Tibetan Lama Tarani
 Deepavansh - Vachissaka, Mahavansh, Divyavadana, Ashokavadana, Manju Srimulakalpa
 Description of Mahayana branch and Harshvardhan, Milindpanho etc.
 Mahavamsha
 Chanakya made Chandragupta Maurya the emperor of Jambudweep
 Mention of Chandragupta's first failure, The story of chandragupta’s chapatti which starts
eating chapatti from the middle instead of eating it from the edge.

Milindapanho
 Detailed description of the destruction of Magadha's army.

Divyavadan -
 Bindusara was said to be a Murdhanya-Bhishikta Kshatriya.

Jain literature
 Parishishtaparvan- Hemchandra, Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu, Bhadbahucharit - Bhadribahu,
Sthaviravalicharit - Hemchandra.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
111
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Tamil Literature -
 It is known from the accounts of Mamulanau and Paranar that Chandragupta Maurya had
invaded the south up to Podiyal hills in Trichy district.

Foreign Literature
A. Greek and Roman accounts
Indica -
 Megasthenes - Seleucus Nicator
 He came to the court of Chandragupta Maurya in 305 BC and stayed till 299 BC, he stayed for
a total of 6 years
 Important descriptions obtained from this -
1. Description of the ruler -
Megasthenes has called Chandragupta Sandrocottus and information has been given about his
bodyguards.
2. Description of the city of Pataliputra -
Chandragupta's capital Polibrotha (Pataliputra) was the largest city of eastern India situated
at the confluence of the Ganges and Son rivers, the royal palace of Pataliputra was far ahead of
other cities in grandeur and beauty.
3. Description of city administration -
Indica has mentioned the city administration of Pataliputra, according to which the
administration of the city was run by 6 committees.
4. Description of military administration -
Megasthenes, while describing the military administration, said that it is run by a council of 30
officers, which had 6 committees.
5. Description of revenue administration -
Land revenue 1/4
6. Description of Uttarapath -
In Indica, Uttarapath going from Bengal to the northwest was described in detail.
7. System of seven varnas -
Philosopher, farmer, cattle-keeper, trader, warrior, inspector, minister/advisor
8. Absence of slavery -
Absence of slavery in India
9. Description of no famine -
But description of famine is found in the Sohgaura and Mahasthan inscriptions.
10. Lack of writing skills - According to Megasthenes, Indians did not know the art of writing.

B. Other sources -
Description of Dionysus, Strabo, Diodorus, Arrian etc.
C. Chinese account -

Fa Hien - Fa-o-ki -
 Ashoka has established a 'hell' near Pataliputra. From which he tortures innocent people.

Hiven Tsang -
 Saw the wall of hell with his own eyes.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
112
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Description of the stupas built by Ashoka.

 Both the Chinese travellers have thrown light on Ashoka's cruel nature before he became
Buddha.

Archaeological sources -
A. Inscriptions - Pre-Ashok inscriptions - (Sohgaura and Mahasthan in Bengal) and
Rudradaman's inscription
Ashoka period inscriptions - (14 major inscriptions, seven pillar inscriptions, minor
stone inscriptions)
Other pillar inscriptions - (Rummandei, Nigalisar, Sarnath, Kaushambi, Pataliputra
etc.)
Mixed type of inscriptions - Three caves were built in the Bihar Gaya hill during
Ashoka's period and inscriptions were engraved in them. These inscriptions give
information that these caves were donated to Ajivikas.
B. Pottery - Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
C. Punched Coins - Copper and Silver

Maurya dynasty
Origin

Shudra Kshatriya

Buddhist literature
Foreig Native and Jain literature

Vishnu Purana Divyavadana

Justin
Mahavansha and Deepavansha
Diodorus Mudrarakshasa
Mahaparinibbasasutta
Plutarch

Supporters of low caste -

 Vishnupuran and Mudrarakshas consider Mauryas to be of Shudra caste, in Mudrarakshas it
is said that he was born in Vrishal clan.
 Brihatkathamanjari and Kathasaritsagar also consider him to be of low caste.
 Greek scholars Justin, Diodorus, Plutarch also consider Chandragupta to be of low caste.
Note - Prof. Radhakrishna Chaudhary - has opposed this view.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
113
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Supporters of Kshatriya clan -

 According to Buddhist texts Divyavadana, Mahavansh, Mahaparinibbanasutta, Chandragupta
Maurya is said to be a Kshatriya.
 Rajputana Gazetteer has also tried to prove Mauryas to be Rajputs.

Supporters of Vaishya clan -

 Romila Thapar has considered Chandragupta to be of Vaishya caste.
Conclusion -
 It is clear from the above evidences that Mauryas were Kshatriyas. Brahmin texts had such an
attitude probably because Mauryas did not support Brahmin religion. Along with this, Buddhist
literature also considers Mauryas as Kshatriyas. Along with this, in Chanakya's Arthashastra,
only a Kshatriya born in a high family is considered eligible for kingship. That is why Chanakya
helped Chandragupta Maurya to become emperor. If Chandragupta was not a Kshatriya, then
Chanakya would probably never have helped Chandragupta in building the kingdom.

Chandragupta Maurya
 Sandrocottus Greek name
 Mother-Mura
 Guru - Acharya Chanakya of Takshila - Chanakya saw Chandragupta Maurya during the royal
game and impressed by his talent, took him to Takshila.

Campaigns of Chandragupta Maurya

 Chandragupta's victory plan -
 End of the rule of Nandas
 Driving out the Greeks from India

 According to Justin -
 Chandragupta met Alexander and asked for his help to end the Nandas, but being angry with
Chandragupta's insolence, Alexander ordered to kill him, but Chandragupta fled from there.

 First attack on Magadha -

 First of all, Chandragupta Maurya attacked Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha, to destroy the
Nanda dynasty. But Chandragupta Maurya was defeated in front of the huge army of Nandas.

 Victory over Punjab and Sindh -

 According to Justin, Chandragupta killed Alexander's satrap Philip and captured Punjab and
Sindh.
 As part of this campaign, he recruited Yavan soldiers in his army.

 Victory over Magadha -

 It is known from Mahavanshtika, Milindapanho, Parsishtaparvan that Chandragupta first
attacked Pataliputra and failed in it.
 After this, he conquered the border provinces and again attacked Pataliputra, and killed
Dhananand and ended the Nanda dynasty. In this war, Dhananand's commander was Bhaddasal
and Amatya was Rakshasa.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
114
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Victory over Saurashtra -

 The Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman gives information about Mauryas' control over
Saurashtra in the west. Chandragupta Maurya had a governor named Pushyagupta in
Saurashtra, who built the Sudarshan lake.

 Victory in the South -

 According to Tamil text Mamulanara, Chandragupta Maurya conquered the area up to Trichy
in the south.

 Conflict between Chandragupta and Seleucus -

 After the death of Alexander, by 312-311 BC, Seleucus defeated all his rivals and moved towards
India, trampling Babylon and Bactria.
 According to Appianus, in 305 BC, Seleucus crossed the Indus river and fought with
Chandragupta. Later, both of them signed a treaty and established matrimonial relations.

 Result -
 He got his daughter Helena married to Chandragupta.
 Chandragupta gifted 500 elephants to Seleucus.
 Seleucus sent Megasthenes to Chandragupta's court.
 Asia (Herat), Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan) and paropamisadae (Kabul)

End of Chandragupta Maurya -

 In the last days of his life, Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism (Diksha-Bhadrabahu) and
being saddened by the 12-year famine in Magadha, he left the kingdom and went to Mysore with
Acharya Bhadrabahu and gave up his life by Sallekhana method in Shravanabelagola.

Statement -
 Plutarch -
Chandragupta destroyed the whole of India with an army of 6 lakhs.
 Justin -
Chandragupta's army is an army of robbers and it has captured the whole of India.
 Arrian -
Even Susa and Ekbatana cannot match the splendor and dignity of Pataliputra.
 Strabo -
The king lived in a palace surrounded by female bodyguards, he came out of the palace only on
the occasion of war, yajna, justice and hunting.

Bindusara
 Mother - Durvara
 Name in Vayupuran - Bhadrasar
 Name in Jain texts - Singhansen
 Fleet - Amitraghat
 According to Taranatha -
 Chanakya helped in the destruction of kings and feudal lords of 16 states and made Bindusara
the ruler of the area from the eastern sea to the western sea
 According to Divyavadana -

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
115
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 During the time of Bindusara, there was rebellion twice in Takshila which was suppressed by
Susima and Ashoka respectively.
Note - The people of Takshila said, "We are not against the ruler but the evil ministers exploit us."

Relations with foreign rulers -

 According to Strabo -
 Antiochus, the king of Syria, sent Dimachus to the court of Bindusara, from whom Bindusara
demanded wine, figs and a philosopher.
 Philadelphus, the king of Egypt, sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the court of
Bindusara.
 Khallataka was the prime minister of Bindusara, along with him were Chanakya and
Radhagupta.
 Radhagupta is considered to be the successor of Chanakya.
 Dimachus is considered to be the successor of Megasthenes.
 Bindusara was associated with the Ajivika sect.
 An Ajivika named Pingalvats lived in the court of Bindusara.
 There was a council of ministers of 500 members in the court of Bindusara, whose head was
Khallataka.

Ashoka
 Mother - Subhadrangi or Dhamma - Upagupta, son of a Brahmin of Champa, initiated
Ashoka into Buddhism.
 Puranas - Ashoka is called Ashokvardhan.
 Other names of Ashoka - Buddhashakya, Ujjaini Karmoli
 Divyavadana, Mahavansh, Deepvansh, Mahabodhivansh - According to them, Ashoka
attained the throne by killing his 99 brothers.
 Before becoming the king, Ashoka was the governor of Avanti, while being the governor,
Ashoka suppressed the rebellions of Nepal, Khas and Takshashila.
 In inscriptions, Ashoka's name is found as Devnamapiyadasi, but - In Gurjara, Maski
(Karnataka) and Nettur (A.P.) Ashoka's name is found as Ashoka.
Note - Vigata Ashoka was Ashoka's real brother.

Marriage -
 Ashoka married Devi, daughter of a merchant of Vidisha, from whom he had children named
Mahendra and Sanghamitra.
 Karuvaki - Son - Teevar - Both are mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions.
 Padmavati - Kunal - Ashoka's successor
 Tishyarkshita - got the Bodhi tree cut and Kunal blinded
 Asandhimitra - Daughter - Charumati
 Ashoka's sons - Mahendra, Jaloka, Teevar, Kunal
Note - Kashmir was ruled by Jaloka during Ashoka's time.

Ashoka's reign -
Ashoka's 37-year reign is mainly divided into three parts.
 Reign from the seventh year after coronation
 Reign from the eighth to the twenty-seventh year

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
116
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Reign from the twenty-eighth to the thirty-seventh year

 Reign from the seventh year after coronation -

 During this period, Ashoka was known as Chanda Ashoka.

 It is said that once when the women of his harem made fun of his ugliness, he got 500 women of
his harem killed”.

 According to Fa-Hien -
Ashoka established hell in Pataliputra, in which he used to give new punishments to people.
 Hiuen Tsang -
 While confirming the statement of Fa-Hien, he said that when he came to India, he saw the
wall of hell with his own eyes.
 Ashoka conquered Kashmir and Khetan in the seventh year of his coronation and
according to Kalhan's Rajtarangini, Ashoka established a city named Srinagar on the
banks of the Vitasta river.
 Reign from the eighth to the twenty-seventh year -
Kalinga War - 261 BC -
 Ashoka conquered Kalinga in the eighth year of his coronation. Information about this - found
in the 13th rock inscription - Kalinga had - 60,000 infantry, 1000 horsemen, 7000 elephants.
 King - Nandaraj, Capital - Tossili
 Reasons for Kalinga War -
1. Ashoka's imperial policy -
Ashoka was an ambitious ruler, he would never tolerate an independent and powerful state in
his neighbourhood.
2. Ashoka wanted to establish direct contact with South India by conquering Kalinga.
3. There were many ports in Kalinga state, through which trade was done with South Asian
countries, so Ashoka wanted to increase his trade and commerce by conquering Kalinga.
4. Kalinga was also famous for elephants, so Ashoka wanted to increase his military power by
capturing it.
5. According to R.C. Bhandarkar, during the reign of Bindusara, the Kalinga kingdom had
helped the Pandya and Chola kings who were enemies of Magadha.
6. According to Taranatha - Ashoka's Manimukta was looted by the famous Naga robbers, to
recover which Ashoka attacked Kalinga.
 Result -
1. According to the 13th inscription, 1 lakh people were killed in the Kalinga war, 1.5 lakh
were taken captive.
2. After this war, Chand Ashoka - Ashoka became Dharma - AShok.
3. After this war, Ashoka personally adopted Buddhism (Bhabru inscription)
 Reign from 28th to 37th year
 Ashoka's religious journey -
Journey to Nigali Sagar in the 12th year.
 Bodhgaya -
After adopting Buddhism, Ashoka first visited Bodhgaya (in the 10th year of his coronation).
 Lumbini -
Upgupta was also with him.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
117
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Ashoka visited Lumbini in the 20th year of his coronation, where he reduced the tax from 1/6
to 1/8 in honour of Mahatma Buddha. Information about this is available in the Rummindei
inscription - this is the shortest inscription of Ashoka.
 Kushinagar -
This was Ashoka's last religious journey.

Policies of Ashoka
 Ashoka was the first Indian ruler, whose reign is known through the records established by
him. Ashoka's records provide information about the social, economic, religious and foreign
policies of his period, which were as follows.
1. Administrative Policy -
 In Ashoka's period, administrative policy was made for the purpose of public welfare. At this
time, equal opportunities were provided to everyone without any discrimination for high
positions in the administration - for example, women and Greeks were also given a place.
 Clear instructions were given by Ashoka to the officials for the care of the people and officers
named Rajjuk were appointed for judicial work.
2. Social Policy -
 For the integration of different castes, classes, languages, communities by Ashoka, through his
Dhamma and records, Ashoka inspired people to adopt good behavior and did many types of
work -
 He talked about serving and respecting mother, father and teachers
 He taught to adopt soft behavior towards slaves.
 He inspired the society to adopt the behavior of live and let live.
 Tried to establish tolerance in the society.
3. Religious policy -
 With tolerance and respect for all religions, every religion was respected and donations were
given to Brahmins, Buddhists, Jains and other monks. Ashoka himself built caves in the
Barabar hills and donated them to the Ajivika sect.
 Apart from this, Ashoka personally adopted Buddhism, but did not impose it on his subjects.
4. Foreign policy -
 After the Kalinga war, Ashoka's foreign policy became based on the principle of peace and co-
existence. The thirteenth long rock inscription gives information about his different foreign
relations.
 During the rule of Sri Lanka's ruler Tissa, he sent his son Mahendra and daughter
Sanghamitra to propagate Dhamma. Similarly, he also sent his Dhamma preachers to other
countries.
5. Economic policy -
 Under his economic policy, Ashoka tried to give prosperity to the Maurya economy. On the
strength of his administration, he promoted industries, commerce and trade.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
118
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Ashoka and Buddhism

 Introduction -
After the Kalinga War, Ashoka embraced Buddhism and as a devoted Buddhist follower, he
expressed faith in Buddhist principles and did many things for the propagation of Buddhism.
 After accepting Buddhism, he became a devoted Buddhist. Expressed faith in Triratna
(Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha) (Bhabru inscription)
 Provided protection and donations to Buddhist scholars.
 Undertook Dhamma Yatra to Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
 10th year of coronation - Visit to Bodhgaya.
 12th year of coronation - Visit to Nigalisagar
 20th year of coronation - Visit to Rummindei
 During the Nigalisagar visit, Kanakamuni's stupa was enlarged.
 During the Rummindei visit, in honour of the war, he abolished the tax called Bali and reduced
the tax called Bhag from 1/6 to 1/8.
 Appointed state officials who propagated Buddhist principles. Like Dhamma Mahamatra and
Stri Mahamatra (fifth and 12th long inscriptions)
 He propagated Buddhist principles by getting them written on inscriptions.
 During his reign, Ashoka organized the third Buddhist Council in Pataliputra and many books
were compiled.
 Ashoka also patronized Buddhism in the field of art and architecture and built 84 thousand
Buddhist stupas.
 Ashoka also propagated Buddhism in foreign countries through his preachers.

Ashoka was a great emperor

1. High political ideal -
 Ashoka considered it the duty of the king to serve his subjects. He considered himself indebted
to his subjects. In such clear words, he established a high political ideal.
2. Public protector -
 He establishes a father-son relationship with his subjects and works for their welfare in the
same way as a father wants to do for his children. This vision of seeing the subjects as sons was
absolutely new.
3. Ideal of universal welfare -
 Ashoka considered the welfare of not only his subjects but also the unconquered neighbours
important and worked for them as well.
4. Administrative reforms -
 Ashoka made his administrative policy with the objective of public welfare. He also improved
the justice system for the subjects and gave a human face to the administration.
5. Dhamma policy -
 Ashoka propounded Dhamma policy for the moral upliftment of the subjects and integration
of the state. Under this, he promoted the feeling of tolerance, non-violence, brotherhood in the
society and talked about removing human vices like anger, violence, pride.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
119
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

6. Public welfare ruler -

 Ashoka said that the work of the king is not to build and run the administration, but also to do
public welfare work.
7. Inscriptions -
 Ashoka was the first Indian ruler who clarified the state policy through inscriptions, his
inscriptions are compared with the current Citizen Charter.
8. Conscious towards environmental protection -
 Ashoka was also concerned about environmental protection. He laid special emphasis on tree
plantation. He considered biodiversity important. This must have been his viewpoint behind
discouraging animal sacrifice.
9. Use of local language -
 He used Prakrit language to connect with the common people in his vast empire.
10. Art and architecture -
 84 thousand stupas, caves of Barabar hills (Sudama, Karna, Chopal, Vishwa Jhopdi) were
constructed.

Meaning and Objective - The religion of Sanskrit language is called Dhamma in Prakrit.
The code of conduct which Ashoka presented with the objective of moral upliftment of his
subjects and maintaining the unity and integrity of the Maurya Empire by uniting people of
different languages and religions has been called Dhamma in Ashoka's inscriptions.

Features of Dhamma -
 Universality - The form of Ashoka's Dhamma was such that it could be adopted by any
civilization, culture or people of the world who follow Dhamma.
 The essence of all religions - Ashoka's Dhamma was a collection of good thoughts present in
different religions. Ashoka took morality and ethics from Buddhism, penal code and discipline
from Brahminism and the system of living from Aajivaks.
 Emphasis on non-violence - Ashoka's Dhamma is based on the concept of non-violence. In his
first major rock edict, Ashoka had given orders regarding ban on animal slaughter.
 Concept of public welfare –
 Information about Ashoka's public welfare works is obtained from his second major rock
inscription.
 Simplicity of Dhamma - Dhamma had a simple method of worship.
 Means of propagating Dhamma -
 Start of religious tours - Ashoka travelled to Bodhgaya in the 10th year, Nigalisagar in the
14th year and Lumbini in the 23rd year for the propagation of Dhamma.
 Appointment of state officials -
Ashoka appointed Rajjuk, regional Dharma Mahamatra (fifth rock inscription) for
the propagation of Dhamma.
 Use of common people's language -
Ashoka got inscriptions inscribed in the language of the common people, Prakrit
and local scripts (Brahmi, Kharosthi, Aramaic and Greek) for the propagation of
Dhamma.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
120
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Display of heavenly pleasures - Ashoka organized a display of heavenly pleasures to make

Dhamma popular. On one hand, these displays entertained the people and on the other
hand, they were attracted towards religion due to the desire for heavenly pleasures.
 Public welfare work - Ashoka did many works for the welfare of humans and animals to
make Dhamma popular. He banned the killing of animals and birds and made separate
arrangements for the treatment of humans and animals in his own and neighboring states.
 Sending religious preachers to foreign countries - Ashoka sent preachers to foreign
countries to spread Dhamma, such as - Mahendra and Sanghamitra - in Lanka, Son and
Uttar-Suvarna Bhumi.

Nature - Different scholars have different opinions regarding Ashoka's Dhamma.

 Religious nature - According to western scholars, Ashoka's Dhamma was 'religious', they have
considered Ashoka as the founder of a new religion, but any new religion has some essential
features, such as worship of a particular deity, a place of worship, or religious texts, but no
such information is available about Dhamma from Ashoka's inscriptions.
 Ashoka's Dhamma as Buddhism - According to Kaushambi, some points of Ashoka's Dhamma
like service to parents, respect for teachers, generosity with friends, relatives, acquaintances
and Brahmins-Shramanas-saints and proper behavior with slaves-servants etc. are mentioned
in Sigalovadasutta of Dirghanikaya.
 Organization of the Third Buddhist Council
 Ashoka has expressed faith in the Triratna of Buddhism - Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha in
the Bhabru minor inscription.
But Ashoka did not mention the basic principles of Buddhism in his religion such as - Four
Noble Truths or Eightfold Path etc., so it would not be logical to say that Ashoka's
Dhamma is completely Buddhist religion.
 The real form of Dhamma -
 The real information about Ashoka's Dhamma is obtained from Ashoka's own inscription,
Ashoka himself asks in the second pillar inscription that "Kiyam Chu Dhamme" i.e. what is
Dhamma.
 Ashoka himself answers this question in the second and seventh inscription that -
 Committing less sins.  Gentleness
 Extreme welfare  Saintliness
 Kindness  Not killing animals
 Charity  Serving parents
 Truthfulness  Respect for teachers
 Purity  Low asceticism etc.
In conclusion - Although Ashoka can be called a follower of Buddhism personally, but in
reality Ashoka's Dhamma was based on public welfare ethics, religious tolerance, "live and let
live" and the spirit of world brotherhood.

Importance - Although there were some shortcomings in the mechanism of Ashoka's Dhamma.
That is why it disintegrated within a short time after Ashoka's death, but still it had significant
successes.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
121
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

1. Ashoka was successful in maintaining a huge empire through his Dhamma. He also
strengthened the empire.
2. We get evidence from the inscriptions, that influenced by Dhamma, some hunters and
fishermen abandoned violence against living beings and adopted the life of farmers.
3. Ashoka saved the livestock on the strength of his Dhamma, due to which commercial trade
also increased.
4. Due to Dhamma, peace and order was maintained in the empire, due to which commercial
trade also increased.
5. Social stability was maintained due to Ashoka's Dhamma, due to which no major rebellion
took place during his time.
6. Through the power of Dhamma, influence could also be created on foreign states.
7. The progressive ideas of Ashoka's Dhamma also influenced the later rulers. For example,
Akbar's Din-e-Ilahi was influenced by Ashoka's Dhamma.

Ashoka's inscriptions

Inscriptions Pillar inscriptions Cave inscriptions

 Barabar hill
 Sudama jhopdi
Major Minur Major pillar Minor pillar  Vishwa jhopdi
inscriptions inscriptions inscriptions inscriptions  Karna Chaupal
6.
 Shahbazgarhi  Bhabru  Sarnath
 Delhi-Topra
 Mansehra  Rupnath  Sanchar
 Delhi-Meerut
 Sopara  Gurjara  Rummindei
 Rampurva
 Erragudi  Budhni  Nigali Sagar
 Lauria-Arraj
 Girnar  Govimath
 Lauria-Nandangarh
 Dhauda  Maski
 Kaushambi
 Jaugarh  Nettur
 Kalsi  Udegalam
 Ahraura
 Brahmagiri
 Siddapur
 Jatinga
Rameshwara
 Sasarama
 Rajulamandagiri
 Saro-Maro
 Pangudariya

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
122
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

In 1837, James Prinsep succeeded in reading the Brahmi script engraved in Ashoka's Delhi-
Topra inscription for the first time.
 James Prinsep established the relation of King Priyadassi with King Tissa of Sri Lanka, later
Mr. Harner declared Priyadassi to be Ashoka.
 Made in - Red sandstone - Mirzapur of Uttar Pradesh

Other points -
 Author of Ashoka's inscriptions - Chapan
 Script - Brahmi/Greek/Kharosthi/Aramaic
 Discoverer Joseph Tiefenthaler - Delhi - Meerut
 In Ashoka's inscriptions, the name Ashoka appears in - Maski, Gurjara, Nettur and Udgolan
 In Maski, Ashoka's name is found as Buddha Shakya.
 In Bhabru inscription, Ashoka has been called Magadhadhiraj, and the Triratna of Buddhism
- Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha have been mentioned.
 D.R. Bhandarkar has written the history of Ashoka on the basis of his inscriptions.
Shahbazgarhi $ Mansehra - Use of Kharosthi script
 Shar-e-Kuna - Biscript - Aramaic and Greek
 Takshashila + Laghaman - In Aramaic script
 Mahasthan inscription - Bengal - Information about distribution of food grains during famine
 Sohgaura - U.P. (Gorakhpur) - Copper plate - Picture of the only granary is also engraved.
 Pangudharia - Ashoka was called Maharajkumar.
 Kanganhalli - Picture of Ashoka and 'Rajyo-Ashoka' is mentioned for him.
 Dhauli + Jaugada - All humans are my children.
 Girnar inscription - Humans + Animals - Establishment of hospitals.

 The following 14 inscriptions are engraved on Ashoka's major rock edicts -

1. First inscription - In this inscription, it is written about the prohibition on animal slaughter.
Ashoka says that at the time of writing this inscription, only three animals are killed daily - 02
peacocks and 01 deer. But in future, even these three will not be killed.
2. Second Article - In this article, it is mentioned that King Priyadarshi had arranged for the
treatment of humans and animals in border states like Chola, Pandya, Satiyaputta,
Keralaputta (Chera) and Tamraparni (Sri Lanka) and foreign states like Yavana King
Antiochus and four others. Along with this, King Priyadarshi had planted shady trees on the
sides of the roads and dug wells for the water arrangement.
3. Third Article - In this, Ashoka says that in my empire, everywhere Pradeshik, Rajjuk and
Yukta should visit the provinces every fifth year (every third year in Ujjain and Takshila) so
that they can teach religious works to the people. In the same article, it is mentioned that
obeying parents, being generous towards friends, relatives, Brahmins and Shramanas, not
killing living beings, saving less and spending less is a good thing.
4. Fourth article - It is mentioned in this article that due to the religious conduct of Priyadarshi
king, Bherighosh was changed to Dhamma Ghosh. It is mentioned in the same article that due
to the teaching of Dhamma, the people have become so renounced of killing of living beings,
respect for relatives, Brahmins and Shramanas, and obedience to parents has increased so
much, as it was not there for several hundred years before.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
123
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

5. Fifth article - It is mentioned in this article that Priyadassi appointed officials named Dhamma-
Mahamatra in the 13th year of his coronation, who worked for the propagation of Dhamma
and the welfare and happiness of the people.
6. Sixth article - In this article, Ashoka says that at all times, whether I am eating or staying in
the inner chamber or in the bedroom, whether I am staying in the garden or on a ride,
everywhere the reporters (spies) should keep me informed about the condition of the people. In
this way, information about efficient administration is obtained from this article.
7. Seventh article - In this, Ashoka says that people of all sects should reside everywhere. All
religions want restraint and purity of mind. This article is the longest.
8. Eighth Article - It is mentioned here that in the 10th year of his coronation, Ashoka started
Dhamma Yatra from Bodh Gaya instead of hunting tours.
9. Ninth Article - In this, Ashoka says that people perform various auspicious rituals like
marriage, birthday celebrations etc., but their results are less, whereas auspicious rituals in the
form of Dhamma are more important. Also, in this article, Ashoka says that one should behave
politely towards slaves and servants and respect teachers, Brahmins and Shramanas.
10. Tenth Article - In this, Ashoka has emphasized on following Dhamma instead of fame and
glory.
11. Eleventh Article - In this, Ashoka says that there is no charity like Dhamma, no praise like
Dhamma, no division like Dhamma and no friendship like Dhamma.
12. Twelfth Article - In this, Ashoka stresses on religious tolerance and essence of Dhamma and
says that the essence of all Dhammas is restraint. People should not praise their own sect and
criticize other sects. This article mentions the appointment of female chief ministers.
13. Thirteenth article - It mentions that Devnam Priyadarshi conquered Kalinga in the 9th year of
his coronation, because from the trade point of view, all the routes going towards the south
passed through here. But the violence that took place here moved his heart and he adopted the
policy of Dhammaghosh (Sound of dhamma) instead of Bherighosh (war drum). It is
mentioned in this article that Ashoka propagated Dhamma in his kingdom and in other border
states up to 600 yojanas. Dhamma was propagated in the following areas.
 South border i.e. neighboring states:
i. Chola
ii. Pandya
iii. Satyaputra
iv. Keralaputra (Chera)
v. Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)

Foreign Kingdoms:
i. King Antiyoka (Antiochus) of Yavana (Syria)
ii. King Tulamaya (Ptolemy II Philadelphus) of Egypt
iii. King Antikin (Antigonus Gonatas) of Macedonia (Greece)
iv. King Maka (Magus) of Cyrene (Libya)
v. King Alikya Sundar (Alexander) of Epirus (region situated between Greece and Albania).
It is mentioned in this inscription that in Ashoka's kingdom, people followed Dhamma
everywhere among the Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Nabhakas, Nabhapanktis, Bhojas,
Pitniks, Andhras and Parindas.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
124
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

14. Fourteenth inscription - It is mentioned in this that sometimes due to carelessness or mistake of
the scribe, some mistakes are made in the inscriptions.
Note: In Ashoka's inscriptions, the name of only one scribe Chapada is found in the
inscriptions obtained from Brahmagiri, Jatinga Rameshwar and Siddapur (all Karnataka).
The 11th, 12th and 13th inscriptions are not engraved on the Dhauli and Jaugarh rock
inscriptions. In their place, 02 other inscriptions are engraved, which are called separate
Kalinga inscriptions.

 First separate Kalinga inscription - In this, Ashoka says that all the people are my children.
Ashoka has asked the Mahamatras and judicial officers of Kalinga to give impartial justice.
Ashoka says that people should never be imprisoned or tortured without reason. I will send
an officer named Mahamatra to all the provinces every fifth year (in Ujjain) and (every
third year in Takshila) for impartial justice.
 Second separate Kalinga inscription - In this too, Ashoka says that all the people are my
children.

Question - Does the state under the Mauryas represent a centralized administrative structure?
Answer -
 The state system under the Mauryas reflects the stage when the tribal economy was
transforming into an agricultural economy and the economic base of the state was getting
stronger.
 Due to these changes, the responsibilities of the state were increasing and the number of
officials was also increasing accordingly.
 Still, the geographical size of the empire and the condition of the available transport and
communication system also put some limits on administrative centralization which cannot be
ignored.

1. Difference in the status of the king -

 The title of Devanampiya seems to limit the role of mediators between the king and the people.
 Now the basis of the power of the state was not only Dharmashastra (the king had the right to
implement old laws) but also Arthashastra (the state could make new laws).
 Ashoka declared in his first additional inscription that all the people are my children.
2. Central bureaucracy: Extensive increase in the number of officers. For example, according to
Kautilya's Arthashastra, there were 18 Tirthas and 27 Adhyakshas.
3. Provincial administration: The provincial administration had the right to send information
about some sensitive matters directly to the center instead of sending it to the governor.
4. District administration: At the district level, officers named Yukta, Rajjuk, and Pradeshik
were appointed directly by the center.
5. A group of villages as an administrative unit below the district was under an officer named
Gopa. This officer named Gopawas related to the census.
6. State encouraged officers named Yukta, Rajjuk, and Pradeshik to tour remote areas.
7. Getting information about administrative activities through a competent intelligence system.
8. Increasing participation of the state in the economic sector.
9. State also interfered in social and family life through the Dhamma policy.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
125
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Question - How did Ashoka improve the moral and administrative interests of his subjects? (What
steps were taken for upliftment)
Answer - Moral upliftment
1. Ban on animal slaughter (1st major rock inscription)
2. Expressing the ideal of family and social life in the form of Dhammaniti (4th and 11th rock
inscriptions)
3. Arrangement of human and animal medicine (2nd major rock inscription)
4. Appointment of an officer named Dhamma Mahamatra (5th major rock inscription)
5. Ban on hunting activities (8th major rock inscription)
6. Ban on societies and ceremonies (9th major rock inscription)
7. Warning to the tribal state.

Administrative
1. Model of patriarchal monarchy
2. Emphasis on efficient administration (6th rock inscription)
3. Tour of an officer named Pradeshik after five years (3rd rock inscription)
4. Emphasis on Dhamma Yatra
5. In the 27th year of his rule, he gave judicial rights to an officer named Rajjuk to give justice to
the rural people.

Question - Underline the elements of continuity and change in Ashoka's foreign policy.
Answer - Elements of continuity -
1. At the beginning of his rule, Ashoka continued the policy of war victory and conquered
Kalinga.
2. From the beginning, the Maurya rulers had been looking outside the Indian subcontinent and
had established strong relations with the north-western neighbours. This policy continued even
during Ashoka's time.
3. Before Ashoka, Chandragupta Maurya also maintained relations with the southern states
because we get the information that Chandragupta Maurya had gone to Chandragiri mountain
in the south and left his body.

Elements of change: -
1. Ashoka changed the very basis of foreign relations. He declared Dhamma victory instead of
war victory and started appointing Dharma messengers instead of ambassadors.
2. Ashoka's ancestors used to give importance to their north-western neighbours in foreign
relations, whereas their relations with the eastern neighbours were not clear.
3. For the first time, Ashoka also took the eastern and southern neighbours seriously and
improved his relations with them. If seen in one way, the initial element of “look east policy” is
found in Ashoka's policy.

Effect of Ashoka's foreign policy -

1. In the context of Sri Lanka, the effect is more clear because influenced by Ashoka's policy,
Tissa, a ruler of Sri Lanka, took the title of 'Devanamapiya'.
2. But in the context of the north-western neighbors, it does not seem to be so successful. This fact
can be substantiated on two grounds.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
126
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

3. First, in the 7th pillar inscription of Ashoka, which is considered to be the last order of
Ashoka's reign, there is no enthusiasm towards the spread of religion.
4. Second, soon after Ashoka's death, the Indo-Greeks started attacking north-western India.
Still, its importance lies in the fact that Ashoka presented an alternative model of foreign
policy. Its relevance for the present government remains even today.

Question - Can Ashoka's foreign policy be considered successful? Show the relevance of his foreign
policy in the present times?
Answer - Both the positive and negative aspects of Ashoka's foreign policy emerge -
Evaluation of Ashoka's foreign policy has been an interesting and attractive subject for scholars.
Its success and failure have been evaluated for a long time.

 Positive -
1. But if the criterion of success of his policy is found in the development of an alternative
policy in international relations, then he seems to have been quite successful in his policy.
He had thought far ahead of his era and had given mankind the pride of being civilized.
2. Even today, the relevance of Ashoka's foreign policy remains not only in the Indian context
but also in the global context.
3. Soon after independence, India adopted the policy of non-alignment in international
relations, we can find Ashoka's influence on this.
4. Similarly, Ashoka's influence can also be considered on the concept of Panchsheel and later
on Gujral Doctrine.
5. Similarly, in the global context, as long as war and conflict continue, Ashoka's relevance
remains.
 Negative side -
1. Despite all its efforts, the world community has not been able to reach the achievement of
Ashoka the Great.
2. In fact, if we look for the criteria of success of his foreign policy in the establishment of
peace on the borders of the empire and the stability of the empire, then his foreign policy
does not seem to be successful.
3. Because within a few years of his death, the attack on his empire started from the north-
west.
4. Probably the Indo-Greeks were not impressed by his Dhamma policy and then within 50
years of his death his empire disintegrated.
5. Even today Ashoka is a subject of attraction and challenge for international leaders.

Successors of Ashoka
 Kunal -
 Other name - Dharmavivardhan/Suyashas
 Step mother-Tishyarkshita blinded him.
 According to Rajatarangini –
During his reign, the Greeks attacked the northwestern border, to stop kunal went to his
brother Jalauk, but Jalauk declared himself independent in Jammu and Kashmir. And during
his reign, the Andhra Kavyas or Satvahanas established an independent dynasty under the
leadership of Simuk.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
127
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Dasharatha -
 He donated a cave to the Aajivaks in the Nagarjuni Hills (Barabar hill, Gaya, Bihar).
 He took the title of Devanampriya like his grandfather Ashoka.
 During his reign, the empire was divided into two parts - the eastern part of the state was
under the control of Dasharatha and the western part was under the control of Samprati. Two
capitals - Pataliputra and Ujjaini
 According to the Hathi Gumpha inscription, Kalinga became independent during the time of
Dasharatha.
 Samprati -
 A worthwhile successor after Ashoka was a follower of Jainism, died by the method of
Sanlekhana
 Brihadratha -
 The last ruler
 Murder - Pushyamitra Shunga

Social life during the Mauryan period

The study of Mauryan society can be done on the basis of three different sources, Buddhist texts,
Indica and Arthashastra

 Varna system - Mauryan society was divided into four Varnas, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya
and Shudra. The position of Shudras was weak among the four Varnas, even after this Shudras
had sufficient rights, like in Arthashastra Shudras were called Arya, the word Varta for
Shudras was mentioned in Arthashastra itself, that is, agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts
and commerce were said to be the religion of Shudras.
 A Shudras could also do things like joining the army, keeping property, buying agricultural
land etc.
 Caste System - According to Megasthenes, Indian society was divided into 7 castes -
1. Philosopher
2. Farmer
3. Warrior
4. Animal Husbandman
5. Artisan
6. Inspector
7. Minister
 No person could marry outside his caste and could not adopt a different profession. But
philosophers were an exception to this, and they could belong to any class.
 But this division of Indian society seems illogical, because Megasthenes was influenced by
Herodotus' Historica, which divided the society into 7 classes.
 Status of Women - In the Mauryan period society, the status of women declined comparatively.
 Women were the emperor's bodyguards, who were called Samranganis, women had the
right to remarriage, widow remarriage and Niyoga system.
 According to Arthashastra, widows who did not marry throughout their lives were called
'Chhandavasini'.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
128
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Women of elite families usually stayed inside the house, such women are called Anishkasini.
 There was also a practice of prostitution in Maurya society, for the supervision of which
there was an officer called Ganikaadhyaksha.
 The gifts and ornaments of a married woman were her own property. The wife could go to
court against the atrocities of her husband.

 Marriage -
The marriage age for boys was 16 years and for girls was 12 years. All the eight types of
marriages mentioned in the Smritis were prevalent in the society at that time.
 There was a practice of divorce. Divorce was possible with the consent of the husband and
wife. If the husband stayed abroad for a long time or if there was a defect in his body, the
wife could abandon him. Thus, in situations like the wife being adulterous or infertile, the
husband could abandon her.
 Polygamy was prevalent in noble families.

 Status of slaves –
The status of slaves was satisfactory in Maurya society. Kautilya has mentioned 9 types of
slaves. Slaves had the right to keep and sell property.
 Masters who behaved inappropriately with slaves are said to be punishable in
Arthashastra.
 Captives were captured in war and only mlechha people were kept as slaves.
 In Ashoka's inscriptions also, advice has been given to treat slaves and servants well.
 Megasthenes has denied the practice of slavery in Indian society.

 Education -
 Education was given on the basis of Varna system in Mauryan period. The main centers of
education during this period were - Takshila, Ujjain and Varanasi.
 Food and drink -
 According to Megasthenes, the food of Indians included grains, fruits, milk and meat,
wheat, rice and barley were used in food.
 Costume -
 Indians during Mauryan period were fond of good clothes and jewellery, their clothes were
studded with gold and precious stones.

 Means of entertainment -
 Along with chariot racing, bull fighting, elephant fighting, actors, dancers, singers, etc. used
to entertain people in the society.
 Thus, mobility was hindered in the society during Mauryan period as compared to the
earlier period. The condition of women and slaves deteriorated; this tradition continued in
the future also.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
129
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Economic life
The economy of Maurya period included economic activities like agriculture, animal
husbandry, trade, commerce, etc., information about which is obtained from Arthashastra,
Indica and other contemporary literature.

 Agriculture-
 The main basis of the economy of Maurya period was agriculture. During this period, the use
of iron increased in the field of agriculture. According to Megasthenes, the soil of India was
fertile. We get evidence of wheat, barley, rice, cotton and sugarcane in the form of crops.
 During this period, the state tried to expand agriculture. In Arthashastra, there is a mention of
Janapada Nivesh, which means to populate a new area.
 The land of the state was called Sita Bhumi, in which slaves and Shudras captured in war were
also employed.
 Mauryan rulers also made arrangements for irrigation. For example, Chandragupta Maurya
and Ashoka constructed and renovated the Sudarshan lake respectively.
 Cowherds and hunters were appointed by the state to destroy insects and animals and birds
that harm agriculture.

Animal Husbandry
 For animal husbandry, cows, bulls, sheep, goats, buffalos, donkeys, camels, pigs, dogs etc. were
mainly reared.
 The state also arranged for pastures. The management for the care and medical treatment of
animals was under the Gau-Adhyaksha.

 Industries
 Textile Industry
 Weaving of cloth was the main industry in the Maurya period. According to Arthashastra,
the best type of cotton cloth was prepared in Mathura, Kalinga, Kashi, Bang, Vatsa,
Mahisha. Among other clothes, mention is found of Dukul (white and smooth cloth),
Kshauma (silk cloth) and Kaushey (silk cloth) of Chinese land.
 Leather Industry
 Arrian has mentioned that Indians used to wear white leather shoes, which were very
beautiful.
 Wood Industry
 Carpentry was also a major industry in this period. Carpenters used to make various types
of tools from wood. Seven large constructed platforms were found in the excavation of
Kumrahar.
 Metallurgy
 Different types of weapons, utensils, ornaments and equipment are made from metals like
gold, silver, copper, iron, glass, tin, brass, bronze etc.
 Various types of precious ornaments were found from Takshila and Hastinapur.
 Description of both marine and underground mines is found in Arthashastra. The items
obtained from marine mines included collection of diamonds, pearls, corals, shells, precious
stones etc., for which a superintendent was appointed.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
130
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The superintendent of underground mines used to discover new mines and make
arrangements for the maintenance of old mines.
 The state used to manage the mines through the Aadhyaksha directly or by giving them on
lease.
 Stone Industry
 The monolithic pillars of Ashoka are excellent evidence of stone industry.
 Apart from this, there is mention of wine, salt, mines, weapons, shipping industries, which
were under the control of the state.
 Shreni System
 The institutions of different industries were called 'Shreni'. In Jatak texts, 18 types of
Shreni are mentioned. For example, Shreni of blacksmiths, Shreni of leather workers,
Shreni of painters etc. Shreni had their own courts, which used to settle disputes related to
business. The head of Shreni Court was called 'Mahasreshthi'.
 There was proper security arrangement for the craftsmen. Anyone who harmed the hand
or eye of a craftsman was given death penalty. Those who stole their goods had to pay a fine
of 100 Panas.
 Trade-Business
 Trade flourished in Maurya period. Maurya emperors encouraged trade in the Indian
subcontinent by building roads and establishing a unitary system of governance.
 During this period, both internal and external trade were progressing. At this time, India's
external trade was with Syria, Egypt and other western countries. This trade was done
through the ports of Bhrigukachchh in western India and Tamralipti in eastern India. A
port called Barbaricum was situated at the mouth of Indus.
 Arrian tells us that Indian merchants used to go to the markets of Greece to sell pearls.
 An officer called Navadhyaksha used to control the merchant ships; the state used to give
ships on rent to the merchants.
 If the goods coming through the sea route were damaged, the state did not charge duty on
them or reduced it in proportion to the damage.
 In Arthashastra, there is a mention of merchant caravans, which were called Sarthvaha.
 There is a mention of internal trade councils, which were called Sarthvaha.
 There was trade between different cities of the country.
 The Panyadhyaksh used to inspect the goods for sale minutely, he used to fix the price of
the goods so that the traders could not make unfair profits from the public, the profit rates
of the traders were also fixed, the traders could earn only 5% profit on local goods and
10% profit on foreign goods.

 Transportation-
 In the Mauryan period, Bhaduch/Barygaza on the western coast and Tamralipti (Tamluk)
on the eastern coast were the main ports.

 Main trade routes-

 Tamralipti-Pushkalavati (Pakistan)-Uttarpath
 Shravasti-Pratishthan-Dakshinapath
 Bharuch-Mathura

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
131
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Patan-Kaushambi
 Medium of exchange-
In the Mauryan period, the medium of exchange was currency, which was called punch
marked coin, which was issued by the guilds.
1. Gold coins- Nishka and Suvarna
2. Silver coins- Paan, Karsapana, Shatmana, Dharana, Rupyarupa
3. Copper coins- Mashak (big coins), Kakani (small)

 Import-Export-
 In the Mauryan period, silk was imported from China, pearls from Tamralipti, leather and
blankets from Nepal, wine from Syria and horses from West Asia, while ivory, tortoises,
shells, pearls, indigo, precious wood etc. were exported from India to foreign countries.
 Sales tax was levied on imported and exported goods, according to Arthashastra, the
person who did not pay the sales tax was given the death penalty.

Conclusion-
Thus, we see that during the Mauryan period, there was unprecedented development at every level
of the economy. In fact, it was because of the economic growth of this period that the Mauryan
rulers were not only able to implement public welfare works, but also expanded the empire by
forming a strong and permanent army.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
132
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Administrative system of Mauryan period

Development of administrative structure in ancient

Mauryan Period
Administrative Centralization

Vedic Period pre – medieval

Tribal Structure Feudal structure

The central system of Maurya administration was monarchical. Information about the Maurya
administrative system is available from Kautilya's Arthashastra, Ashoka's inscriptions and
Megasthenes' description -

 King - The post of the king was usually hereditary and generally the rule of succession of the
eldest son was followed, yet during this period there were wars between the princes for the
right to the throne.
 The king was the head of the executive, legislature and judiciary, although there was no
theory of divine origin of the king, yet he was considered to be God's favourite person. As
Ashoka assumed the title of 'Devanampriya'.
 The adoption of the title of Devanampriya by the Maurya rulers shows that the king had
tried to limit the role of mediators.
 Ashoka declared in his inscription that all the people are my children, this fact somewhere
points towards a welfare state and increases the responsibility of the king.

 Minister and Council of Ministers -

 According to Arthashastra, two wheels are required to run a state, one wheel is the state
and the other is the Council of Ministers.
 The salary of the Council of Ministers was 12,000 Panas, and their number was not fixed.
Their job was to advise the king.
 Some prominent ministers of the Council of Ministers (numbered 3-4), who were called
Mantrins, were appointed from among the Amatyas through Upda Pariksha (for character
testing).
 The salary of a Mantrin was the highest, 48 thousand Panas, the Council of Ministers used
to work under them.

 Tirtha - A detailed description of bureaucracy is found in Arthashastra, the highest level

official in the Maurya administration was called Tirtha Mahamaavya or Amatya.
 There is a mention of 18 Tirthas in Arthashastra, which are as follows -

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
133
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

1. Purohit - Prime Minister

2. Yuvraj - King's successor son
3. Senapati - Minister of War Department
4. Pradhan mantri - Head of Council of Ministers
5. Samaharta - Head of Revenue Department
6. Sannidhata - Treasurer
7. Pradeshta - Chief Justice of Criminal Court
8. Vyavaharik - Chief Justice of Civil Court
9. Dandpala - Head of Police
10. Durgpala - Head of Fort
11. Antpala - Head of Border Forts
12. Karmantik - Chief Inspector of Industries and Businesses
13. Paur/Nagaraka - Chief Officer of City Administration
14. Atvik - Head of Forest Department
15. Prashasta - One who keeps records of royal orders
16. Dauwarik - One who looks after the royal palaces
17. Antarveshik - Head of Harem
18. Nayak - One who controls the military

 Adhyaksha - According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, there is a mention of 27 Adhyakshas,

Adhyakshas were the heads of various departments, and worked under the Council of
Ministers. Megasthenes and Strabo have called the Adhyaksha "magistrates".
1. Panyadhyaksha - Head of Commerce Department
2. Sunadhyaksha - Head of Slaughter House
3. Sitadhyaksha - Head of State Agriculture Department
4. Lohadhyaksha - Head of Metal Department
5. Koshthagaradhyaksha - Head of Storehouse
6. Ayudhgaradhyaksha - Head of Armory
7. Sutradhyaksha - Head of Cutting and Weaving Department
8. Suradhyaksha - Head of Excise Department
9. Ganikaadhyaksha - Head of Prostitutes
10. Akaradhyaksha - Head of Mines Department
11. Swarnaadhyaksha - Head of Gold
12. Kupyaadhyaksha - Head of Forests
13. Shulkaadhyaksha - Head of Trade Tax Collectors, Customs Duty, Toll Collection
14. Lakshanaadhyaksha - Printing Press (Updjivanem)
15. Vivitadhyaksha - Head of Pastures
16. Rupdarshak - Officer who checks coins
17. Gau-Adhyaksha - Head of Livestock Department
18. Mudraadhyaksha - Head of Passport Department
19. Navaadhyaksha - Head of Shipping Department (Superintendent of Ports)
20. Sansthaadhyaksha - Head of Trade Routes
21. Ashvaadhyaksha - Head of Horses
22. Hastyadhyaksha - Head of Elephants Chairman
23. Akshapatladhyaksha - Accountant General

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
134
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

24. Pottadhyaksha - Chairman of Ports

25. Pattana adhyaksha - Chairman of Measurement and Weighing
26. Lavanadhyaksha - Chairman of Salt Department
27. Devatadhyksha - Chairman of Religious Institutions

 Provincial Administration
 In the Mauryan period, the centre was divided into provinces. Provinces were called
'Chakra', whose head was Kumar or Aryaputra, who were related to the royal family.
According to Divyavadana, like the central administration, there was a council of ministers
in the provincial administration too, whose members could directly inform the emperor
about any important matter without informing the provincial administrator.

 Mandala Administration -
 Its head was the Pradeshika/Pradeshta, who was under the Samaharta, whose job was to
inspect the various departments under the Mandal.

 Vishaya (District) or Aahar Administration -

 Its head was called Aaharpati. Megasthenes has called it 'Agronomoi' (road construction
officer).
 Sthaniya - 800 gram -
 Sthaniya - They used to collect revenue in villages, under Sthaniya there were two
Dronmukhs, each having 400-400 gram, under Dronmukh there was Kharvatik (200
grams), under Kharvatik there was Sangrahana (10 grams), Sangrahana - village

 Village Administration -
 The smallest unit of Maurya administration, its president was Gramani who was elected by
the villagers.
 To assist Gramani in village governance, Gram Vriddh Parishad was formed, which had
prominent people of the village.
 The work of Gram Vriddh Parishad was to do justice in the village.
 The state generally did not interfere in village administration.

 City Administration -
 Information about the city administration of Pataliputra is obtained from Megasthenes'
Indica. Megasthenes has called the chief officer of the city 'Agronomoi'. According to
Megasthenes, the administration of Pataliputra city was run by a total of 06 committees.
Each committee had 05 members. According to Megasthenes, the following were the 6
committees responsible for urban administration -
1. Crafts and Arts Committee
2. Foreign Committee
3. Population Committee
4. Industry and Trade Committee
5. Goods Inspection Committee
6. Tax Inspection Committee

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
135
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Intelligence System -
 Spies had an important place in the Mauryan administration. In Arthashastra, spies were
called 'Gudhpurush' and the head of the intelligence department was called
'Sarpamahamatya'. Two types of spies are described in Arthashastra -
1. Sanstha - Permanent spy
2. Sanchar - Travelling spy
 In the Mauryan period, there were some spies who used to work in other countries and
send information, they were called 'Ubhayavetan'.

 Judicial Administration -
 In the Mauryan period, the highest court was the court of the king, while the smallest court
was the village court. In the village court, the 'Gramani' used to deliver justice along with
the elders of the village. There was a strict punishment system in the Mauryan period.
According to Megasthenes, those who did not pay sales tax were given death penalty.
However, a grace period of 03 days was given before the death penalty. According to
Kautilya, there were mainly 02 types of courts in the Maurya period -
1. Dharmasthiya (civil) court - Its judge was called 'Dharmastha' or 'Vyavaharik'.
2. Kantakashodhan (criminal) court - Its judge was called 'Pradeshta'.
 Military administration -
 According to Plutarch and Justin, Chandragupta Maurya had crushed the entire Jambu
Deep (India) with the help of 06 lakh army. Justin called Chandragupta Maurya's army a
'gang of robbers'. According to Megasthenes, the military administration of the Maurya
period was run through 06 committees. Each committee had 05 members. The 06
committees responsible for military administration mentioned by Megasthenes were as
follows -
1. First committee - made arrangements for the navy.
2. Second committee - used to arrange material, transport and logistics.
3. Third committee - used to arrange infantry.
4. Fourth committee - used to arrange cavalry.
5. Fifth committee - used to arrange elephant army.
6. Sixth committee - used to arrange chariot army.
 In Mauryan period, 'Senapati' was the head officer of the war department, who used to get
48,000 Panas annual salary. In Mauryan period, the officer who used to control the army in
the war field was called 'Nayak'. An officer named 'Navadhyaksha' used to head not only
war ships but also merchant ships. An officer named 'Ayudhgaradhyaksha' used to manage
arms, ammunition, and their maintenance and security.

Conclusion and Importance

Thus, we see that the political or administrative system of Mauryan period was based on extensive
bureaucracy and centralized system. Although there were possibilities of exploitation of common
people in this, but the inclination of the ruling class was to rule through public welfare measures.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
136
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Mauryan Art

Pillar Inscriptions -
The best examples of Mauryan art are the pillar inscriptions made by Ashoka. The pillars of the
Mauryan period were made by bringing red sandstone from Mathura and Chunar hills. These
pillars were made of monolithic stones, on which shiny polish was done. The shaft of the pillars is
conical. Animal figures were made on the top of the pillars. For example-
Pillar Animal Figure
Sankisha (U.P.) Elephant
Rampurva (Bihar) Taurus
Lauria Nandangarh (Bihar), Rampurva (Bihar) and Sanchi (M.P.) Lion
Sarnath (U.P.) Four Lions
There are 4 lions on the top of the Sarnath pillar inscription and 4 animals - bull, horse, elephant
are shown in running posture at the bottom. There are 4 circles in between. Each circle has 24
Spokes (lines). There is a wheel with 32 spokes on the top of the pillar inscription of Sarnath,
which is in a broken state. It is considered to be the symbol of 'Dharmachakrapravartan'.

 Stupa –
The first mention of stupa is found in Rigveda, which literally means - heap. In Buddhist
literature, the word stupa is used in the sense of a mausoleum built on the ashes of the dead body.
The following were the important parts of a stupa -
1. Medhi - The base (platform) of the stupa was called Medhi and there was a Pradakshina path
attached to it.
2. Anda - The shape of stupas is semi-circular or bell-shaped. This structure is called Anda.
3. Harmika - The most revered part of a stupa was the harmika, which is located on the top of the
stupa.
4. Chhatra - A metal vessel was kept on the harmika and Chhatra was placed on top of it.
5. Vedika - The stupa was surrounded by stone vedika from all sides.
6. Toran - The vedikas built around the stupa had about 80 pillars and 4 toran gates. Usually, the
events of Buddha's life, Jataka tales, figures of Yaksha, Yakshini, trees, flowers, creepers etc.
were engraved on the walls of the vedika and toran gates.
According to the Buddhist text Divyavadana, Ashoka had built 84,000 stupas, the main ones of
which were -
1. Piprahwa Stupa (Siddhartha Nagar, UP) - This is the oldest stupa.
2. Sanchi Stupa (Raisen, MP) - The Buddhist stupas located at Sanchi (Kakanadbot or
Shriparvat) were discovered by General Tyler in 1818 AD. 03 stupas are found from Sanchi-
i. Stupa number 01: This stupa is the largest in size, that is why it is also called 'Mahastupa'.
The remains of Lord Buddha are kept in it. The Mahastupa was built with bricks during
the time of Ashoka. During the time of Ashoka, the vedika of the Mahastupa was made of
wood, which was made of stone during the Shunga period.
ii. Stupa number 02: It is also called 'Kala Stupa'. The remains of religious preachers of
Ashoka period are kept in it.
iii. Stupa number 03: The bone remains of two disciples of Buddha, Sariputra and
Mahamodgalyana are kept in it.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
137
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

3. Bharhut Stupa (Satna, M.P.) - It was discovered by Alexander Cunningham in 1873 AD. The
foundation of Bharhut Stupa was laid by Ashoka, but it was completely constructed by
Pushyamitra Shunga.
4. Dharmarajika Stupa (Sarnath and Taxila) - These stupas were built by Ashoka. Sarnath Stupa
is also called 'Dhamekh Stupa'.
5. Bodh Gaya Stupa (Bihar) - The foundation of this stupa was laid by Ashoka, but it was fully
constructed in the post-Mauryan period.
6. Nalanda Stupa (Bihar) - This stupa was built by Ashoka.
 Buddhist Vihara
Many Buddhist Viharas were also built during the Mauryan period for the residence of Buddhist
monks.
 Chandragupta Maurya's palace
Remains of Chandragupta Maurya's palace were found by Mr. Spooner from excavations done in
Bulandi Bagh and Kumrahar near Pataliputra in Bihar. This palace was completely built of wood.
Chinese traveler Fa-Hien, who came to India during the Gupta period, has written that the palace
of Pataliputra was built by the gods.

Fall of Maurya Empire

The vast empire established by Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka collapsed in just 52 years after
Ashoka's death. The following reasons were responsible for the fall of Maurya Empire -

1. Reaction of Brahmins - According to Har Prasad Shastri, the implementation of Dhamma-Niti

based on Buddhist beliefs by Ashoka affected the interests of Brahmins. In Ashoka's Dhamma-
Niti, yajnas and animal sacrifices were discouraged, whereas it was through these that
Brahmins received wealth and respect. In response to this, the last ruler of Maurya dynasty,
Brihadrath, was murdered by his Brahmin soldier Pushyamitra Shunga in the Brahminical
discontent that arose. Thus, the Maurya Empire came to an end with the murder of
Brihadrath.
2. Pacifist and non-violent policy of Ashoka - According to Hemchandra Raichaudhary, after the
Kalinga war, Ashoka abandoned the policy of Bherighosha (war drum) and adopted the policy
of Dhammaghosha (sound of dhamma). Along with this, Ashoka had also banned animal
slaughter by giving great emphasis on non-violence. Due to this pacifist and non-violent policy
of Ashoka, the military power of the Maurya state kept on weakening. As a result, the Maurya
Empire could not successfully face the internal and external threats and it collapsed.
3. Financial crisis - According to D.D. Kausambi, due to extensive bureaucracy and public
welfare work, the state treasury of the Maurya Empire kept on getting empty. Due to the
continuously weakening economic condition, it became difficult for the later Maurya rulers to
maintain effective control over the extensive empire, as a result of which the Maurya Empire
collapsed.
4. Highly centralized administration system- According to Romila Thapar, the nature of Maurya
administration was highly centralized. In a highly centralized system, the loyalty of the
employees was not towards the state, but towards the king. Also, to run a highly centralized
system, it was necessary for the king to be competent, but Ashoka's successors were weak and
incompetent, who could neither run a highly centralized administrative system nor stop the
process of disintegration of the empire. As a result, the Maurya Empire collapsed.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
138
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

5. Unqualified successors - According to some historians, the main reason responsible for the fall
of the Maurya Empire was weak and incompetent successors, who could not maintain the unity
of the Maurya Empire.
6. Neglect of the north-western border - The rulers of the Maurya dynasty did not make any
arrangements for the security of the north-western border of India. On the contrary, at the
same time, the Chinese king qinshi Huang built the Great Wall of China in 210 BC to protect
his empire from the attack of the Shakas (Scythians).
7. Development of border areas - As a result of the knowledge of iron and the development of
commerce and trade during the Mauryan period, the military and economic power of the
remote areas included in the Mauryan Empire - Central India, Deccan, Kalinga etc. increased.
These remote states took advantage of the weakness of the later Mauryan rulers and
established their independent power. As a proof of this, it can be seen that after the fall of the
Mauryan Empire, the states of Shunga and Kanva, Satvahana and Chedi dynasty were
established in Central India, Deccan and Kalinga respectively.

Conclusion - All the reasons mentioned above were collectively responsible for the fall of
the Mauryan Empire. In fact, the position of the rulers of the Mauryan dynasty had weakened due
to the economic crisis arising out of Ashoka's Dhamma policy, pacifist policy, welfare policy and
extensive and centralized bureaucratic system. During this time, foreign invasions started from the
North-West Frontier Province, which the later weak and incompetent Mauryan rulers could not
face. As a result, the Mauryan Empire collapsed.

Post-Mauryan period

Native states Foreign states

1. Shunga dynasty 1. Yavana(Indo –

2. Kanva dynasty greek)
3. Andhra Satvahana 2. Pahlava
dynasty (Parthians)
4. Vakataka 3. Shaka
5. Kalinga King Kharvela 4. Kushana

Sources of study
 In this period, a large number of literary works are available as sources of study, along with
archaeological materials are also available.
Literary sources -
 As literary sources, we get a large list of Indian and foreign literature.
 Since Sanskrit had been revived in this period, most of the works are available in Sanskrit
only.
 Sanskrit language was also adopted by Buddhism and a large number of Avadan literature was
written.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
139
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Above all, the important work that throws light on the economic, social and cultural life of this
period is Man Samhita (200 BC-200 AD). Then in this period, the composition of Puranas also
started and works like Ramayana and Mahabharata also throw light on this era.
 Above all, a major source of knowing the history of this period is foreign literature.
 The works of Roman writers such as Pliny Strabo, Diodorus, Arrian etc. throw extensive light
on Roman trade.
 Apart from this, a work called Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written by an unknown author,
also throws light on maritime trade.

Archaeological Materials:-
 In the form of archaeological materials, we have found evidence of the city found in the
excavation and a large number of religious architecture in the form of chaitya, Stupa and
Vihara.
 Apart from this, gold coins of Indo-Greek, Kushan rulers, copper coins of Kushan rulers, silver
coins of Shakas and some Roman coins have also been found.
 But even in this period, the problem of corroborating the information given by literary
evidence through archaeology remains. The literary works of this period show a kind of
uniformity in the economy and culture of that time, but archaeological materials indicate that
there was considerable diversity in economic and cultural terms among various regions.

Shunga Dynasty
 Sources of Information -
literary sources Inscriptions

1. Mahabhashya 1. Hathi Gumpha Inscription

2. Matsya Purana 2. Ayodhya Inscription of dhandev- Two

Ashvamedha Yajnas

3. Malavikagnimitram

4. Harshcharit

5. divyaavadana

6. Taranatha - History of Buddhism

 Opinion regarding the origin of Shungas

 Pt. Harprasad Shastri - parsi (worshipper of Mitra-Sun)
 Harsha Charit - Anarya
 Panini - Brahmin of Bharadwaja gotra
 Malavikagnimitra - Bimbika clan
 Original place - Ujjain
 Made Vidisha the second capital

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
140
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Pushyamitra Shunga -
 Conflict with the Greeks
1. Gargi Samhita – Indo – greek invader Demetrius
2. Malavikagnimitram – indo – greek invader Menander vs Vasumitra
 War with Vidarbha - Yagya Sen's defeat and Vidarbha was divided between Yagya Sen and
Madhav Sen
 During his reign, Patanjali wrote Mahabhashya, a commentary on Ashtadhyayi.
 Manusmriti was also composed in the Shunga period.
 Built the Bharhut Stupa and the vedikas (railings) of Sanchi Stupa
Successors -
Agnimitra - Malavikagnimitram - Kalidasa
↓
Vasujyeshtha
↓
Vasumitra

 During the reign of the ninth ruler Bhagbhadra, the Greek ruler of Takshila, Antialcides sent
his ambassador Heliodorus, who accepted Bhagavat religion and established Garuda pillar in
Besnagar.
 The last ruler Devbhooti was murdered by his minister Vasudev Kanva.
Kanva dynasty
 Founder - Vasudev Kanva
 Capital - Pataliputra
 Other rulers -
 Bhumimitra Kanva
 Narayan Kanva
 Last ruler - Susharma - Murder - Simuka

Satvahana Dynasty
 Capital - Pratishthan
 In the Puranas, Satvahanas have been called Andhra Bhritya.
 Founder - Simuka
↓
Krishna
↓
Shatakarni - I

 Shatakarni - I
 Dakkhinaathapathapati, Apratihat Chakra -
 Title - Suraganos - Periplus of Erythraean Sea
 Wife - Naganika whose inscription is at Nanaghat
 He defeated the Kalinga King Kharvela.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
141
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 He got two Ashvamedha and one Rajasuya Yajnas performed.

 Hala - 17th King

 Composition - Gatha Saptashati
 In his court lived Gunadhya, the author of Brihatkatha
 Compositions based on Brihatkatha - Brihatkatha Manjari (Kshemendra), Kathasaritsagar
(Somdev)
 In his court lived Sarvavarman, the author of Katantra Vyakaranam.
 His commander Vijayanand conquered Lanka and Hala married Lanka's princess Lilavati.

 Gautamiputra Shatakarni - 23rd

 Mother - Gautami Balashri - Nasik inscription
 Titles -
o Venkataka Swami
o Khatiyadapamanmadanasa
o Shaka-Yavana-Pahlava-Kisudanasa
o Kshaharat Nisudaras
o ekamaatr braahman (The only Brahmin) aur aduritiya braahman (unique Brahmin)
o Vedo ka Ashrayoata (Shelter of Vedas)
o Varna Vyastha ka Sanrakshak (Protector of Varna system)
 He defeated the ruler of Kshaharat dynasty Nahapana, which is known from 8000 silver coins
obtained from Jogalthampi, in which Nehapana is engraved on one side and Gautamiputra
Shatakarni on the other side.

 Vasishthi Putra Pulumavi - 24th

 Titles -
o Dakshinapatheshwara
o Navanagar Swami
o Siro Polomaios - by Ptolemy
 Married the daughter of Shaka King Rudradaman, even after this there was a war between
Pulumavi and Rudradaman, in which Pulumavi was defeated.
 He got the Amaravati Buddhist Stupa enhanced.
 Yagna Shri Satkarni - 27th
 The last great ruler of the Satvahana dynasty.
 Introduced coins with ships
 The last ruler of the Satvahana dynasty was Pulumavi-III.
 Bandargoh -
1. Berigaja - Bharuch
2. Sopara - Maharashtra
3. Kalyan - Maharashtra
 Official language - Prakrit
 The Satvahanas first started the tradition of donating land.
 The Satvahanas introduced coins called Potin.
 The Satavahana rulers first introduced lead coins in India

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
142
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Chedi dynasty of Kalinga

 Founder - Mahameghavahan
 Kharvela - He attacked Uttarapath and defeated Magadhraj Brihaspatimitra, and regained
the Idol of Jinsen.
 Kharvela's army destroyed the city of Pithund while campaigning in South India and defeated
the union of Chola, Chera and Pandya.

Foreign successors
Indo-Yavana / Indo-Greek / Indo-Bactrian
1. Euthydemus dynasty - Capital - Sakala (Sialkot)
 Demetrius -
 The first ruler after Alexander who entered the Indian border.
 He assumed the title of the king of Indians and issued coins in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.

 Menander -
 He got the symbol of Dharma-Chakra inscribed on his coins, which proves that he was a
devout Buddhist.
 The dialogue between Menander and Nagasena is collected in Milindapanha. Stupas were built
over its remains.
2. Eucratides Dynasty -
 Establishment - Eucratides
 Capital - Takshila
 Eucratides was murdered by his son Heliocles and he became the ruler.
 After Heliocles, his son Antialcides became the ruler.
 Antialcides sent his ambassador to the court of Shunga ruler Bhagbhadra, who established the
Garuda pillar.
 The last ruler of this dynasty was Hermias, after which the Parthians took over its kingdom.

Shaka/Scythian
 The first known Shaka ruler in India was Maues or Moga
 In course of time, Shaka got divided into two branches, Northern Satraps (Taxila and
Mathura) and Western Satraps (Shakas of Nasik and Ujjain)

Shatraps of Nasik
Kshaharat dynasty -
 Founder - Bhumaka
 After Bhumaka, Nahapana became the ruler, who fought with the Satvahan ruler Gautami
Shatakarni.

Shatraps of Ujjain
Kardamaka dynasty -
 Founder - Chashtana
 It is said that a king of Ujjain defeated the Shakas. He used to call himself Vikramaditya. To
celebrate his victory over the Shakas, he started Vikram Samvat in 58 BC.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
143
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Rudradaman (130-152 AD) -

 He got the Junagadh inscription made.
 He defeated Vashishthi putra Pulumavi.
 In the Junagadh inscription, he was called Bhrashta-raj-pratishthaapaka.
 He spent a lot of money in the reconstruction of Sudarshana Lake.
 The importance of Sanskrit increased during his reign.

Pahlava or Parthian
 First known ruler - Maues
 Actual founder - Mithradates-I
 Their most prominent king was Gondophernes, during his rule the first Christian preacher St.
Thomas came to India, St. Thomas was murdered in Mylapur near Madras.
 In its inscription Takh-i-bahi it is called Gudanhar.

Kushans
Kushanas belonged to the Kuei-Shang branch of the Yueh-Chih tribe.
 Kujul Kadphises (Kadphises - I) -
 He established his power in Kabul and Kashmir.
 On one side of his coins, the name of the Greek ruler Hermias was found written in Greek
script and on the other side, the name of Kujula Kadphises was found written in Kharosthi
script.
 He did not circulate gold coins, he circulated only copper coins.
 He took the titles of 'Maharajadhiraj' and 'Dharmathidas'.
 Vima Kadphises -
 He conquered Takshila and Punjab.
 He was the first Kushan ruler to circulate gold coins.
 He took the titles of Rajadhiraj, Maharaj and Maheshwar.
 Pictures of Shiva, Nandi, Trishul etc. are engraved on his coins.
 During his time, there were trade relations with Rome and China.

 Kanishka -
 Rabatak inscription
 He started Shaka Samvat in 78 AD while ascending the throne.
 In Rabatak inscription he has been described as liberator, virtuous, justice loving, dictator,
revered god, king of kings and son of god.

 Victories of Kanishka -
 Victories of Eastern India - Under this campaign Kanishka attacked Pataliputra and won from
there he brought the alms letter of Ashwaghosh Buddha and a rooster from Pataliputra.
 War with China -
 First war - Kanishka defeated, Pan-Chao - Victory
 Second war - Kanishka Victory, Pan-Yang - Defeated
 Victory of Kashmir - Conquered Kashmir and established a city named Kanishkapur.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
144
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Victory of Malwa - Defeated the satraps of Ujjain.

 Its two capitals were Purushpur and Mathura. He started the Devkul tradition in which he got
life size statues of Vim Kadphises and himself made, these statues are shown wearing Roman
robes, cap and pointed shoes.
 The fourth Buddhist Council was organized during his reign.
 The first Indian ruler who established control over the Silk Route of China.
 Scholar of Kanishka's court -
 Ashvaghosha - Vice President of the Fourth Buddhist Council
Compositions -
 Buddha Charitra - Ramayana of Buddhists
 Saundrananda
 Saundrananda.
 Vasumitra -
Compositions –
 Mahavibhasha Sutra - Encyclopedia of Buddhism
 President of the Fourth Buddhist Council
 Charak - Royal physician, composition - Charak Samhita, Prajnavarmitrasutra
 Sangharaksha - He was the royal priest of Kanishka.
 Parshva - Buddhist monk
 Nagarjuna - Einstein of India.
 Composition - Madhyamika Sutra - Theory of relativity
 Promoter of Shunyavada.
 During the reign of Kanishka, Gandhara art and Mathura art styles developed.
 Evidence of Roman settlements has been found from Arikamedu of the post-Mauryan period,
from where coins of the Roman emperor Augustus were found.
 Successors of Kanishka
Vasishka - Huvishka - Vasudeva-II (last ruler)
 Kanishka -
 Kashmir - Kanishkapur
 Taxila - Sirkap
 Kanishka - Purushpur - Built a 400 feet high (13 floors) tower.
 Constructed a huge Sangharama in Purushpur which is also called Kanishka Chaitya. It was
built by the Greek architect Agesilaus.
 Mathura - Devkul

Political system of the post-Mauryan period

 Political life -
In the post-Mauryan period, many foreign and native states were established in different
regions of India. In this period, the form of administration was usually monarchical, in which
the king was the head of power, but at different levels of administration, a wide difference is
also seen in the form of administration under different states. Nevertheless, some new changes
in the political field of this period can be seen under the following points -

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
145
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Decentralized political system -

The form of political system of this period was decentralized. Many foreign and native kings
had established their own states in different regions of India. Under the foreign states, Indo-
Greek rulers established their states in Sakala and Taxila, Shaka rulers in Taxila, Mathura,
Nasik and Ujjain, Pahlava rulers in Taxila and Kushana rulers in Peshawar and Mathura. In
the native kingdoms, the rulers of Shunga and Kanva dynasty established their kingdom in
Pataliputra and the rulers of Satvahana and Vakataka dynasty established their kingdom in
Maharashtra.

 Divinization of kingship -
In this period, the position of king was deified to control the tendency of decentralization i.e. to
maintain its influence on the subjects and subordinate rulers. Satvahana rulers compared
themselves with gods like Ram, Bhima, Keshav, Arjun etc., while Kushana rulers adopted the
title of 'Devaputra' as per the Chinese tradition. Even in the Kushana kingdom, like the
Roman tradition, the idols of dead kings were installed in the Devkul and worshipped.

 Dual government system -

In this period, we also get evidence of dual government system under Kushana and Shaka
rulers. Under this system, joint government system was adopted, in which along with the king,
often the crown prince was also considered an equal partner.

 Kshatrapa System -
Kshatrapa system was adopted by Kushan and Shaka rulers in the post-Mauryan period.
Under this system, Kshatrapa (governors) were appointed in the provinces. Usually, a foreign
person was appointed to the post of Kshatrapa.

 Military Government System

During this period, military government system was established in the provinces by Satvahan
rulers. In fact, the land grant system started by Satvahan kings established central power even
in remote areas. Since effective control had to be maintained even in remote areas, this is the
reason why Satvahan rulers appointed Senapati (Gaulmik) as the head of the government in
the provinces.

 Matriarchal influence
Matriarchal influence is visible in the administration of Satvahan rulers in the post-Mauryan
period. Satvahana kings used to add their mother's name with their name, like Gautamiputra
Satkarni, Vashishthiputra Pulumavi etc. Similarly, queens also played an important role in
Vakataka administration. For example, after the death of Vakataka king Rudrasen II, his wife
Prabhavati Gupta ruled the state.
Thus, in the political field of the post-Mauryan period, many new changes took place under
various dynasties and some of them became essential features of the political life of the later
period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
146
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Economy of the post-Mauryan period

 Introduction –
The post-Mauryan period was a period of all-round development in the economic sector. This
is the same period where on one hand the agricultural economy spread and on the other hand
the process of crafts, commerce-trade and urbanization gained momentum.

 Agriculture -
 The following were the factors that encouraged the agricultural economy in this period:
 First, agriculture spread to distant areas through land grants. As we know that a large part
of the land given as grant was non-populated land, which was developed by the personal
efforts of the person receiving the donation.
 It is clearly stated in the Manu Samhita that Brahmins should accept non-populated land.
 Second - In this period, special emphasis was also laid on the role of the private person in
the expansion of agriculture. For example, Manu says that the land belongs to the one who
clears its grass and straw and inhabits it. Similar accounts are also found in Milindapanha.
 Third - The state itself also took steps to promote irrigation. For example, Rudradaman got
the Sudarshan lake repaired, then Kharvel also got the Tinsuli canal built by
Mahapadmananda renovated.
 Apart from this, Manu has also suggested the king to make laws to protect the interests of
farmers. Manu says that the king should make laws to punish those who steal agricultural
equipment, break the boundary of the fields and sell fake seeds.

 Craft Industry -
 The process of craft development also got encouragement in the post-Mauryan period.
While 24 types of crafts are mentioned in the Dirghanikaya, details of 36 types of crafts are
found in the Mauryan period book Mahavastu.
 But details of 75 types of occupations are given in the post-Mauryan period book
Milindapanho, out of which 60 were clearly related to crafts. There is mention of different
types of industries in this period. For example, Ujjain was famous for bead making,
Mathura was famous for the production of a special type of cloth called shatak. Similarly,
Arikamedu and Uraiyur in the south were known for dyeing of clothes.
 Karimnagar and Nalkenda of Andhra Pradesh were famous for iron and steel.
 Vidisha in Malwa was famous for ivory industry. Foreign travellers have also mentioned
different types of production centres in India. For example, Pliny calls India the only
mother of gems, similarly, in a book called Periplus, Kolchi (Korkai) has been described as
the centre of pearl production.

 Commerce trade –
 As a result of the expansion of agricultural economy, an economically prosperous class
came into existence and this class increased the demand for luxury items.
 India mainly traded with the Western Roman Empire, Han Empire (China) and South
Asian countries during this period. During this period, Kushans took control of the Silk

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
147
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Route and when the monsoon was discovered in the first century, maritime trade got
special encouragement instead of land trade.
 The items exported from India to the Roman Empire mainly included spices, iron tools,
cotton and silk clothes, precious substances and medicines etc.
 India used to sell the items imported from China to the Roman Empire at high prices.
 India used to import silver, aretine, earthenware, wine, handled pitchers etc. from Rome.
 The balance of trade was probably in India's favour, because a Roman writer 'Pliny'
expressed his sorrow over the precious metals being exported from Rome.
 Transport communication system
 Road route –
 During this period, Uttarapath which went from Sonargaon to Peshawar, extended till
Bactria and got connected to the Silk Route.
 Dakshinapath had also been developed, now it connected Ujjain to Amravati.
 Major Ports –
In the 'Periplus of the Erythraean Sea', a total of 24 ports are described, out of which the
major ports were -
 Barygaza or Bhadouch (Gujarat) - It was the oldest and the largest port situated on the
western coast.
 Barbaricum (Sindh)
 Sopara and Kalyan (Maharashtra)
 Arikamedu (Pondicherry) - Evidence of shipbuilding and Roman settlement
 Korkai (Tamil Nadu) - Famous for pearls
 Muziris (Kerala)
 Shreni System –
Different craftsmen had formed their own shreni. Classes had their own rules and regulations,
which were called ' shreni Dharma'.
 Each class also had judicial rights over its members, the head of the shreni Court was
called Mahasreshthi.
 Over time, these shreni acquired the right to keep a shreni Force (army).
 shreni had the right to fix the scale of measurement and prices of goods.
 Each category had its own flag and seal.

 Currency system -
The post-Mauryan period is also considered to be a period of progress in terms of the development
of monetary economy. In this period, the Indo-Greeks issued the maximum number of coins of
gold, silver and copper and the Kushanas issued the most coins of pure gold. The Satavahanas also
issued coins called potin made of lead.

 Urbanization -
The development of agriculture, crafts-industry, commerce-trade, monetary economy
strengthened the process of urbanization. Many cities are mentioned in the texts of this period -
among which Takshila, Sakal, Peshawar, Mathura, Pataliputra, Ujjain, Arikamedu Muziris etc.
were prominent.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
148
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Thus we see that in the post-Mauryan period, there was unprecedented progress in various
fields of economy. Foreign trade relations became stronger, as a result foreign relations also
became stronger.

Post-Mauryan period social system

Increase in Decline in the Status of women Condition of Ensemble

Varna status of Vaishyas slaves
Sankara and improvement
castes in the status of
Shudras

1. Increase in the number of Varna Sankara (Hybrid) caste -

 While the number of Varn Sankara was 12 in the Buddhist era, its number increased to 61 in
Manu Samhita.
 There were mainly two reasons for the increase in the number of Varna Sankara castes. First,
during this period, land of forests etc. was also donated and foreign invaders also attacked.
 Due to which the residents of remote areas were also included in the caste system and foreign
invaders could not be ignored for long by calling them mlechchha, so they were given the status
of low level Kshatriyas.

2. Decline in the status of Vaishyas and improvement in the status of Shudras -

 During this time, due to political decentralization, internal trade decreased, due to which the
status of Vaishyas declined.
 During this period, the land areas decreased due to the land grant system, since there was no
need for more slaves on small land areas, so, Shudras were freed from slavery, so now Shudras
started engaging in business and commercial activities, which improved their status.

3. Status of women -
 Manu established a complex social system to maintain the purity of the Varna in this society,
which was necessary to maintain the purity of the Varna, women should be made subservient
to men, as a result widow remarriage was banned, child marriage was encouraged, women
were deprived of the right to property and the practice of Sati etc. was supported.
 However, in the kingdom of Satavahanas and Vakatakas, women had the right to
administration.
4. Status of slaves -
 Manu Smriti mentions 7 types of slaves. Since there was a decline in the agricultural sector
during this period, as a result slaves were removed from agricultural work. Slaves took part in
trade and commerce, so the economic condition of slaves improved but they were still looked
upon with contempt in the society.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
149
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

5. Clothing -
 Kushans introduced turbans, kurta pyjamas etc. in India and at the same time, influenced by
the Roman emperors, they started the trend of heavy long coats, hats, boots etc. Hence, in the
post-Mauryan period, the caste system became complex, the number of hybrid castes
increased, the status of women and slaves deteriorated, therefore, historians have termed this
period as the Dark Age.

Religious life in the post-Mauryan period

Factors inspiring the religious system
During this period, due to land grants, the priestly class was established in remote areas and a
large tribal population merged into the agricultural population. As a result, non-Vedic elements
were included in the religious system. Thus, an important factor influencing religion during this
period was the harmony between Vedic and non-Vedic elements.
Change in the form of different religions
 Change in the form of Brahmin religion -
1. During this period, remote tribal areas also came under the effective control of the state due to
the land grant system. Due to this, the people of these tribal areas also joined the society, as a
result, the gods and goddesses prevalent among the tribal people were included in the Vedic
religion - like Shiva worship, Ganesh worship, tree worship, snake worship etc.
2. In the post-Mauryan period, the concept of incarnation developed in Vedic religion. In the
contemporary literature, there is mention of 10 incarnations of Vishnu and 28 incarnations of
Shiva. An attempt was made to remove the discontent prevailing during this period through
the theory of incarnations, which is why various incarnations of Vishnu or Shiva are
considered to belong to different castes - for example - Vamana incarnation (Brahmin), Ram
incarnation (Kshatriya), Krishna incarnation (Yadav dynasty of low caste) etc.
3. In the post-Mauryan period, the importance of yajna decreased in the non-Aryan sect and the
concept of bhakti gained special importance. The initial evidence of Shiva bhakti is found in
the post-Mauryan text Svetasvatara Upanishad.
4. In the post-Mauryan period itself, idol worship became popular under the Kushana dynasty,
and along with that, materialism started being given more importance in Brahmin religion
instead of spirituality. Its proof can be seen in the idols of gods and goddesses of various
religions made in the Gandhara art style.

 Brahmin sect
Bhakti also influenced Brahmin sects. Shaiva bhakti and Vaishnava bhakti developed under
the influence of bhakti. 10 incarnations of Vishnu and 28 incarnations of Shiva were imagined.

 Vaishnavism
 The Vaishnavism developed as a result of harmony between Aryan and non-Aryan sects. As we
know that Vishnu was a Vedic deity, Vishnu is first mentioned in the Rigveda. Later, Vishnu
also got associated with some non-Aryan deities.
 A non-Aryan deity was Vasudeva who was associated with the five visionary heroes of
Mathura. These Vishnu heroes were Vasudeva (Krishna), Sankarshan (Balram), Shamb,
Pradyumna, Aniruddha. These were probably regional heroes who later got the status of deity.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
150
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Special emphasis was given on bhakrti (devotion) in the worship of Vasudeva Krishna. A
description of Vasudeva Krishna is available from an inscription found from a place called
mora in Mathura in the first century.
 Then, another non-Aryan deity Narayana got associated with Vasudeva Krishna. The worship
of Narayana was established in the Himalayan region and they were associated with animal
husbandry, therefore concepts like cow herding, cowherds, milk and butter probably
developed from the worship of Narayana.
 Thereafter, Vishnu was imposed on these non-Aryan sects and thus the Vaishnava sect
developed.

 Shaivism: -
 Bhakti and Avatarvaad also influenced Shaivism. Thus, later on, 28 incarnations of Shaivites
were imagined. Thus, during this period, Shaiv Bhakti and Vaishnava Bhakti based on
Puranas developed.
 These religious changes are associated with Hinduism, but the word Hindu was not in use
during this period. Its use started from the 8th century.

 Change in the form of Buddhism - As a result of the fourth Buddhist Council organized during
the reign of Kanishka, Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Mahayana –
 A new branch Mahayana developed under Buddhism. The form of Buddhism was changed in
Mahayana sect and it was brought closer to Brahmin sects.
 Under Mahayana sect, Buddha was accepted as a deity instead of a teacher or preacher.
 Under this, the concept of Bodhisattva developed. Bodhisattva meant one who was capable of
attaining nirvana but who had not attained it. That is, Bodhisattva meant selfless service
because he was striving for the nirvana of all the beings of the world. Thus, the viewpoint of
Mahayana was more optimistic. Unlike Hinayana, it opened the door of nirvana for all.

Reasons for the development of Mahayana Buddhist sect -

1. As a result of the assimilation of tribal elements, the form of Buddhism started changing and
the influence of bhakti (devotion) started increasing on it.
2. During this period, financial grants were given to Buddhist Sanghas by the business and newly
rich class, this also brought about a change in the form of Buddhism.
3. When Buddhism spread in West Asia and Central Asia, then gradually there was ideological
exchange with those regions as well, which also influenced its form.
4. And the concept of Bodhisattva developed in the Mahayana sect.
5. Bodhisattva meant one who has the ability to attain salvation but who has not attained nirvana,
rather he is striving for the nirvana of all the beings in the world.
6. Idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva started under Mahayana Buddhism.
7. Mahayana Buddhism started using Sanskrit language instead of Pali, the language of common
people, for the propagation of Buddhism.
Under Mahayana Buddhism, the nature of Buddhism became more optimistic, the Mahayana
branch opened the door of nirvana for all people.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
151
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Points of difference between Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism:

1. While Hinayana Buddhism believes in the historicity of Buddha, Mahayana Buddhism believes
in the concept of Bodhisattva. Bodhisattva is one who has the ability to attain nirvana but he
has not attained nirvana because he believes that he will attain nirvana only when all the
beings in this world will attain nirvana. Thus, Bodhisattva meant selfless service.
2. While Hinayana Buddhism believes that every person is his own light and people can be shown
the path of Nirvana through preaching and example, Mahayana Buddhism believes that people
can also attain Nirvana through the transfer of virtues, i.e. Bodhisattva does not only preach
but also transfers his virtues to people and sends them on the path of Nirvana.
3. In Hinayana Buddhism, Buddha was expressed through symbols, i.e. khadau (sandals), animal
figures etc. but in Mahayana Buddhism, his idol began to be made.
4. Hinayana Buddhist texts were compiled in Pali language while Mahayana Buddhist texts were
in Sanskrit language.
5. Hinayana Buddhism followed the principle of Markata Nyaya while Mahayana Buddhism
followed the principle of Marjara Nyaya. Markata Nyaya (monkey), Marjar Nyaya (cat),

Influence of Mahayana Buddhism:-

1. Construction of stupas, chaityas and viharas began in large numbers.
2. The idols of Buddha and Bodhisattva started being made, due to which the popularity of
Buddhism increased.
3. The form of Buddhism changed and due to this it came closer to Brahminism. Hence, later
Brahminism assimilated it within itself. This was an important reason that it continued to exist
outside India but it vanished inside India.

 Buddhist centres under Satavahanas:-

 The Satavahana rulers gave extensive patronage to Buddhism in addition to Brahminism.
 During this period, the form of Buddhism also started changing. Mahayana Buddhism
developed in the early centuries of Christ.
 The worship of stupas and Bodhisattvas began under Mahayana Buddhism. During this
period, a large number of Buddhist monks came from North India to South India. Hence,
Viharas were built as the residence of these monks.
 Along with this, Chaityas were built as the place of worship for the Buddhists. There was also a
stupa in the centre of these Chaityas. A large number of chaityas and viharas came into
existence in the western region under the Satavahanas, for example, chaityas were established
in Nasik, Karle, Bhaj, Pitalkhora etc.
 Then Amaravati emerged as an important Buddhist centre in the Andhra region. There is
evidence of a stupa built at Sangaram. A separate school of sculpture developed in Amaravati.
 Then Nagarjunakonda also emerged as a Buddhist centre under the Satavahanas, although its
extensive development was seen under the Ikshvakus, who were established in the Andhra
region after the Satavahanas.
 Thus a solid base for the spread of Buddhism in South India was laid under the Satavahanas.
 Later, the spread of this religion was seen in various regions of South India and further under
the Pallavas, 'Kanchipuram' became the main centre of Buddhist education.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
152
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Change in the nature of Jainism -

 Jainism was also divided into two branches, Shvetambara and Digambara.
 The Shvetambara sect accepted idol worship. Nevertheless, Jainism maintained its uniqueness
as it did not deviate much from the teachings of Mahavira.
 Later, the centre of Shvetambaras became Gujarat and the Digambaras moved towards
Karnataka.
 Not many changes are seen in Jainism, but in the post-Mauryan period, idol worship of Jain
Tirthankaras started under the Digambara Jain sect.

Cultural Life

Stupa Vihara and Chaitya Sculpture

 Stupa -
 The construction of stupas started in the Mauryan period, but in the post-Mauryan period, not
only did the stupas expand, but their beauty also increased from the artistic point of view.
 In the post-Mauryan period, the rulers of the Shunga dynasty expanded the stupas built in the
Mauryan period at Bharhut (Satna), Sanchi (Raisen) and Gaya (Bihar).
 Similarly, the rulers of the Satavahana and Ikshwaku dynasties also built many stupas, among
which the stupas of Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and Ghantshala were prominent.

 Viharas and Chaityas -

 Viharas were the residences of Buddhist monks. Buddhist monks used to stay in the viharas for
four months of the rainy season and perform worship etc.
 In the post-Mauryan period, many viharas were built mainly by the kings of the Satavahana,
Ikshwaku and Vakataka dynasties.
 Chaitya was the place of worship of Buddhists. Most of the Chaityas were made by cutting the
mountains, and generally Chaityas were rectangular. Its last edge was semi-circular. A stupa
was also built in its center, its purpose was worship, the roof of the stupa was cut in the shape
of a horse shoe so that light from it falls on the stupa.
 Example - Peetalkhora, Bhaj, Karle, Kanheri, Ajanta etc.
 Sculpture -
 Lifelike figures of animals were made in the Mauryan period, but after the Mauryan period
that style was abandoned and such lifelike animal figures are not seen again. But on the other
hand, it was compensated in the form of development of human statues. Three different styles
of sculpture developed in this period-

 Gandhara style -
 This style of statue making developed around Gandhara, its development happened as a result
of the mixture of Hellenistic art (Greek) and Indian elements.
 Basically, this style developed in Greece and gods started being represented in human form. In
Greece, Apollo, the god of beauty, was presented as a beautiful human statue.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
153
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Then the influence of Roman art can be seen in the form of heavy decorations, crowns and
jewellery. That is why it is also known as Greek-Roman art.
 Under Gandhara art, dark blue or black grey stone has been used in the making of the statue.
 The approach of Gandhara style is realistic and in this, the real structure of the body, muscles,
folds of clothes, all are depicted in a lively and realistic manner.
 Its main subject is related to Buddhism and a large number of Bodhisattvas have been depicted
in it.
 Mathura Art Style -
 This style of sculpture developed in the area around Mathura.
 The approach of Mathura art is idealistic, in this, special attention was not given to the
physical depiction of the statues. Transparent clothes were shown sticking to the body but the
main emphasis was on showing spirituality on the face of the idol.
 Usually the eyes of the idols are half open and their faces appear meditative.
 Red sandstone was used in the making of idols in Mathura art.
 Idols of Buddhist, Jain and Brahman deities were also made under this art.

 Amaravati style: -
 In South India, the Amaravati style of sculpture developed in Amaravati Nagarjuna Konda,
Ghantasala, Jaggapet and the surrounding areas.
 Under this style, marble was used as raw material in the making of the idol.
 The approach of this style is different from the above two styles, its nature was less on religious
subjects and more on sensual pleasures.

 Painting –
 From the post-Mauryan period, we start getting evidence of the development of painting, as we
know that Ajanta painting has a long history and then as we know that the initial paintings of
Ajanta were associated with the Satavahanas.

 Literature –
 In the post-Maurya period, Satavahana ruler Hala and his courtier Sarvavarman composed
Gathasaptashati and Katantra Vyakaranam respectively.
 During this period, Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, Charak composed Charak Samhita.
 At this time Ashvaghosha had composed Buddhacharita, Saundranand and Sariputra
Prakaran.

Post-Mauryan period language and literature

 Brahmin texts -
 Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Manusamhita, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Charaka Samhita,
Sushruta Samhita, compilation of early Puranas.
 Mahayana Buddhism -
 Avadan literature (Divyavadana, Ashokavadana), Buddha Charitra and Saudarananda
written by Ashwaghosh.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
154
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Prakrit texts -
 It was the official language of the Satvahana court. In the first century, the written form of
Hinayana literature was given in Sri Lanka.
 The only Mahayana Buddhism text written in Prakrit was Milindapanho.
 Prakrit state inscriptions -
 Haathi Gumpha inscription of Kharavela, Nasik inscription of Gautami Balashri.
 Inscriptions -
 Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman
 Suivihara inscription of Kushans.

Post-Mauryan period - Science and technology

 In the field of astronomy and astrology
 In this period, there was open exchange between foreign and indigenous elements. Greek
influence can be seen on astronomy and astrology in India.
 During this period, Indian astronomers used Greek method in their calculations. Similarly,
astrology was also influenced by the Greek method. 'Horo scope' was a Greek word. Indian
astrologers started using it as 'Hora Shastra'.

 In the field of chemistry and biology

 Then, during this period, progress was also seen in the field of chemistry, biology and botany.
 The important pharmacologists of this period, Charaka and 'Sushruta' studied various plants
and prepared medicines by mixing the juices of those plants.
 As a result, not only pharmacology but also botany and chemistry developed. Charak and
Sushruta have a special contribution in the field of medicine.
 Charak Samhita is considered to be an encyclopedia on Indian medical science. It mentions
various types of diseases and their treatment.

 In the technical field

 During this period, special progress was seen in the field of technology. In India, the first
punch marked coin was made. But during this period, Indo-Greek and Kushan rulers issued
gold and gold and copper coins respectively. Their coins can be considered better from artistic
point of view.
 Similarly, Kushan rulers also strengthened military technology. They started the trend of tight
pyjamas, long coats, turbans and shoes.
 For the first time, the trend of leather shoes started in this period.
 Apart from these, progress was seen in glass work during this period.

Sangam period
 Sources of information-
 The main source giving details of the Sangam era is the literature written in that era. Sangam
literature is mainly written in Tamil language.
 The major works of the Sangam era include the texts Tolkāppiyam, Ettuthokoi, Pattuppattu,
Pathinekilkanakku etc. and the epics Silappadikaram Manimekalai and Jeevaka Chintamani.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
155
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Tolkāppiyam -
 The author of 'Tolkāppiyam' is Tolkāppiyar. It is the only oldest text available of the second
Sangam era.
 It is a text related to grammar, as well as information about the political and socio-economic
conditions of that time is also present in it.

 Ettuthokai -
 Ettuthokai (Ashta Sangraha) is a collection text. It is a collection of eight texts of the third
Sangam.
 These eight texts are - Natrinai, Kuruntogai, Ainkurunuru, Pathitrupathu, Paripadal,
Kalitlogai, Ahanuru, and Purananuru.

 Pattuppattu –
 Pattuppattu (Dashageet) is a collection of ten poems and is the second collection of texts of the
Tritiya Sangam.
 These ten poems are- Tirumurukaruppatai, Netunalvatai, Perumpanarruppatai, Pattinappalai,
Porunararruppatai, Maturaikanchi, cirupanarruppatai, Mullaippatu, Kurinchippattu, and
Malaipatukatam.

 Pathinenkialkanakku –
 Pathinenkialkanakku is a moral treatise consisting of 18 poems and it belongs to the Third
Sangam literature. The important poem among these 18 poems is Tirukkural written by the
great Tamil poet and philosopher Thiruvalluvar. It is also considered the fifth Veda of Tamil
literature.

 Shilappadikaram -
 Shilappadikaram is an epic written by 'Ilangoadigal' and Manimekalai 'Sitalaisttanar'. These
epics provide good information about the Sangam society and politics of that time.
 Other sources giving details about the Sangam period are as follows -
 Ashoka's inscriptions mention about Chola, Pandya and Chera.
 Greek writers like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy have mentioned about commercial
trade contacts between West and South India.
 The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvel of Kalinga mentions Tamil states.
 The three Sangams have been described in the introduction of the commentary of Iraiyanar
Akapporul in the 8th century AD.

 Other sources -
a. Mahabharata
b. Ashtadhyayi of Panini
c. Hathigumpha inscription

 Sangam
Sangam was held under the patronage of Pandya rulers of Tamil region.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
156
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 First Sangam –
 Place - Madurai
 President - Agastya Rishi
 Available texts - No
 Second Sangam –
 Place - Kapada Puram
 President Agastya Rishi His disciple Tolkappiyar
(Note- Tolkappiyam - First book of Tamil grammar)
 Third Sangam –
 Place - Madurai
 President - Nakkirar
 texts - Ettuthokai - (Ahanuru and Purnanuru)
 Others - Silappadikaram - (Ilango - Adigal)
 Poetry Kovalan Kannagi's love story
 Iliad of Tamil poetry
 Manimekalai - (Seethalaisaathanar)
 Odyssey book of Tamil poetry
 Jivakachintamani - Creator - Tirutakkatevar

Chera State
 The oldest state
 Capital - Karuyur/Vanji
 State symbol - Bow and arrow
 Port - Muziris
 Ancient mention - (Mention of Cherpad in Aitereya Brahman)
 The word Chera has originated from the Tamil word Cheral/Kerala, which means -
mountainous country.

 Udiyanjeral -
 He provided full meals to the armies participating in the Mahabharata war.
 He had a large kitchen from where he freely distributed food to the people.

 Nedunjeral Aadan -
 Title - Imayavaramban
 He took the Indo-Greek traders captive.
 He claimed to have conquered the whole of India and got the Chera royal symbol engraved on
the Himalayas.
 He fought with the Chola king, both the kings died and their queens committed sati.

 Kuttuvan -
 Shenguttuvan - Lal/Bhala Chera - Greatest ruler
 Title - Kadal Pirakkohiy/Kadalpirakkothiya who has defeated the sea)
 Patini Puja/Kannagi Puja started during his time.
 His brother Ilango Adigal composed Silappadikaram.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
157
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Perunjarel Irumporai -
 He defeated Adigaiman and (started cultivation of sugarcane in South India)
 He got a wound on his back in a war, Being insulted by this, he gave up his life.
 The last ruler of this dynasty was Gajamukha Sheya (elephant-eyed), who was defeated by
Pandya ruler Nedujjeliyan and ended the independence of the Chera kingdom.

Chola State
 Capital - Uraiyur
 State symbol - Tiger
 Port - Puhar/Kaveripattanam
 Nicknames of Cholas -
 Sennai (Commander)
 Sembiyan (Descendants of Shibi)
 Balavan (Ruler of fertile land)
 Killi (Chief)
 The first information about Cholas is found in Panini's Ashtadhyayi.
 Ilanjet Chenni -
 Famous for beautiful chariots
 Karikala -
 Battle of Veni - Defeated 11 rulers at once.
 Battle of Vahaiparandalai - Defeated 9 rulers at once.
 He conquered Sri Lanka on the strength of his powerful navy.
 He built a dam on the Kaveri river and got ponds constructed along with the development of
agriculture.
 Karikala was a follower of Vedic religion, he got many Vedic yajnas done.
 He had knowledge of seven notes of music and he conquered the Himalayas and won over Brij,
Magadha and Avanti.
 After Karikala, there was a war between his two sons (Nal Gilli and Nedugilli) which weakened
the Chola empire.

Pandya State
 Meaning - Old country
 Capital - Madurai
 State symbol - Fish
 Port - Korkai (Kolchi)

 Nickname -
 Minavar - Fisherman
 Kaburiyar - Related to Kauravas
 Panchavar - Related to Pandavas
 Kavar - Arthashastra
 Mabar - Indica
 Nediyon -

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
158
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Started the tradition of Sagar Puja

 Palshalai Mudukudmi -
 First Pandya historical ruler
 Built many Yagyashalas
 Nedunjeliyan -
 He defeated the Cheras and Cholas in the battle of Talaiyalanganam and made the Chera ruler
Gajamukhasheya a prisoner
 The tragic incident of Kovalan happened during his reign.
 Other facts of Sangam period -
 The first recorded mention of the dynasties of Sangam period is found in the inscriptions of
Ashoka.
 The entire kingdom was called Mandalam.
 The court of justice of the king was called Nalvai/Manram.
 The commander was called Enadi.
 Mandalam-Nad-Ur (city) - Gram
 Large stones were erected for the martyrs who died in war and for cow protection, which was
called Veerakall/Nadukul.
 Brahmins coming from North India were called Vedkumar.

Sangam period political system

 The political system of the Sangam period was based on the clan union, information about
which is obtained from the literature of the Sangam period, which is as follows -

King Administrative Institutions Army Judicial system

unit
 King -
 The king was the supreme authority of all administrative powers along with being hereditary.
 The kingship was generally based on seniority, but there is evidence of wars for succession, like
the war between Chola princes Nalagilli and Nedugilli.
 There was no tradition of coronation of the king, a festival was organized at the time of ascending
the throne.
 Administrative unit
 The nation was generally called Mandala, Mandala was divided into Nādu, Nādu was formed
by joining Ur, Ur was divided into Grama.

 Institutions -
 The biggest administrative institution was Nalvai, which was the main court of the king.
 Separate administrative institutions were also found in Ur and Gram.
 Army -
 Sangam rulers were war lovers, they aspired to become emperors, for which the kings used to
build a powerful army.
 The king's army was Chaturangini, which included horses, elephants, chariots and infantry.
 Huge stones were installed to honor the martyred soldiers, which were called Virakal or
Nadukall.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
159
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Note- There is also evidence of construction of navy by Karikalan.

 Tax system -
 During Sangam period, both agriculture and trade and commerce were highly developed, hence
the main basis of the state's income was tax.
 Land tax - This was one-sixth of the total, which was taken in the form of grain or cash.
 Information about another tax was obtained, which was customs duty.

 Justice and penal system -

 The king was the chief judge of the country, the king's court was called Manram, which was the
final court of hearing.
 During this period, the penal code was very strict, punishments were given in various forms like
death penalty, imprisonment and financial penalty etc.
Along with severe torture, death penalty was given for theft and adultery, and tongue was
cut off for giving false testimony.

Sangam period administrative terminology

Word Meaning

Nadu Province

Perur Big Village

Siraiyur Small Village

Ur Town

Mudur Old Village

Pattinam Coastal Town

Pediyala Public Place

Avai Assembly Of Small

Villages

Amichara Minister

Orrar Spy

Dutar Ambassador

Salai Main Road

Tairu Main Street

Economic condition
 Information about the economic condition of that time is available from Sangam literature. The
Tamil country of this era was very prosperous economically. The main basis of its prosperity
was agriculture, industry and trade.
 Agriculture

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
160
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The land of South India was very fertile, which produced very good crops of grains, the region
of the Kaveri river delta was famous for its fertility.
 The Sangam literature describes the production of paddy, ragi and sugarcane, along with
jackfruit, round pepper, turmeric etc.
 In this period, farmers were called vellalar. Women of the lower class of the society mainly did
farming, they were called "Kadaisiyar".
 The use of iron tools in agriculture also became a reason for the growth of agriculture.
 ऽ For irrigation, the state used to construct wells, ponds and canals.
 Industry
 Textile industry was a major enterprise of this period. Textiles were made from cotton, silk etc.
 Uraiyur and Madurai were famous for cotton textiles.
 Women used to do the work of spinning yarn. Silk clothes with floral designs were also made
during this period.
 It is said about cotton clothes that they were as fine as snake skin or clouds of steam.
 Apart from textile industry, rope making, ivory items, ship building, gold jewellery and pearl
extraction were also done.
 Pandya's Kolchi or Korkai port was famous for pearl extraction.

 Trade
 Internal and external trade was prevalent during the Sangam period. Internal trade was mainly
based on the barter system and external trade was mainly between Rome, Arabia, Egypt and
South-East Asian countries.
 The Sangam period states exported black pepper, ivory, medicines, pearls and woven cloth and
imported wine, gold etc.

 Currency system
 During the Sangam period, punch-marked coins of copper, silver etc. were in circulation.

Glossary of Revenue Terms

Karai Landtax (1/6th of the produce)

Ulgu/Sangam Customs duty or toll

Variyam Vaari The unit area from which tax is collected

Irai Tax paid by feudal lords and goods looted in war

Kadmai Ya Paadu Tax paid to the king

Variyar Officer who collects tax from Variamvari

Iraaku/Irvai Gift by force

Social status
 By studying Sangam literature we get a good knowledge about the social condition of Tamil
country. By this time South India had been Aryanised and the traditions of North India were
adopted by the Tamils of this period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
161
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Varna system
 Brahmin
 It had the most prestigious position in the society.
 Brahmins first emerged in Tamil Nadu during the Sangam period.
 The main work of Brahmins was study and teaching and performing Yagyas.
 Brahmins of Sangam era used to eat meat and drink liquor. The society of that time did not
consider these acts reprehensible.
 Killing a Brahmin was considered the biggest crime.

 Vellalar Class
 According to Sangam literature, their main occupation was agriculture. Some of them were rich
farmers. They used to take part in wars and they were appointed to important administrative
posts.
 Big Vellalaras had matrimonial relations in the royal family.
 The second class of Vellalaras was of poor farmers, who did not have their own land and they
used to work as labourers on the farms of rich farmers.

 Vanigar
 Their social status was not good. They were placed in the category of Shudras.
 They were involved in business activities.

 Shudra
 There is a mention of a class of artisans called 'Pulaiyan', who used to make cots and mats with
the help of ropes and animal skin.
 There is a mention of a caste of hunters called 'Aniyar', and also of a caste called 'Malwat' who
used to loot.
 There is no evidence of untouchability in the society.

 Status of women
 It was a patriarchal society, the status of women was low
 Prostitution and Sati system were prevalent in the society.
 The condition of widows was not good in the Sangam period, many strict rules were made for
them. Their hair were cut and they were forbidden to use the bed, wear jewellery, eat good food
etc.
 Even after this, poets like Nachchellaiyar and Avyaiyar were discussed in Tamil literature,
which makes it clear that women had the right to education in this period.

 The condition of slaves

 Slavery was not prevalent in the Sangam period.

 Education
 During the Sangam period, all classes had the right to education.
 Education was given in subjects like literature, science, astrology, mathematics, grammar etc.
 Temples were the main centres of education and the practice of giving Guru Dakshina was
prevalent.
 Food and drink
 The Tamils of the Sangam era ate both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food, rice was their staple
food.
 Meat was widely prevalent. Even Brahmins ate meat. There are references to sheep, pig and
fish being eaten.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
162
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Wine and Tadi were their favourite drinks, people were also fond of betel leaf and betel nut.

 Means of entertainment
 People used to entertain themselves through music, dance and various types of instruments.
Groups of dancers, female dancers and singers used to roam around and entertain people. In
Sangam literature, they have been called Panar and Viraliyar.
 Playing dice and boxing, wrestling, hunting of dogs, rabbits etc. were also means of
entertainment.
 Funeral rites
 Complete cremation, partial cremation and cremation rites were prevalent in the Sangam
period.
 In Sangam literature, after cremation, the bones were buried by placing them in a vase or a
box.
 There was a practice of burying large stones on the graves of warriors who died in wars etc.,
which was called Veerakall or Nadukal.
 Evidence of funeral materials is also found in the Sangam period.
Different Business
castes

Umnar Salt

Kuchavar Potter

Kollar Carpenter

Vannar Washerman

Ulavar Confectioner

Paradavar Fisherman

Religious order
 In the Sangam period, for the first time, the prevalence of Brahmin religion is seen in South
India. Brahmin religion was predominant in the South. Which can be understood under the
following points:-

Agastya Puja Importance Pattni Veer Main deities

of Yasho worship worship

 AgastyaPuja:-
 In the traditions, the credit of taking Agastya Puja to the South is given to Agastya Rishi.
 Rishi Agastya and his 12 disciples propagated Buddhist religion in the South.
 Later, Agastya Puja started in the South, which is still widely done in the South.

 Importance of Yasho:-
 Along with Buddhist religion, the importance of Yasho increased in the South, various rulers
organized big Yasho events.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
163
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Pandya ruler Patashalai Mudukudmi was famous for building Yagyashala, along with this Chola
ruler Karikalan organized Ashvamedha and Rajasuya Yagyas.

 Pattani Puja:-
 Chera ruler Shenguttuvan started Pattani Puja or Kannagi Puja in the South.
 Pattani is generally performed by married women to increase the longevity of their husbands.

 Veer Puja/ Nadukalla Puja:-

 There was a tradition of worshipping large stones in honour of warriors who died in wars while
protecting cows. Such large stones were called Virakal or Nadukall.

 Major deities:-
 There was a tradition of polytheism in Sangam. South Indians worshipped many gods, which
are as follows:-
1. Murugan: The most popular deity of Sangam period, who was said to play on the mountains.
 Symbol - Rooster
 Later on, it was equated with Kartikeya.
2. Kurvasah - Murugan's wife.
3. Vishnu worship.
4. Indra worship.
5. Korralai - Goddess of victory.
6. Mariamma - Goddess of smallpox.
7. Yellamma - Goddess of the border.

The political condition of India before the rise of the Guptas

 The period from the fall of Kushans to the rise of Guptas is considered to be the period of political
decentralization and division. At this time there was no sovereign power in the country.
 The entire country was divided into many small and big states which were fighting with each
other. Anarchy and chaos prevailed everywhere. At this time there were two types of states in
India- monarchy and republic. Apart from this there were some foreign powers too. In the
following lines we will present a brief description of the various states of that time-

Monarchy
 Before the rise of the Guptas, many powerful kingdoms existed in North and South India. Some
of the major ones are as follows-

Naga dynasty
 After the fall of Kushans, powerful Naga dynasties emerged in the regions of Central India and
Uttar Pradesh.
 Naga dynasty is credited with the destruction of Kushan power in the Ganga valley. The details
of the Puranas show that Naga clans ruled in Padmavati, Mathura and Kantipur. According to
the Puranas, seven Naga kings ruled in Mathura and nine in Padmavati.
 Before the rise of the Guptas, the Naga dynasties of Padmavati and Mathura were quite
powerful. Among them, the Naga of Padmavati was more important. Padmavati is identified
with the modern place called Padmapavaiya, located near Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh.
 The Naga people of Padmavati were called 'Bharshiva'. They used to carry Shivalinga on their
shoulders. The Bharshivs had matrimonial relations with the Vakatakas.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
164
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The daughter of Bhavnaga (305-40 AD), the ruler of Bharshiva clan, was married to the son of
Vakataka king Pravarsena I. During the time of Samudragupta, Nagasen was the ruler of
Bharshiva Naga dynasty of Padmavati. He is mentioned in Prayag Prashasti.
 Ganapatinaga ruled Mathura during the time of Samudragupta. At the end of the third century,
the Naga people of Padmavati and Mathura had spread to the areas of Mathura, Dholpur, Agra,
Gwalior, Kanpur, Jhansi and Banda.

Maukhari dynasty of Badwa

 A branch of the Maukharis was ruling in Badwa (ancient Kota state) about 150 miles to the west
of the Naga capital Padmavati in the third century AD.
 In 239 AD, this dynasty was ruled by Mahasenapati Bala. The people of this dynasty were
probably vassals of the Western Kshatrapas or Nagas.
 The people of this dynasty were followers of Vedic religion.
 Bala had three sons, each of whom performed one Triratra Yajna. In memory of these Yajnas,
they built stone-yupas. The inscriptions engraved on them are the only source of the history of
this dynasty.

Maghraja dynasty
 The kingdom of the Maghas was situated to the south-east of the capital of the Nagas, Padmavati.
 Earlier, their kingdom was limited to Baghelkhand (Rauwan Mandal) only.
 The first known king of this dynasty is Vasishthiputra Bhimsen. His son's name is Kautsiputra
Pothasiri. He was a capable ruler. His capital was in Bandhogarh.
 Around 155 AD, Bhadramagha of this dynasty snatched Kaushambi from the Kushans. An
inscription of his dated Shaka Samvat 81 (159 AD) has been found from here.
 Bhadramagha also got coins engraved. After him, Gautamiputra Shivamagha and then
Vaishraman ruled. During the time of Vaishraman, the kingdom of Magha extended to the north
till Fatehpur.
 Our knowledge about the chronological history of the kings of the Magha dynasty and the events
of their period is very little. The Magha dynasty ruled Kaushambi till 250 AD.
 Like Kaushambi, Ahichattra and Ayodhya also had powerful monarchies at this time.
Ahichattra is identified with Ramnagar in Bareilly district. The names of the Mitravanshi kings
are known from the numerous coins found here. The name 'Achyu' is inscribed on some coins,
which is identified with the ruler named 'Achyut' mentioned in the Prayag Prashasti. Similarly,
the names of kings like Dhandev, Visakhdeva, and Muldeva etc. are found in the coins obtained
from Ayodhya.

Other monarchies

 Prayag Prashasti shows that at that time five other kingdoms existed in north and north-eastern
India - Samatat (East Bengal), Dwak (Dabok situated in Nowgaon, Assam), Kamrup (Central
part of Assam), Nepal and Kartripur (present Katuriaraj situated in Kumaon). Nothing is
known about the rulers of these kingdoms.

Vakataka dynasty
 This dynasty was founded in the middle of the third century AD by Vindhyashakti of
Vishnuvriddhi gotra. His ancestors were the local rulers of Berar under the Satavahanas.
 After the Satavahanas, Vindhyashakti declared its independence. Its empire extended to eastern
Malwa to the north of the Vindhya Mountains. After his death, his son Pravarsena I became a
powerful king. He assumed the title of 'Samrata'.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
165
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 During the time of Pravarsen I, the power of the Vakatakas had become quite strong. At this
time (275-335 AD) the empire of the Vakatakas extended from the central province and
Bundelkhand in the north to northern Hyderabad in the south.

Pallava Dynasty
 The second important power in South India was that of the Pallavas. It appears that like the
Vakatakas, the Pallavas also initially accepted the suzerainty of the Satavahanas, but later
became independent.
 Their capital was in Kanchi (Kanchivaram in Madras). Towards the north, a part of Andhra
Pradesh was also included in their empire. In the west, their empire extended up to the western
seacoast.
 The name of Skandavarman is notable among the early kings of the Pallava dynasty. During the
time of Samudragupta, the ruler of the Pallava dynasty was Vishnugopa.

Other monarchies of South India

 Apart from the Vakatakas and the Pallavas, many other powers were active in the politics of
Dakshinapath.
 In the Prayag-Prasasti of Samudragupta, twelve kings of Dakshinapath have been mentioned
who were spread from Southern Kosala to Kanchi.
 After the Satavahanas in the South-West, the Abhiras, the Ikshwakus in Andhra Pradesh and
the Chudushatkarnis in Kuntal established their independent rule. Their description is as follows
-

Aabhir -
 The founder of this dynasty was Ishwarsen who established Kalchuri Chedi Samvat around 248-
49 AD. His father's name is Shivadatta.
 An inscription of the ninth year of his reign has been found in Nasik. This indicates that he had
authority over the Nasik region.
 He also had influence over Aparant and Lat region because Kalchuri-Chedi Samvat is prevalent
here. The rule of Abhiras continued till the fourth century.

Ikshvaku -
 People of this dynasty ruled in the Krishna-Guntur region. In the Puranas, they have been called
'Sriparvatiya' (ruler of Sriparvat) and 'Andhrabhrtya' (servant of Andhras).
 Earlier, they were vassals of the Satavahanas, but after their fall, they declared their
independence. The founder of this dynasty was Shrishantamula.
 To establish his independent power, he performed Ashwamedha Yagna. He was a follower of
Vedic religion. His son and successor was Mathriputra Veerpurushdatta, who ruled for 20 years.
His inscriptions are found from Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda. These contain details of
donations given to Buddhist institutions.
 Veerpurushdatta's son and successor was Shantamula II, who ruled for about eleven years. After
that, the independent power of the Ikshwaku dynasty gradually vanished.
 The kings of this dynasty ruled in the lower Krishna valley of Andhra till the end of the third
century. Thereafter, their kingdom came under the control of the Pallavas of Kanchi. The
Ikshwaku people were supporters of Buddhism.

Chutushatkarni dynasty -
 The Chutushatkarni dynasty established its rule over Maharashtra and Kuntal region in the
third century. Some historians consider them a branch of the Satavahanas while some people
relate them to the Naga clan. Their rule was ended by the Kadambas.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
166
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Along with these dynasties, many other small dynasties were also active in the politics of South
India. The Brihatpalayana dynasty between Krishna and Masulipattam and the Shalankayan
dynasty between Krishna and Godavari, which were earlier under the Ikshvakus, established
independence for some time. The capital of the Brihatpalayanas was in Pithund and that of the
Shalankayans in Vengi. Later both the dynasties came under the Pallavas. The Chola, Chera
and Pandya dynasties ruled in the far south.

Republic or tribal state

 In the pre-Gupta era, republics existed along with monarchies. These republics were spread in
various parts of East Punjab, Rajasthan, Malwa and Madhya Pradesh. Among these, Malava,
Arjunayana, Yaudheya, Shivi, Lichchhavi, Abhira, Madrak, Sankanik, Prajun, Kak, Kharparik
etc. are especially noteworthy. Their introduction is as follows-

Malwa
 At the time of Alexander's invasion, the people of the Malwa republic lived in Punjab. Later,
they came and settled in eastern Rajputana.
 Panini has mentioned them as 'Ayudhajivi Sangh'. About six thousand of their coins have been
found. 'Malvanamjaya', 'Malavajaya' and 'Malavaganasya' are engraved on them.
 Scholars have determined the antiquity of these coins to be between the second and third
centuries of Christ. The inscriptions on the coins indicate that they had a republican system of
governance.
 Nahapana's Nasik inscription shows that he defeated the Malavas. Before the rise of the Guptas,
they probably ruled in Mandsaur (ancient Dashpur). The use of Malava-Samvat is found in the
inscriptions found here.
 Their political existence continued till the end of the fourth century. Samudragupta defeated
them and subjugated them.

Arjunayana
 People of this Tribe ruled in the Agra-Jaipur region. Some of their coins of around the first
century have been found on which 'Arjunayanan' and 'Arjunayananaam Jai' are inscribed.
 This indicates that they also had their own republic. The Prayag inscription shows that they had
accepted the suzerainty of Samudragupta.

Yaudheya
 Before the Kushans, these people used to live in northern Rajputana and south-eastern Punjab.
 Panini has called them 'Ayudhajivi Sangh'. It appears that this was a brave and self-respecting
community.
 The Junagadh inscription shows that Rudradamin had conquered them after a tough struggle.
According to the inscription, they were very powerful and resourceful
(Sarvakshatraviṣkṛtveerśabdajātotsekāvidheyānām Yaudheyaṇām...). The Kushans defeated
them and subjugated them. But after the fall of the Kushan Empire, they became independent.
 Coins of Yaudheyas have been found from Saharanpur, Dehradun, Delhi, Rohtak, Ludhiana
and Kangra. The inscription 'Yaudheyaṇām jaimanyadharānām' is engraved on a clay seal
found from Ludhiana. This indicates that they had some mantra for achieving victory.
 Their early coins (around first century BC) have 'Yaudheyan' engraved on them and 'Yaudheya
Ganasyajaya' on the later coins. The later coins are of the third-fourth century. It is clear from
this that the Yaudheyas had captured the above mentioned areas after defeating the Kushans.
 Their empire included the land on both sides of the Sutlej (Johiabar) and Bahawalpur. They
were worshippers of Kartikeya.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
167
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Kunind
 This republic was situated in the area between Yamuna and Sutlej. On some of their coins only
'Kuninda' is written and on some 'Kanindaganasya'.
 Scholars have determined their period between the first century to the second century BC. In
Ptolemy's Geography, the word 'Kalindene' is found which means the entire upper region
between the rivers Beas and Ganga.
 In Vishnu Purana, Kunindas have been called residents of mountain valley (Kulindopatyakaah).
This indicates that Kunindas were related to the region near a hill.
 It seems that a union of Yaudheya, Kuninda and Arjunayana republic was formed to face the
attack of Shakas.
Shivi
 At the time of Alexander's invasion, the Shivis lived in the lower part of the confluence of Jhelum
and Chenab.
 Later, they established their kingdom at Madhyamika near Chittor. Some of their coins are
found from here. Its period has been determined to be the second or first century BC.
Lichavi
 Before the rise of the Guptas, the Lichchhavis had once again become powerful in the Ganga
valley after several centuries. It appears that at this time the Lichchhavis had two kingdoms -
(1) North Bihar whose capital was in Vaishali.
(2) Nepal, which is mentioned in Prayag Prashasti.
 The Gupta king Chandragupta I had increased the power and prestige of his dynasty by
marrying the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
Abhira
 In Periplus it has been called Aviriya. Writings of Abhiras are also found in Maharashtra which
suggests that they ruled Maharashtra as well.
 Their second branch ruled in a place called Ahirwar between Bhilsa and Jhansi.
 Both these branches existed till the rise of the Guptas.
Madraka
 This republic was situated in the region between the Ravi and Chenab rivers. They conquered
this area from the Gadharas in the beginning of the fourth century. Sialkot was probably their
capital.
 No coin of the Madrakas has been found so far.
Prarjuna
 Some scholars describe the present Narsinghpur district of Madhya Pradesh as the state of
Prajun Gana-state.
Sankanika
 They ruled the area around Bhilsa. A feudal lord of this caste is mentioned in an inscription
obtained from Udayagiri of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.
Kaak
 This caste ruled in a place called Kakpur, situated twenty miles north of Bhilsa. Some scholars
call them the rulers of Saunchi.
Kharparik
 People of this republic ruled in Damoh district of Madhya Pradesh.
 Mention of Audumbaras (Punjab) and their republic is found in Ashtadhyayi Brihatsamhita,
Markandeya Purana, Vishnu Purana etc.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
168
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 They are said to be descendants of Vishwamitra and of 'Kaushik Gotra'. It appears that this
republic had an independent existence even before the Kushans. The Kunans conquered them
and brought them under their control.
 The Uttambhadra people lived in some area of Rajasthan. They are mentioned in the Nasik cave
inscription of Nahapana. It is said that Nahapana freed them from the siege of the Malavas. The
Uttambhadra people must have been under the Shakas.
 Mention of the Vrishni Sangha is found in the Arthashastra. Cunningham has found a coin on
which 'Vrishniraj Gyaganasya Mubharasya' is inscribed. In Harshacharita, 'Vrishni' is
mentioned as a Janapada. During the Mahabharata period, there was 'Andhakavrishni' union.
 The coins of Vrishni republic are also found on which 'Vrishnirajanya Ganayatratasya' is
engraved. Their period is considered to be 2nd-1st century BC. The symbol of 'Chakra' is also
inscribed on the coins.
 According to Mahabharata, Vasudev Krishna was a member of this union. These republics had
ceased to exist much before the rise of the Guptas.

Gupta Dynasty
 Sources of study

 archaeological sources

 A large number of royal inscriptions have been found in the Gupta period which provide
a glimpse of the political, economic, social and cultural life of that time.
 Examples: - Prayagprasasti of Samudragupta, Mehrauli inscription of Chandrugupta
Vikramaditya, Kumargupta bilsad inscription, Junagadh and Bhitari inscription of
Skandagupta, Udayagiri inscription of Veersen, Mandsaur inscription of Yashodharman
etc.

 Literary sources

 A large number of Sanskrit texts have been found in this period which give a glimpse of
the political, economic, social and cultural life of that time.
 Example: - Works of writers like Kalidas and Vishakhadatta. Apart from this, the
description given by the Chinese traveler Fa-Hien is also important
 A large number of Smriti texts have been found in this period. Such as Narada Smriti,
Parashar Smriti, Yagyavalak Smriti etc.

 Shri Gupta -
 Said to be of Dharan gotra.
 In the Prayag inscription of Samudra, the Bhilsad pillar inscription of Kumargupta, the bhitari
pillar inscription of Skandagupta, Shrigupta has been called the ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
 Itsing called Shrigupta as “Che-li-ko”, according to Itsing, Shrigupta built a temple for the stay
of Buddhist travelers in Magadh and donated 24 villages for the expenses of the temple.
 Title - Maharaj

 Ghatotkacha -
 Title - Maharaj
 In the Pune copper plate inscription of Prabhavati Gupta and the Supiya inscription of Skanda,
Ghatotkacha was called the ruler of the Gupta dynasty.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
169
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Ghatotkacha got his son Chandragupta - I married to Lichchhavi princess Kumar Devi.

 Chandragupta I -
 Title - Maharajadhiraja
 While ascending the throne, he started Gupta Samvat in 319-20.
 After marrying Kumaradevi, he issued coins of Chandragupta - Kumaradevi Lichchhavi type,
Rajarani type, Vivaha type.

 Samudragupta -
 Titles -
o Ashvamedha Parakrama
o Kaviraj - playing veena on coins.
o Licchhavidauhitra
o Vyaghraha and kramanka
o Kaviraja
o Parambhattar aka
o 'Napoleon of India' by V.N. Smith
 6 types of gold coins - Garuda, Dhanurdhar, Parashu, Ashvamedha, Vyaghrahanta and Vina
Saran
 After ascending the throne, Samudragupta made “Dharanibandh” his real goal.

(a) Conquest of Aryavarta/North India

 Policy - Anekaryavarta-Raj-Prasabhodharana, -violent destruction, under this Samudragupta
defeated 12 rulers.

(b) Victory of the Atvik -

 Policy – Paricharkikrat saruata vikagajyasya
(c) Dakshinapath Victory -
 Policy- Grahanmokshanugraha - (Grahan - Moksha - Grace, Return of Kingdom)
Note: The Pallava ruler of Kanchi at the time of Samudragupta's southern campaign was
Vishnugopa.

(d) Campaign against bordering states -

 Policy - Sarvakardanaagyakaaranpranamagaman
(All-giving, obedience, come to the lourt and greet the king )
 Samatat (Bangladesh), Dawak (Dhaka and Chittagong), Kamrup (Assam) Kirtapur (Haryana
Nepal) were 5 monarchies and 9 republican states

(e) Relations with foreign powers

 Policy - Atmanivedan Kanyopaynagarutmandak svavishya bhuktishasana yachaana –
(request, offering, Daughter, Jribute)
 Eran was the self-indulgent city of Samudragupta. In the inscription of Samudragupta found
from Eran, the name of his wife is Dattadevi.

 Ramgupta
 His copper coins have been found from Vidisha and Udayagiri.
 Shaka ruler Rudrasingh-III forced him to give away his wife Dhruvdevi.
 His younger brother Chandragupta-II killed Rudrasingh and Ramgupta and married
Dhruvdevi.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
170
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Chandragupta - II Vikramaditya -
 Titles -
o Devraj, Devgupta, Devshri
o Ujjain Purvaradhishwara, Pataliputra Purvaadhishwar

Marital relations -
1- Naga dynasty - married Kubernaaga
2- Daughter Prabhavati Gupta married Rudrasena - II of Vakataka dynasty
3- Kadamba dynasty - son Kumaragupta married daughter of Kakutsavarmana.

Victory Campaigh -
a. Elimination of Shakas -
 Udayagiri inscription - (written by Sandhivigrahika - Veersen Saab)
 Udayagiri inscription - (written by Feudal Sankanika Maharaj)
 Sanchi Stupa rampart - (written by Senapati Amrakardav)
b. Bahlika and Banga Victroy -
Information - Mehrauli Iron Pillar

 Navratna -
1- Kalidasa - playwriter and poet
Poetry - Ritusamhara, Meghdootam, Kumarasambhavam, Raghuvansham
Drama – Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvarshiyama, Abhigynashakuntalama
2- Amar Singh - Amarkosha
3- Dhanvantari - Royal physician
4- Varahamihir - Astrologer - (Panchasiddhantika)
5- Vararuchi - Grammarian - (Vartika, Sanskrit grammar)
6- Ghatakarpar - Poet
7- Kshapanak - Astrologer - (Astrology)
8- Betaalbhatt - Magician - (Singhasan Battisi)
9- Shanku - Craftsman - (Architecture)

 Currency - Gold, Silver, Copper – Silver coins were issued first.

 Flag bearer type, lion slayer type, horse rider type, chatra bearer type, Chakra-Vikram type
 Fa Hien visited India during his reign.

Fa- Hien travelogue - (399 A.D. - 414 A.D.)

 Book - Fa-o-ki
 Came to India in 399 A.D.
 Fa-Hien stayed in Pataliputra for 3 years.
 Described the palace built by Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra as built by the gods.
 Described Madhya Pradesh as a country of Brahmins, people of Madhya Pradesh were happy
and prosperous, death penalty was prohibited, people of Madhya Pradesh did not consume meat,
fish, onion, garlic, and alcohol.
 Cowrie shells were used in transactions.
 Returned to China via waterway.

 Religious policy -
Chandragupta-II was a follower of Vaishnavism, he adopted the title of 'Parambhagwat', but he
adopted a policy of tolerance towards other religions as well. Chandragupta-II's sandhi vaartaakaar

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
171
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Veersen Saab and general Amrakardhav were Shaivites and Buddhists respectively. Chinese
traveller Fa Hien also visited India during his reign.

 Kumaragupta (Mahendraditya) -
 Title – Shakraditya, Parambhattarak, Parambhagwat, Ashwamedhamahendra,
Mahendraditya.
 Establishment of Nalanda University.
 Huns attacked during his reign.
 Records
1- Bilsad inscription - Etah (U.P.)
2- Mandsaur inscription - M.P. - (author - Vatsabhatti)
 Mention of the construction of the Sun Temple by Malwa Governor - Bandhuvarma
3- Karamdanda inscription - U.P. - Faizabad
4- Garhwa inscription - Allahabad - U.P.
5- Tumain inscription - Ashoknagar - Described the ruler as being like the autumn sun.
 Hiuen Tsang has called Kumargupta Shakraditya.

 Currency - Khadgadhari type, Gajarahi type, Khanga type, Kartikeya type

 Among the Gupta rulers, Kumargupta made the maximum number of inscriptions, a total of 18
inscriptions have been found.
 In the last days of Kumargupta, a tribe called Pushyamitra attacked, which was successfully
resisted by Skandagupta, information about this is available from the bhitari inscription of
'Skandagupta'.

 Skandagupta / Shakropam -
 Chakrapalik, son of Parnadatta, the governor of Saurashtra province, got the dam of Sudarshan
Lake renovated.
 Records -
Bhitari Pillar Inscription - Ghazipur - U.P. - (Information about Hun invasion)
Kahom Pillar Inscription - War between Skandagupta and Huns, Gorakhpur - U.P.
 Supiya - Rewa - Gupta dynasty was called Ghatotkacha dynasty
 Purugupta - Buddhist follower, brother of Skandagupta
 Kumaragupta - II
 Budhagupta - Shri Vikram, Buddhist follower
 Narasimha Gupta - 'Baladitya' (defeated Mihirkul Hun)
 Bhanugupta - Eran inscription - (First evidence of Sati Pratha - Description of Goparaj's wife
becoming Sati)
 Vishnugupta - Last ruler

 Nalanda Buddhist Vihara -

 Establishment - Kumargupta - I
 According to Hiuen Tsang, Harshvardhan used to donate the income of 100 villages every year
to Nalanda Buddhist Vihar.
 Devpala, the ruler of Pala dynasty, also donated 5 villages to Nalanda.
 Mainly Mahayana Buddhist sect was taught in Nalanda Buddhist Vihar, students from Korea,
Japan, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey also came here to study.
 It was the first residential university in the world, about 10 thousand students and 2 thousand
teachers lived here.
 When Hiuen Tsang studied in Nalanda, the famous teacher here was Sheelbhadra.
 In 1203, Bakhtiyar Khilji attacked Nalanda University and destroyed it completely.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
172
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Later, Nalanda was discovered by Alexander Cunningham.

Administrative system of Gupta period

Central Administration
Provincial District City Judicial
Administration Administration Administration Administration

King Council of
Ministers Military Revenue Rural
Administration Administration Administration
 Introduction - The political system of the Gupta period was monarchical in nature. The
executive, legislative and judiciary powers of the state were vested in the king.
 The kings assumed heavy titles like Paramabhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja. Apart from this,
'Devi Rajatva' was encouraged and the kings started comparing themselves with the gods. In
'Prayag Prashasti', Samudragupta has compared himself with four important gods like Indra,
Varuna, Yama and Kubera.
 Chandragupta - II also assumed the title of Devshri.
 All the high officials of the administration were appointed by the emperor, thus the emperor was
autocratic in theory but not in practice.
 The king considered public welfare works as his ultimate duty.
 Council of Ministers -
 There was a council of ministers or Sabha under the Guptas, its mention is found in the
'Allahabad' inscription.
 In the Gupta period, the posts of ministers became hereditary and a minister could hold more
than one post. For example, Harishena, who was himself an officer, was the son of
Mahadandanayak Dhruvsen, then we also get the information that Harishena was
simultaneously adorning the posts of Mahadandanayak, Sandhivigrahak and Kumaramatya.
 Ministers were given salary both in cash and land revenue.
 The following ministers are mentioned in the Gupta period inscriptions.
1. Kumaramatya - Supreme administrative officer
2. Mahadandanayaka - Supreme official of justice
3. Dandapashika - Supreme police officer
4. Mahasandhivigrahika - Supreme official of peace and foreign policy.
5. Mahabaladhikrat - Supreme army officer
6. Mahakshapatlik - Officer who wrote the main documents and royal orders of the state.
Mahakshapatlik also kept the land records safe. Under him there was also an officer named
'Kaarnik'.
7. Vinaysthiti Sthapak - Supreme official of religious matters. Vinaysthiti Sthapak used to look
after the public temples and kept an eye on the moral conduct of the people.
8. Agraharik - Supreme officer of the charity department.
9. Dhruvadhikaran - Officer who collected land revenue.
10. Nyayadhikaran - He used to settle disputes related to land.
11. Pratihar - Protector of the inner palace.
12. Mahapratihar - Chief security officer of the royal palace.
13. Shaulkik - Head of the customs department.
14. Golmik - Forest officer.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
173
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

15. Amatya - Bureaucrat.

16. Purpal - Chief officer of the city.
17. Mahabhandagaradhikrit - Head of the state treasury.
18. Ranbhandagarik - Officer who manages the army's goods.
19. Karanik - Clerk

 Provincial Administration -
 The province was called Desh, Avni or Bhukti, on Bhukti an officer called Uparika or ‘Uparika
Maharaj’ was appointed.
 The adoption of the title of Maharaj by Uparikas indicates that in this period provincial officers
exercised more power as compared to the earlier period
 Usually only princes or persons related to the royal family were appointed to the post of Uparika.
 The main provinces of the Guptas are – Saurashtra, Western Malwa (Avanti), Eastern Malwa
(Eran), Tir Bhukti (Darbhanga) Pundravardhana, Magadha etc.
 District Administration -
Provinces were divided into districts or ‘Vishayas’, the head of each vishaya was an officer called
Vishayapati, who was mostly appointed by the superiors.
 At the district level there was a council called vishaya adhikarana.
 This council had the following members -
1- Nagar Shresthi (Head of the city guilds)
2- Sarthvaha (Head of the traders)
3- First Kulik (Head craftsman)
4- First Kayastha (Head writer)
 The district was divided into groups of villages, which were called 'Veethi' or 'Peth'. The chief
of the 'Veethi' was an officer called 'Veethi Mahatmaya'.
 The smallest unit of administration was the village, which was under the 'Mahattar'.

 City Administration -
 The management of major cities was run by municipalities. The chief officer of the city was called
purapala.
 Hereditary elements are seen in the city administration, for example the purapala of Girnar city
was Chakrapalik, who was the son of Parnadatta, the governor of Saurashtra.

 Village Administration -
 The smallest unit of administration was the ‘Gram’(village), where the administration was run
by the Gram Sabha.
 The main officials of the Gram Sabha

1- Gramik - Head of the village

2- Mahattar - Member of Panchayat
3- Ashtakulaadhikari - Officer for sale and purchase of land
4- Kutumbin - Head of the family

 Administration of Justice -
 The Samrata was the supreme judge of the country, after the Samrata, the biggest judicial officer
was the Mahadanda Nayak.
 The categories of traders and businessmen had their own separate courts.
 An institution called ‘Pun’ was the court of different castes of the cities, and all the justice related
to the family was usually done by the Kulp.
 The village level judicial work was conducted by the Panchayat.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
174
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 According to Fa Hien, the penal code was very lenient, death penalty was not given.
 Generally, economic fines were taken in lieu of crimes. The right hand of a person who
repeatedly committed the crime of treason was cut off.
 Where no evidence was found, divine tests were taken, according to Nyaya Smritis, Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras should be tested with a scale, fire, water and poison
respectively.
 According to Narada Smriti, if a Brahmin commits theft, then his crime is considered the highest
and that of a Shudra's is considered the lowest.
 Military Administration -
 The army of the Gupta Empire was large and well organized. At the time of war, feudal lords
and subordinate rulers provided them with supplementary military assistance.
 The chief officer of the army was "Mahabaladhikrit".
 The chief of the army of elephants was called 'Mahapilupati' and the chief of the army of
horsemen was called Bhatashvapati.
 There was another officer in the army, Ranbhandagarik, for the maintenance and care of the
goods.
 During this period, the importance of the chariot army had decreased, and in its place the
importance of the cavalry army or the archer cavalry army had increased.

 Revenue Administration -
 At this time the main source of income of the state was land revenue, it was defined as 'Bhag-
Bhog', Uparikar and Hiranya.
 The state generally claimed 1/6th of the total produce.
 Revenue was received in both cash and kind, the officer who collected the tax was called
Dhruvanikaran.
 Traders had to pay customs duty on import and export of goods.
 Customs duty was collected by an officer called Shaulkik.
 It is clear from the above analysis that the Gupta period administration was centralized at a high
level, but the elements of decentralization were effective at a lower level.
 There were some characteristics of the administration of this period which continued to influence
the administration of the later period as well, for example - the feudalism which emerged in the
Gupta period, continued to develop and later in the post-Gupta period, due to feudalism, small
states emerged instead of a central state.

Economic system of Gupta period

The period of the Gupta kings is considered to be a period of economic prosperity and affluence. In
the Gupta period, along with agriculture, commerce, trade, monetary system and urban elements
are visible, which we can understand under the following points.

 Agriculture -
Agriculture spread to the hitherto untouched areas through land grants, because the donee settled
the uninhabited land with the help of small farmers.
 Land was classified on the basis of economic utility, 12 types of land are mentioned in the famous
book Amarkosh of the Gupta period.
 Now a detailed description of the land was prepared and its boundary line was determined by
measuring it.
 For irrigation, farmers were dependent on rain, however, artificial irrigation was arranged by
the state. Information is available about the repair of Sudarshan lake, apart from this, as a new
technology of irrigation, probably Araghatta because Banbhatta gives information about a
Ghatti-yantra rahat.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
175
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 In addition to grains, farmers grew pulses, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, cotton, indigo and spices.

 Industries -
 Industries were in a better state in the first half of the Gupta period. During this period, many
industries were related to items of day-to-day use. For example, basket making, furniture
making, clay statues and stone and metal work.
 During this period, the manufacture of cotton cloth, silk cloth and woollen cloth got special
encouragement.
 Evidence of the use of better quality cloth is found in the paintings made in the Ajanta caves.
 During this period, cities like Daspura, Kamrup, Mathura and Banaras were important centres
for the manufacture of cloth.
 Leather and jewellery manufacturing were also in a developed state during the Gupta period.
 The iron pillar of Mehrauli in Delhi and artistic coins of the Gupta period depict the advanced
metal art of the Gupta period.

 Commerce-Trade -
 In the first half of the Gupta period, the internal and external trade was in an advanced stage.
 Business and industry were managed by the shrenis. In the Mandsaur inscription, there is
mention of the silk shreni and in the Indore inscription, there is mention of the Oil merchant
shreni.
 At this time, the allies of India in foreign trade were the Byzantine Empire, China, Iran, Sri
Lanka and the countries of South East Asia.
 India played the role of a mediator between China and the Byzantine Empire.
 The main items of export during the Gupta period were silk, spices, various types of textiles and
precious substances and the main imported items included silk from China, ivory from China-
Shanka, Ethiopia and horses from Arabia, Iran and Bactria.
 364 A.D. Foreign trade also declined due to the division of the Roman Empire in 1000 and the
Hun invasion in the last phase of the Gupta period. For example, the Mandsaur inscription of
Bandhu Verma, the governor of Mandsaur during the period of Kumargupta I, reveals that the
silk weavers left their work and came to Daspura from the Lat region of Gujarat. Also, through
the Apaddharma, a large number of Vaishyas left their work and adopted farming or military
jobs.

 Transport and communication -

 During this period, along with the information about the major cities being connected to each
other, information about some ports is also available, such as - Tamralipti on the east coast and
Bhaduch on the west coast were the major ports. Trade with the western countries was done
through Bhaduch port and trade with the eastern and south Asian countries was done through
Tamralipti port.

 Currency system -
 Due to improved craft production and developed commercial trade, the monetary economy
remained in a better condition during the Gupta period.
 The Gupta rulers issued the largest number of gold coins and information about silver and
copper coins is also available.
 The gold, silver and copper coins of the Guptas were called Dinar, Rupak and Mashak
respectively.
 The first gold, silver and copper coins among the Gupta rulers were issued by Chandragupta-I,
Chandragupta-II and Ramgupta respectively.
 The common people of the Gupta period used cowries in transactions.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
176
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The largest currency reserve of Gupta period coins was found from Bayana (Rajasthan).

 Urbanization -
 In the first half of the Gupta period, urbanization was encouraged due to advanced industry and
commerce. The major cities of this period were Pataliputra, Ujjain, Vaishali etc.
 There was unprecedented progress in the initial phase of the Gupta period, but in the last phase,
the sequence of prosperity of trade and commerce could not be maintained. The reasons for this
are as follows -
 The division of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire learning the art of making silk
from China, which ended India's role as a mediator.
 Along with this, internal trade became feudal, which affected commerce, trade, monetary system
and urbanization.

Social life
Varna system
 The Varna system was fully established in the Gupta period society, the society was divided
into four Varnas, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
 Brahmins had the most prestigious position in the society, due to the prevalence of
Apaddharma, people of one Varna could do the work of another Varna, like the hero
Charudatta of Mrichchhakatikam accepted the work of Vaishya Brahmins and the Kshatriyas
turned to trade, industry and agriculture.
 There was a considerable difference in the Varna system, according to Varahamihir, the
houses of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras should have 5, 4, 3, 2 rooms
respectively. Also, the punishment system was also different based on the Varna.

Caste System
 In the Gupta period, castes increased due to land grants and Anuloma, Pratiloma marriages.
There is mention of castes like Chandal, Nishad, Kayastha, Murdhavasikta, Ambasht, Parshva
etc.
 Note - The rise of Kayastha caste is seen for the first time in the Gupta period, which was
related to writing work.
Untouchability
 The Smriti texts and Fahien's description show that untouchability was prevalent in the
society, Fahien has described the Chandalas whose touch can be avoided.
Slavery
 Evidence of the prevalence of slavery in the society is found in the Smriti texts, those captured
in war and those who could not repay their debts were often made slaves.
 Mrichchhakatikam shows that the master had complete control over the body of the slave, but
after repaying the debt and serving for a certain period, the slave got freedom.

Status of Women
 Women have been given a prestigious place in Gupta literature.
 In the Gupta period, women's property rights were recognized, in the absence of a son, the
wife had the right to the husband's property, and the daughter was also considered the real
owner of the father's property.
 Widow Remarriage has been supported in Narada and Parashar Smritis, but Brihaspati
Smriti does not recognize it.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
177
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Women did not have the right to Upanayana during this period (Yagyavalkya Smriti).
 Evidence of Sati Pratha is also found in the Eran inscription of Bhanugupta.
 Kalidas has also mentioned Devadasi dancing in the Mahakal temple of Ujjaini.
 There was no purdah system in the general class, but women of the elite class used to keep a
veil on their faces.
 Prostitution was prevalent in the society. There is a mention of the training of courtesans in
Kamasutra.

Marriage
 Generally there were endogamy, sometimes a girl of lower caste was married to higher caste,
which was called Anuloma Vivaha.
 The marriageable age of women was 12-13 years.

Religious system of the Gupta period

An important characteristic of the religious system of the Gupta period is complexity and
diversity, i.e., while the system of yajna was being revived due to another Brahmanical revival, the
concept of bhakti was being encouraged due to the influence of tribal elements.
 Brahmin religion -
1- Prevalence of yajnas -
 As a result of the revival of Brahmanical religion, the importance of yajnas increased, for
example, Samudragupta assumed the title of Ashvamedha Parakrama and issued
Ashvamedha type coins, also Kumargupta organized Ashvamedha yajna.
2- Development of the concept of bhakti and avtarvaad -
 As a result of harmony between Vedic and non-Vedic elements, bhakti and avtarvaad
developed.
 As a result of the development of bhakti, Vaishnava bhakti and Shaiva bhakti developed.
 Then, harmony was brought between various elements through avtarvaad and all Brahmin
and non-Brahmin gods were included in the 10 incarnations of Vishnu.
3- Development of idol worship -
 In the Gupta period, idols of Hindu deities were first installed in temples and idol worship
began. Along with the idol of the main deity, idols of minor deities were also installed in
temples.
 Increasing importance of feminine elements in religion -
 In this period, the concept developed that the companionship of women is necessary to
encourage the activities of men, for example, Lakshmi was associated with Vishnu and Parvati
with Shiva.
 But in this period, mother goddesses were associated with gods, but in the Harappan period,
women were worshipped in the form of Kumari.

 Full development of the concept of Trimurti -

 In the Gupta period, the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh started being worshipped.
 Brahma was declared the creator of the universe, Vishnu the protector of the world and
Mahesh the destroyer of the universe.
Note: In this period, the last part of Shatdarshan, Vaisheshik, Nyaya, Purva Mimamsa and
Uttar Mimamsa were compiled.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
178
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Vaishnavism -
The state religion of the Gupta rulers was Vaishnavism but they were completely tolerant rulers -
 The Gupta rulers adopted the title of Parambhagvat and their state symbol was Garuda.
 The most popular incarnation of Lord Vishnu during this period was Varaha incarnation.
 Neo-Vaishnavism developed during the Gupta period, which was related to Pancharatra sect.

 Shaivism
 Shaivism also developed in the Gupta period. Among the Gupta rulers, the names of
Kumargupta I and Skandagupta were based on the name of Shiva's son Kartikeya.
 The Udayagiri inscription (MP) of Veersen, the sandhivigrahika of Chandragupta II, informs
us that Veersen was a Shaivite.
 Similarly, the Karamdanda inscription (UP) of Prithvisen of Kumargupta I period informs us
that Veersen was a Shaivite.
 The Bilsad inscription (UP) of Dhruv Sharma of Kumargupta I period informs us that the
temple of Swami Mahasen i.e. Kartikeya was built by Dhruv Sharma.
It was during the Gupta period that the combined idols of Shiva and Parvati in the form of
Ardhanarishwar were made. Here, Parvati is the symbol of Shiva's power. In the Gupta period,
Shiva and Vishnu are depicted together in the form of Harihar.
The Vamana Purana mentions 04 sects of Shaivism - Pashupata, Shaiva, Kapalika and
Kalamukh. Lakulisha is considered to be the founder of Pashupata sect.

 Shakta religion
 Shakta religion also developed in the Gupta period. There is mention of Shakta worship in the
Gangadhar inscription of Kumargupta I. There is praise of the goddess in Markandeya
Purana. Hiuen Tsang has mentioned about the sacrifices made to please the goddess. The
rulers of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty were worshippers of Shakta religion.

 Sun worship
 There is also mention of Sun worship in the Gupta period. There is mention of Sun temple at
the following places in the Gupta period -
1. Mandsaur (MP)
2. Gwalior (MP)
3. Madasyat (Bulandshahr, UP)
4. Antarvedi (Ganga-Yamuna Doab)
5. Moolsthanpur (Multan)
The Mandsaur inscription (Mandsaur Prashasti) of Vatsabhatti, the court poet of
Kumargupta I, gives information that the Sun temple was built in Mandsaur (Dashpur) by the
silk weavers. The Indore copper plate (Uttar Pradesh) of Skandagupta period mentions a
donation made to the Sun temple by the shreni of oil merchants.

 Buddhism -
 Buddhism also developed in the Gupta period. Chandragupta Vikramaditya's commander
Amrakardhav was a Buddhist. According to the Sanchi inscription, Amrakardhav donated 25
dinars to Sanchi Mahavihara.
 Similarly, Kumargupta-I built the Nalanda Buddhist University.
 Development of the idols of Bodhisattvas can be seen in the Gupta period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
179
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 There were many Buddhist scholars in the Gupta period, among whom - Vasubandhu,
Didganath and Asang are prominent.

 Jainism -
 Idol worship of Jain Tirthankaras developed in the Gupta period.
 Information is obtained from the Udayagiri cave inscription of Kumargupta-I that the idol of
Parshvanath was installed by a person named Shankar.
 In the Mathura inscription of Kumargupta, there is a mention of donations made to Jain
temples by a woman named Harisvamini.
 During the Gupta period, the Kadamba and Ganga rulers in the south patronised Jainism.
Ganga minister Chamundraya built the Gomateshwara statue of Bahubali in
Shravanabelagola.
 Along with this period, Muni Sarvanandi wrote Lok Vibhanga and Acharya Siddhsen wrote a
book called Nyayavarta.

Conclusion -
 The religious system of the Gupta period was full of diversities and these diversities were
directly related to the contemporary economic and social changes.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
180
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Literature and Scientific Literature in the Gupta Period

Gupta period

Drama Poetry Mathematics Medicine

Malavikagnimitram Kalidas - Nijatu - Dhanvantari

 Raghuvansham Astrology Geometry Algebra
Vikramorvasiyam  Kumarasambhavam Rasa Vigyan - Nagarjan
Khandakavya Discovery of ‘Zero’
Abhigyana Shakuntalama  Meghdootam
 Ritusanhar
Value of (Pi) = 3.14
Vishakhadutta -
 Mudrarakshasa (Maurya dynasty) The earth revolves around
 Devi Chandra Guptam (Gupta dynasty) the sun on its axis.

Bhavabhuti - Varahamihir - Astronomer

 Maltimadhava  Panchasiddhantika
 Uttarramcharitam  Laghu Jataka
 Mahavir Charitam  Brihad Jataka

Bhas -
 Swapna Vasavadatta (Information about
Mahajanapada)

Sudrak - Mrichchakatikam

Pravarsen - Sejabadha

 Characteristics of Gupta period literature -

 The literature of that period is love based literature.
 The ending of the literature should be happy/ based on the shringara rasa.
 Equally articles were written on social topics.
 Language - Literature.

Along with the revival of Brahmin religion, Sanskrit literature was revived in this period, although
the revival of Sanskrit had started in the Maurya period, but Sanskrit got the status of court
language in the Gupta period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
181
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Gupta period was the golden period of Sanskrit language - In this period some important
Sanskrit literature was composed, the main ones are -
 Vishakhadatta - Mudra Rakshasa and Devi Chandraguptam
 Vatsyayana - Kamasutra
 Shudraka - Mrichchhakatikam
 Amarsingh - Amarkosha
 Chandragomin - Chandratyakarana
 Vishnu Sharma - Panchtantra
 Kamandaka - Nitisaar
 Narayana Bhatt - Hitopadesh
 Bhas - Swapnavasavadatta

 Major works of Kalidas –

Drama –
 Malavikagnimitram
 Vikramorvashiyam
 Abhigyan Shakuntalam
Epic –
 Raghuvansh
 Kumar Sambhava
Lyri Poem –
 Meghdoot
 Ritusanhar
Although Sanskrit got protection as the court language during this period, but the importance of
Prakrit language remained as the language of common people, for example In the dramas of the
Gupta period, the higher characters were shown speaking Sanskrit and the women and Shudras
were shown speaking Prakrit language.

Scientific Literature in the Gupta Period

 A part of the literature of the Gupta period is also related to scientific literature, which shows
that science was in a developed state during the Gupta period.
 Aryabhatta -
 Birth - Pataliputra
 Aryabhatta has published some of his important research related to astronomy in the work
named Aryabhattiya. He discovered solar and lunar eclipse.
 The value of the circumference of the earth which Aryabhatta found during that period is
considered more or less correct even today.
 Another work of Aryabhatta is considered to be Aryabhatta Siddhanta, which is not available
at present, but we get information about it from the quotes of other authors.

 Varahamihir -
 Born - Kayatha (Ujjain)
 He was an important astrologer of the Gupta period.
 Varahamihir compiled important information related to astronomy in his book Brihatsamhita.
 Varahamihir told that the moon revolves around the earth.
 Among his other works Panchsiddhantika, Brihadjataka and Laghujataka are important.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
182
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Brahmagupta -
 Born - Ujjain
 He was an astronomer and mathematician.
 He wrote Brahmasiddhanta and Khandakhandaka.
 Brahmagupta discovered gravity much before Newton.

 Bhaskar -
 He wrote commentaries on Aryabhatta's theory. Important texts on medicine are also found in
the Gupta period.
 Vagbhatta wrote two books on medicine, Ashtanghridaya and Ashtangsangraha.
 There were physicians like Dhanvantari in the Gupta period, who were included in the
Navratnas of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
 In the same period, Palakapya composed Hasthayurveda, which was related to the treatment
of elephants.
 The main book of medicine, 'Navneetakam' was composed and physician Kashyap composed a
book related to the treatment of women and children.
 Thus, the cultural achievements of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty were extensive. In fact, due
to the cultural achievements of the Gupta period, it was called the golden period of the entire
ancient Indian history.

Art and Culture of the Gupta Period

The Gupta period adopted classical standards in the field of art. Brahmanical elements became the
centre of art in the Gupta period. This can be explained in the following points.

 Architecture - Temple
The Gupta period is the best period of architecture, in fact, we have started getting the remains of
temples from this period.
 The Gupta period temples were built in the Nagar style, which had the following
characteristics -
1. The temple was built from brick and stone during this period.
2. Temples were usually built on a high platform, on which stairs were built from all sides to
climb.
3. The roofs of the initial temples were flat, but later on, shikharas also started being built.
4. The idol was kept in a square room inside the temple, which was called the garbhagriha.
5. The Garbhagriha was surrounded by walls on three sides, while there was an entrance
from one side.
6. The door frame built at the entrance has engraved figures of Makarvahini Ganga and
Kurmvahini Yamuna, along with other auspicious symbols.
7. The entrance opened towards a meeting hall, which was called the Mandapa.
8. The pradakshina path path was built around the garbhagriha.
9. The inner part of the temple was simple and the outer part was decorated.

 Major Temples of Gupta period -

a. Dashavatara Temple of Devgarh - Jhansi (U.P.)
 This temple is built with bricks, in which the shikhara was also constructed.
 In this, Lord Vishnu is shown seated on the bed of Sheshnag.
b. Shiv and Vishnu Temple of Bhitargaon - Kanpur (U.P.)

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
183
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 This is also built with bricks, in which the shikhara was also constructed.
c. Vishnu Temple of Tigwan - Katni (M.P.)
d. Shiv Temple of Bhumara - Satna (Nagaud) M.P.
e. Lakshman Temple of Sirpur (Chhattisgarh) - built with bricks
f. Shiv Temple of Khoh - Uchehra (Satna) M.P.
g. Parvati Temple of Nachna Kuthar - (Panna) M.P.
h. Vishnu Temple of Udayagiri (Vidisha) M.P.

 Gupta period cave temple -

The temples carved out of mountains were called cave temples.
A. Brahmin temple -
Varaha temple of Udayagiri, which was built by Virasen, the sandhi-vigrahik aof
Chandragupta II.
B. Buddhist temple -
Cave temple of Ajanta

 Sculpture -
Features of Gupta period sculpture -
a. The statues of Gupta period seem more decent and moral.
b. Where nudity was depicted in Kushan period statues, the Gupta period statues were covered
with clothes.
c. Decorated halo circles were made in Gupta period statues, whereas halo circles of Kushan
period statues were plain.
d. In Gupta period statues, special emphasis has been given on hair decoration instead of
ornaments.

 Major sculptures of Gupta period -

a. Statue of Buddha sitting in Sarnath -
 It is in Dharmachakra Pravartan Mudra.
b. Standing Buddha statue in Mathura-

c. Buddha statue of Mankunwar (Allahabad)

 In Abhayamudra, the upper part is naked and fleshy.
d. Buddha statue of Sultanganj (Bihar)
 Abhayamudra

 Painting -
Painting also developed in the Gupta period, examples of paintings of this period are found in the
caves of Ajanta and Bagh.
a. Ajanta Painting -
 Ajanta caves are located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
 It was discovered by John Smith in 1819 AD.
 There were a total of 29 caves in Ajanta, which were related to Brahmin and Buddhism, but 7
caves are main - 1, 2, 9, 10, 16, 17, 19.
 In this, cave number 09 and 10, 1 and 2 are of AD, which were built during the reign of
Satavahanas.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
184
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Cave number 01 and 02 are of 7th century (Chalukyes of Vatapi).

 Red, green, blue, white, black and brown colors have been used in making the paintings, before
the paintings of Ajanta, the use of blue color is not found in painting anywhere. Both fresco
and tempera methods have been used to make these paintings.

 Cave number sixteen -

 The picture of the dying princess and the Buddha's renunciation of his home, Sujata feeding
him kheer, Mahamaya's dream, four scenes from Buddha's life etc. have been depicted.

 Cave number seventeen -

 This is called Chitrashaala.
 The picture of mother and child is depicted in this.

 First and second cave -

 In this, Chalukya king Pulakeshin-II is shown welcoming the Persian ambassador.
 Buddha's victory over Mara has also been depicted.

 Bagh painting -
 Location - In Dhar district of M.P.
 Discovery - 1818 Danger Field
 The total number of caves is 09.
 But evidence of paintings is found only in five caves, these are called Panchapandav caves.
 The most famous painting of this cave is a scene of music and dance.

Gupta period - Golden age of Indian history

 Introduction - The reason for calling a period as golden age is the all-round prosperity and
success of that period, like the period of physics in Greece and the period of Elizabeth of 16th
century in England have been considered golden age. The following is the reason for declaring
Gupta period as golden age –
 Period of political unity -
 After Maurya, Gupta period revived the tradition of imperialism which was going on for a long
time and gave a formula of governance to India which was prevalent in small states with the
fall of Kushan Empire, for example. Gupta empire was spread from Himalayas in the north to
Vindhya region in the south and from Bengal in the east to Saurashtra in the west.
 Period of great emperors -
Many great emperors emerged in Gupta period, who bound North India with their victory.
 Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta, Skandagupta etc. were the characters and
glorious emperors of this period.
 The ideal of Samudragupta was to leave the entire earth (Dharanibandh). He not only
eradicated Aryavarta, but also carried out his victory march till the south.
 Similarly, Chandragupta-II made Kritsnaprithvijayarthana (conquering the whole earth) an
ideal, created the principle of Shakas.
 Skandagupta secured India by stopping the Barbaric Huns.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
185
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Period of religious tolerance -

Although the Gupta emperors were Vaishnavites, they remained completely liberal and tolerant
towards other religions, neither did they try to force their religion on anyone nor did they commit
any kind of atrocities towards other religions.
 The Gupta emperors appointed followers of different religions to high positions without any
discrimination, like the Sandhir vigrahika of Chandragupta-II Veersen Saab was a Shaivite,
while Chandragupta-II's commander Amarkardhav was a Buddhist.
 Kumargupta created Christians in the Buddhist University and Fa Hien praised the tolerance
of Indian rulers.
 Period of high administrative system -
 The great Gupta kings created a liberal and philanthropic system of governance.
 The entire Gupta Empire was filled with material and moral prosperity.
 Slaves were completely safe in the Gupta Empire, even a Chinese traveler like Fa-Hien did not
get the opportunity to complain about this.
 The Gupta rulers made the architecture of the ancient Indian penal system liberal and soft and
completely abolished the death penalty. Despite this, crimes did not occur.
 In the peace system of this period, Kalidasa's statement has been mentioned that “Even the
wind could not touch the clothes of the drunken beauties sleeping in th gardens then who had
the courage to make their ornaments.
 Period of economic prosperity -
The early Gupta period was a period of economic prosperity. The cultivable land was expanded
through land grants.
 Crafts, industry and commerce also got encouragement. Under the Gupta rulers, India's trade
relations were strengthened with Arab, Iran, Rome and Ethiopia in the west, and with China
and South-East Asian countries in the east.
 After the conquest of Bengal by Samudragupta and Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya,
the Guptas gained control over the ports of Tamralipti and Bharuch respectively.
 The highest circulation of gold coins was seen in the Gupta period.
 Period of development of literature and art -
 From the point of view of development of literature and art, this period is considered to be the
classical period, i.e. literature and art adopted such standards which started influencing the
models of the later period as well.
 The works of Kalidas, Vishakhadatta and Amarsingh are the special achievements of this
period.
 Then in this period, great poets like Vatsabhatti and Harishena were born. Similarly, the
temples of Devgarh, Ajanta and Bhitargaon, the living caves of Ajanta and Bagh, paintings and
the cave temple of Udayagiri are the special artistic achievements of the Gupta period.
 It was during this period that the foundation of the Nagara style was laid in the field of
architecture.
 Period of development of mathematics and astronomy -
 The achievements of Aryabhatta and Varahamihir in the field of mathematics and astronomy
are memorable. In this period, better development of metal art is also seen. The iron pillar of
Mehrauli in Delhi is an example of advanced metal art. The rise of scholars like Dhanvantari in
the field of medicine can be seen in this period.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
186
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Fall of the Gupta Empire

After two centuries of continuous rise, the powerful Gupta Empire, after the death of
Skandagupta, the last great ruler of this dynasty, started declining, the reasons for which are as
follows -
 Incompetent successors -
 The immediate reason for the fall of the Gupta Empire was that the kings who ruled after
Skandagupta lacked ability and skill. They neither had the hunger for expansion of the
empire, nor the power to fight foreign enemies.
 Foreign invasion -
 The continuous attack of Pushyamitra tribe and Huns of Central Asia reduced the power of
the Guptas, as a result the process of disintegration started.
 Higher positions became hereditary -
 Higher positions became hereditary in the Gupta period, due to which incompetent people
started occupying the positions.
 Along with this, a single person started occupying more than one position.
 Feudalism -
Feudal system emerged as a result of land grants. These feudal lords kept an army in their
area and collected land revenue from their area.
 Due to this, the income that was received by the centre now started going to the feudal
lords.
 Now the central government became dependent on the army, as a result the military
efficiency of the centre also got affected.
 When the centre became weak, the feudal lords declared their independence, as a result the
empire collapsed.
 Decline in commerce and trade -
 During the last period of Gupta rule, due to the continuous attack of Huns, external trade
declined and internal trade also became feudal, due to which there was a decline in
commerce and trade.
 Influence of Buddhism -
 The initial Gupta rulers were followers of Brahmin religion. They aspired to become
Chakravarti emperors. The ideal of Samudragupta was "Dharanibandh" and the ideal of
his son Chandragupta-II was "Kritsnaprithvijayarthen".
 But in the time of Kumargupta-I, the influence of Buddhism started appearing on the
Gupta rulers. As a result, the Gupta rulers started worrying about earning merits instead
of conquering the earth. They took pride in decorating their kingdom with chaityas and
monasteries, which led to their love for war diminishing.
 Rulers like Budhagupta and Narasimhagupta remained immersed in Buddhism and could
not successfully face the Huns.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
187
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

North Indian states after the fall of the Guptas

 After the fall of the Gupta dynasty, a new trend emerged in the political history of India. This
trend was the spirit of decentralization and regionalism.
 Although during this period, big powers like the Vardhans of Thaneshwar and the Chalukyas
and Pallavas in the south emerged, however, these empires cannot be considered all-Indian in
any sense.
 In the post-Gupta period, important states emerged in the northern India like the Vardhan
dynasty of Thaneshwar, the Maukharis of Kannauj, the Northern Guptas of Magadha and
Malwa, the Gauds in the Bengal region, the Maitrakas in Saurashtra and Kamrup, Orissa and
Kashmir region.
A. The Maitrakas of Vallabhi
B. The Huns of Punjab
C. The Northern Guptas of Magadha and Malwa
D. The Maukharis of Kannauj
E. The Gauds of Bengal
F. The Vardhan dynasty of Thaneshwar
Maitraka dynasty of Vallabhi
 Feudal lords - of the Guptas
 Place - Gujarat
 Founder - Bhattarka I (475-510 AD) - Military officer during the time of the Guptas
 Dharmaditya/Shiladitya/Vikramaditya -
 He conquered the area up to Malwa, Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang mentions about
Shiladitya, the king of Mo-la-po (Malwa), who was a Buddhist.
 According to Hiuen Tsang, he was a capable and generous ruler.
 Dhruvsen-II / Baladitya -
 He was a contemporary of Harshvardhan, it was during his reign that Hiuen Tsang came to
India.
 According to Hiuen Tsang, he was a person of 'hasty nature and narrow thinking'.
 According to Hiuen Tsang, Dhruvsen-II was the son-in-law of Harshvardhan.
 Dharsen IV - He was the first independent ruler of the Maitraka dynasty.
 He had assumed the titles like 'Parambhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara,
Chakravartin'.
 Shiladitya VII - The last known ruler
 The Maitrakas were destroyed by the Arabs and Vallabhi was completely ruined.
 Vallabhi was a major centre of education, which was destroyed by the Arabs.
 The Maitraka dynasty kings believed in Buddhism and donated to Buddhist monasteries.
Vallabhi was a major centre of education during their rule. There was a university here
which had the same fame in western India as Nalanda University had in eastern India.
 The seventh century Chinese traveller Itsing has praised this centre of education.
According to him, there were one hundred monasteries here in which six thousand monks
lived. Students from different parts of the country came here to receive education.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
188
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Here education was given in various subjects like justice, law, economics, literature,
religion etc. In the seventh century, the main teachers here were Gunmati and Sthirmati.
There was enough intellectual freedom and religious tolerance here.
 The educated students here were also appointed to high administrative posts.
 This university was also destroyed along with the Valabhi kingdom by the Arab invaders.
Apart from being a famous centre of education, Valabhi was also a major centre of trade
and commerce.
Huns of Punjab
 Huns were a nomadic and barbaric tribe living in Central Asia.
 Due to population growth and mutual conflict, they were forced to leave their original place of
residence.
 First of all, they defeated the Yu-Chi tribe living on the western border of China and forced the
Yu-Chi people to leave their original place of residence. Thereafter, they themselves started
moving westward from Mongolia and over time, they got divided into two branches.
1. Western branch
2. Eastern branch
 The Huns of the western branch crossed the Ural Mountains and reached Rome, where they
destroyed the powerful Roman Empire.
 The eastern branch of the Huns moved southwards and settled in the Oxus river valley.
 The Huns of the eastern branch are known as hephithalites or White Huns.
 The Huns of this eastern branch attacked under the leadership of Khushnawaz during the
reign of Skandagupta, and Skandagupta defeated the Huns badly.
 Toramana -
After the death of Skandagupta, Huns again attacked the Ganga valley. Toramana was the leader
of the second attack.
 Toramana defeated Budhagupta and took over Eran. An inscription engraved on a Varaha
statue is found from a place called Eran in central India, which shows that Dhanyavishnu was
Toramana's vassal in Malwa during his rule.
 Before Dhanyavishnu, his elder brother Matri Vishnu was Budhagupta's vassal in Malwa.
 Toramana also fought against the famous Gupta ruler Bhanugupta. While fighting with him,
Bhanugupta's commander Goparaj died.
 The Jain text Kuvalayamala shows that its capital was in Pavaiya situated on the banks of
Chandrabhaga (Chenab River).
 According to Hiuen Tsang, even the Gupta ruler Narasimha Baladitya accepted Toramana's
suzerainty.
 Torman was the first ruler who spread his kingdom from Central Asia to Central India.
 Mihirkula -
 Torman's son Mihirkula was a very cruel and tyrannical Hun ruler.
 Hiuen Tsang and Sung-Yung have described Mihirkul's capital as Shakal and Gandhara
respectively.
 When Magadha's ruler Baladitya heard about his atrocities, he kept a strict vigil on the
borders of his kingdom and stopped paying taxes to Mihirkula, as a result Mihirkula attacked

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
189
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Magadh's king Baladitya, but Baladitya defeated Mihirkula and imprisoned him but released
him on his mother's request.
 Mihirkula took refuge in Kashmir, but he killed the ruler of Kashmir and also killed the king
of Sindh.
 Mihirkul conquered Gwalior, information of which is available from Mihirkul's Gwalior
inscription.
 According to Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang, later on Mihirkul was defeated by Malwa ruler
Yashodharman.
 In Kalyan Mihirkul is called the god of destruction and Jain writers call him 'first among the
wicked'.
Note – The Huns introduced coins called Gadhaiyya or Gadhiya.
Later Gupta/Northern Gupta dynasty of Malwa and Magadha
Sources of information about the Later Guptas -
 Aphsad inscription - It is located in Gaya, Bihar.
 This inscription is of Aditya Sena. It has been found from a place called Aphsad in the
district, in which the history of eight rulers of the Northern Gupta dynasty up to Aditya
Sena is described.
 It also describes the mutual relations between the Northern Gupta and Maukhari rulers.
 Inscription of Devbarnak (Shahbad-Ara, Bihar): -
 This inscription is of Jeevit Gupta II. This inscription also gives information about three
rulers of the Northern Gupta dynasty.
 The founder of the Northern Gupta dynasty was Krishna Gupta (about 510-525 AD).
 The centre of governance of this dynasty was Magadha and Malwa.
 The third ruler Jeevit Gupta I has been called Kshitichudamani (the king of kings).
 Kumaragupta was the first ruler of Uttargupta dynasty, who assumed the title of
Maharajadhiraja, he had a conflict with Maukhari Ishanvarma.
 According to Aphsad inscription- 'Kumaragupta ended his life in Prayag in the fire of cow
dung cakes'.
 Mahasena Gupta was the main later Gupta ruler. Harshvardhan's grandmother was
Mahasen Gupta's sister.
 Mahasena Gupta was killed by Kalchuri king Shankargan. Mahasen Gupta's elder son was
Devgupta, who had killed Harshvardhan's brother-in-law Grahavarma II.
 Mahasena Gupta appointed the elder son Devgupta as his successor.
 Mahasena Gupta's two sons Kumaragupta and Madhavgupta lived in Vardhan's court.
Harshvardhan's childhood was spent with these two princes and his cousin Bhandi. Later
Harsha made Madhavgupta the ruler of Magadha.
 After Madhavgupta's death Adityasen became the ruler of Magadha, he performed three
Ashvamedha Yajnas (according to Mandar inscription).
 The Chinese traveller Vang Heun Tse made two of his three visits during the reign of
Adityasena and the Korean Buddhist traveller Huilun also visited.
 Jivit Gupta II was the last ruler of this dynasty.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
190
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Maukharis of Kannauj
 After the death of Yashodharman, the rule of Aryavarta came under the control of Maukharis.
In fact, like the later Guptas, Maukharis were also feudatories of the Chakravarti Gupta dynasty
and when the Gupta power became weak, they also declared their independence. Maukharis
were originally residents of Gaya district. Later, they established a kingdom in Kannauj and
during their time, Kannauj became the main center of political activities instead of Magadha.
Source of history
 We know the history of Maukhari dynasty from both literature and archaeology. Their
details are as follows-
Literature-
 Under this, Harshcharit of Banabhatta can be mentioned. Although this book presents the
details of the history of the Vardhan dynasty, however, some Maukhari rulers are also
mentioned in it. From this, we get details of the events of the period of Avantivarma,
Grahavarma etc. Vardhan-Maukhari relations and the kings of Malava.
Archaeology
 Under this, inscriptions and coins can be mentioned. The following inscriptions are helpful
for the history of the Maukhari dynasty-
 Harha inscription -
 Harha inscription (time 553 554 AD, Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh) gives information about the
Maukhari dynasty. Harha inscription was discovered by H. N. Shastri in 1915. Harha
inscription was engraved by Suryavama (Mihirvarma), son of Ishan Varma.
 Jaunpur inscription -
 This inscription is engraved on the door of the mosque of Jaunpur. It contains the names and
works of the first three rulers of this dynasty - Harivarma, Adityavarma and Ishwarvarma.
 Asirgarh coin inscription -
 This is engraved on a copper coin obtained from Asirgarh (Varar) and belongs to the time of
the fifth ruler of this dynasty, Sarvavarma. On the basis of this coin, some scholars try to
prove the influence area of Maukharis in South India, but this conclusion is doubtful.
 Inscriptions of Barabar and Nagarjuni
 Inscriptions of Barabar and Nagarjuni- Three inscriptions of Maukhari dynasty have been
found from Barabar and Nagarjuni hills of Gaya district. The names of three kings-
Yagyavarma, Shardulvarma and Anantavarma are found. They belonged to the Maukhari
branch of Bihar.
 Badwa-Yup Inscriptions-
 Some inscriptions engraved on Yagyayupa have been found from a place called Badwa in
Rajasthan province. These give us knowledge of the Maukhari branch of Rajasthan.
 The word Maukhari is first mentioned in Panini's Ashtadhyayi.
 Founder - Harivarma

 After Harivarma, Aditya Varma, Ishwar Varma and Ishanvarma became rulers
respectively. Ishanvarma of this dynasty became a powerful ruler around 554 AD.
 The Maukharis were originally residents of Gaya (Bihar). After Ishanavarma, Sarvavarma,
Avantiwam and Grahavarma became rulers.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
191
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Grahavarma II was the last ruler of this dynasty. He married Rajyashri, daughter of
Prabhakarvardhan of Thaneshwar.
 Grahavarma was killed by King Devgupta of Malwa.
 Later Gupta/North Gupta dynasty of Malwa and Magadha –

 Gaud of Bengal -
 Shashank was the main Gaud ruler.
 Karna Suvarna was the capital of Shashank.
 He was in enmity with Harshvardhan.
 Shashank was against Buddhism. He got the Bodhi tree cut in Gaya and thrown in the river
Ganga.
 Shashank was a staunch Shaivite. The figures of Shiva and Nandi are found on his coins.
 Hieun sang calls Shashank Kachhechang and calls him the ruler of Karna Suvarna.
 Banbhatta calls him the king of Gaud.
 The Bodhi tree and Buddhist monuments destroyed by Shashank were renovated by
Purnavarma.
 The present Bodhi tree belongs to the fourth generation of his lineage.

Vardhan dynasty of Thaneshwar

Source of information about Vardhan dynasty

Literature Archaeology Descriptions of foreign travellers

 Harshacharita  Banskhedainscription  Hieun Tsang-Si-u-Ki
 Kadambari  Madhuvan inscription  Itsing
 Aryamanjushri Moolakalpa  Aihole inscription
 Priyadarshika  Coins
 Ratnavali
 Nagananda

 Vardhana dynasty was also known as Pushyabhuti dynasty, probably the founder of this dynasty
must have been Pushyabhuti.
 But in Harsha's writings, Narvardhan is considered as the founder of Vardhan dynasty.
 Hieun Tsang considered Harshvardhan to be of Phi-Sho caste, which meant Vaishya caste.
 Prabhakar Vardhana -
 He was the fourth king who assumed honorific titles like Parambhattaraka and
Maharajadhiraja.
 Other titles -
o Hun Harikesari -

 Prabhakar Vardhana won over the Huns, Gurjars, Gandhara and Sindhu kings and the kings
of Lata and Malwa.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
192
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Prabhakar Vardhana had two sons Rajvardhana and Harshvardhana and a daughter Rajya
Shree.
 Later on, Rajya Shree got married to Grahavarma, the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj.
 At the end of Prabhakar Vardhana's reign, the Huns attacked him, Prabhakar Vardhana sent
his son Raj Vardhana to destroy the Huns.
 After the death of Prabhakar Vardhana, Rajya Vardhana took over the throne of Thaneshwar.
 During this time, Devgupta, the ruler of the northern Gupta dynasty of Malwa, along with
Shashank, the ruler of the Gauda dynasty of Bengal, killed Grahavarman, the ruler of Kannauj,
and imprisoned Rajashri.
 Rajyavardhan went to Kannauj to take revenge for his sister, where he killed Devgupta, but the
Gauda king Shashank killed him treacherously.
 Harshvardhan -
 After the death of Rajyavardhan, Harshvardhan refused to accept the throne, but Harsha got
the throne on the advice of General Singhanada.
 At the time of coronation, Harsha had two immediate problems -
A. To take revenge for the murder of elder brother Rajyavardhan by killing Shashank.
B. To free Rajyashri from the prison of Kannauj.
 Apart from this, Harsha also wanted to punish all those kings and feudal lords who had taken
advantage of the time and declared their independence. So he quickly gathered an army and left
for the war.
Achievements of Harshvardhan
 Military achievements -
A. Capture of Kannauj -
 After ascending the throne, Harshvardhan first saved Rajyashri who was going to commit sati
after escaping from prison and Harsha returned to Kannauj with her.
 The ministers of Kannauj requested Harsha to take the responsibility of the Kannauj state on
himself. To help his sister, Harshavardhan shifted his capital from Thaneshwar to Kannauj.
B. Harsha's Gaud campaign -
 Harsha first befriended Bhaskarvarma, the ruler of Gaud's neighbouring state Kamarupa.
 The result of the war between Harshvardhan and Shashank is unclear.
C. Vallabhi campaign -
 The Vallabhi state was located in the modern Gujarat province.
 The ruler there was Dhruvsen-II. Harsha attacked him. Dhruvsen-II fled and took refuge in
the court of the Gurjara ruler of Bharuch.
 Later, Harsha married his daughter to Dhruvsen-II and established friendly relations with
Vallabhi.
D. War with Sindh -
 According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha forced Sindhu King Sahasiraya, who was a Shudra, to
accept his subjugation.
E. War with Pulakeshin-II -
 As a result of Harsha's victories, the border of his kingdom reached the Narmada river. On
the other hand, Pulakeshin also wanted to expand his kingdom towards the north.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
193
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

A war took place between the two on the banks of the Narmada river. Perhaps,
Harshvardhan's expansion was stopped in this. This information was clear from the Aihole
inscription and Hiuen Tsang's description.
F. Second victory plan of Gaud -
 Harshavardhan again planned to conquer Shashank's kingdom.
 After Shashank's death, Harsha took over the kingdom ruled by Shashank - Magadha, Bengal
and Orissa.
G. Nepal Victory -
 Harshacharita shows that Harsha collected tax from the inaccessible region of snow-clad
mountains. On the basis of the prevalence of Harsha Samvat in Nepal, it can be said that
Harsha might have defeated Nepal.
H. Kashmir State -
 When Harsha heard that there is a tooth of Lord Buddha in Kashmir, he himself came to the
border of Kashmir and asked permission from the King of Kashmir to see and worship the
tooth. But the Buddhist Sangha did not accept it.
 But on the request of the King of Kashmir, the Buddhist Sangha agreed to give the darshan.
 As soon as Harsha saw the tooth of Buddha, he was overwhelmed with reverence and using
his strength, he brought the tooth with him.
 Thus, the empire of Harshvardhan included Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Malwa etc. and it also had
influence over the regions of Vallabhi, Sindh, Kashmir, Nepal, Kamrup etc.
 Harsha probably ruled the till in 647 A.D. Since he had no successor, after his death anarchy
spread again in North India and a local ruler named Arjun took over Kannauj.
 Religious achievements -
 It is known from the description of Hiuen Tsang and Harshacharita that the ancestors of
Harshvardhan were worshippers of Shiva and Surya. According to Kalhan's Rajtarangini,
Harshvardhan was a Shaivite from the beginning. But later Harsha became a Buddhist under
the influence of Hiuen Tsang.
 Harshvardhan built many Buddhist monasteries and stupas and also donated villages to
Nalanda University.
 Harshvardhan used to organize a religious council in Kannauj every year, in which a huge
gathering of the teachers of different religions and sects was called.
 It was presided over by Hiuen Tsang, this ceremony lasted for 20 days and on the 21st day a
grand procession was taken out by placing a golden statue of Buddha about three feet high on
an elephant.
 Harsha used to organize Mahamoksha Parishad in Prayag every fifth year.
 Hiuen Tsang himself participated in the 6th Mahamoksha Parishad.
 This ceremony lasted for 75 days and at the end Harsha worshipped the idols of Buddha, Sun
and Shiva in turn.
 Harshvardhan used to distribute a lot of donations in this religious ceremony of Prayag.

 Cultural achievements -
 Harshvardhan himself was a high-class scholar, so in his time he gave a lot of encouragement
to the development of education and literature.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
194
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Hiuen Tsang talked about Panchvidyas and mentions Shabda Vidya (grammar), Shilpa Vidya,
Chikitsa Vidya, Hetu Vidya (justice or logic) and Adhyatma Vidya.
 Harsha himself composed three Sanskrit plays Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.
 There were many learned poets and writers court poets in Harsha's court - among them the
names of Banbhatta, Mayur and Matangdiwakar are especially noteworthy. Banbhatta wrote
Harshacharita and Kadambari.
 Mayur wrote a book called Surya Shatak.
 Some scholars also consider Kumarilbhatta, a great scholar of Purva Mimamsa, to be from
Harsha period.
 Education and Literature
 100 villages were given as grant for the protection of Nalanda University.
 He himself was a great scholar. He is credited with writing books like 'Ratnavali',
'Priyadarshika' and 'Nagananda'.
 He was also a great patron of scholars. Important scholars like Banbhatta and Mayur lived in
his court. Banbhatta wrote 'Harsha Charita', 'Kaadambari' and 'Chandishatak'. Mayur wrote
'Suryashatak'.
 Art

 Harsha is credited with building many temples, stupas and viharas, for example, Harsha is
credited with building the Mundeshwari temple, Ram Laxman temple and Sangharama of
Kannauj.

Question:- Points of similarity and dissimilarity between Harshvardhan and Ashoka.

Answer:-

Similarity with Ashoka:-

1. Harsha and Ashoka were both great patrons of Buddhism.
2. While giving protection to Buddhism, both of them maintained a policy of harmony with other
sects.
3. It is said that the third Buddhist Council was organized in Pataliputra during the reign of
Ashoka. Similarly, Harsha also organized a religious meeting in Kannauj in honor of Mahayana
Buddhism.
4. Ashoka built stupas in honor of Buddhism. Harsha also built stupas and Viharas.
5. Ashoka emphasized on public welfare works under his Dhamma policy. Similarly, Harsha also
emphasized on public welfare works.
6. To maintain administrative efficiency, Ashoka emphasized on inspection of officials and
organized Dhamma Yatra for this. Similarly, Harshavardhan also emphasized on traveling to
different areas.
7. Although both were devoted Buddhists, they did not abandon their political responsibility.

Differences with Ashoka

1. In Harsha we do not see the religious ferocity that we see in Ashoka. That is, he was not as eager
and restless to spread religion as Ashoka. Buddhism was merely a matter of personal faith for
him.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
195
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

2. Unlike Ashoka, for Harsha religion was not a means to fulfill any political objective.
3. Like Ashoka, Harsha never abandoned the policy of war conquest.
Limitations
 Although Harshavardhana conquered a large area, his actual control remained over a
relatively limited area.
 He could not achieve complete success against one of his political rivals Shashank during his
lifetime.
 At the same time, he was defeated by his other political rival Pulakeshin II.
 During the period of Harshavardhana the structure of administration became increasingly
feudal.
 Under Harsha feudal lords were established not only in the remote areas but also in the main
area.
 Similarly, Harsha's achievements as a scholar and writer are also questionable.
 According to another opinion, the real credit for writing Harsha's works goes to a scholar
named Dhavak.
Vakataka Dynasty
 Sources of Information -
 The political achievements of this dynasty are described in the Ajanta cave inscription.
 The Vakatakas were earlier under the Satavahanas.
 The Vakatakas ruled Dakshinapath between the third and sixth centuries. Their original
place of residence was Berar and they were Brahmins of Vishnuvriddhi gotra.
 Founder -
 The Vakataka dynasty was founded by a person named Vindhyashakti.
 Major Rulers -
 Pravara Sen -
 Pravara Sen I is also called the real founder of the Vakataka dynasty.
 Among the Vakataka rulers, only Pravara Sen I (275-335 AD) assumed the title of Samrat.
 Pravara Sen I assumed the title of Dharmamaharaj.
 Pravara Sen I married his son Gautamiputra with the daughter of the famous king Bhavanag
of Bharshiva Naga dynasty.
 Pravara Sen I also performed four Ashvamedha, seven Som Yajnas and one Vajpayee Yajna.
He is also called Praveer.
 After the death of Pravarsen, the Vakataka dynasty was divided into two parts-

Vakataka
dynasty

Chief Vakataka Basim (Vatsagulma)

 The first ruler of the main Vakataka branch was Rudrasen I.
 Rudrasen I (335 to 360 AD) abandoned the Vaishnava religion of his dynasty and accepted
Shaivism. He has been described as a worshipper of Mahabhairava in the Vakataka writings.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
196
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Prithvisen I (360 to 385 AD) has been described as Dharma Vijayi and has been compared to
Yudhishthira.
 Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati Gupta to Rudra Sen II, son of Prithvi Sen I.
Through this marriage, the Gupta-Vakataka alliance eradicated the power of Shakas in
western India.
 Prabhavati Gupta acted as a guardian for her son Damodar Sen. Later Damodar Sen ascended
the throne as Pravara Sen II.
 Kalidas lived in the court of Pravara Sen II (410-440 AD) for some time. Pravara Sen II has
been described as Param Maheshwar.
 During the time of Vakatakas, the Vaidarbhi style of Sanskrit was fully developed.
 Kalidasa composed Meghdoot in the Vaidarbhi style in the Vakataka court.
 Pravara Sen II composed a poetic text named Setubandha in Prakrit language and Kalidasa
revised it. Setubandha is also called Ravanvaho.
 Pravara Sen II shifted his capital from Nandivardhan to Pravarpur.
 Sarva Sen composed a Prakrit poetic text named Harvijay.
 Pravara Sen II married his son Narendra Sen with Ajjit Bhattarika, daughter of Kadamba
King Kakusthavarman.
 Prithvisen II (460-480 AD) -
 Prithvisen II has been called Param Bhagwat in the Balaghat inscription.
 The 16th and 17th caves of Ajanta were constructed during the time of Prithvi Sen II. The
coins of the Vakatakas have the image of the Ganges imprinted on them. This was their royal
emblem.
 Sarvasena, Vindhya Shakti II and Harishena were the rulers of the Vatsagulma branch.
Harishena was the last ruler of the Vatsagulma branch.
Chalukyas of Badami/Vatapi
 Badami: Bijapur (Karnataka)
 The first two rulers were Jaisingh and Ranaraga.
 Pulakeshin-I - actual founder
 Title - Shri Prithvi Vallabh and Shri Vallabha
 Kirtivarman
 Manglesh
 Pulakeshin-II
 Title - Satyashraya Shri Prithvi Vallabh Maharaj
 He defeated Pallavan king Mahendravarman.
 He fought a battle with Harshvardhan on the banks of river Narmada and defeated
Harshvardhan (Aihole inscription), on the occasion of this victory he assumed the titles of
Dakshinapatheshwar and Parameshwar.
 He fought a battle with Pallava king Narasimhavarman in which Pulakeshin-II was badly
defeated, on the occasion of this victory Narasimhavarman assumed the title of
Vatapikonda.
 Pulakeshin-II sent his ambassador to Khusro-II, the ruler of Iran.
 In a mural painting of Ajanta cave no. 1, the Iranian delegation is shown presenting its
credentials to Pulakeshin II.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
197
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

During his reign, the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom.
He gave a part of his vast empire to his brother Vishnuvardhan, who later established an
independent dynasty, the Chalukyas of Vegi.
 Vikramaditya I
 He snatched back Vammi from the Pallavas.
 He was called the lord of the land between the three seas.
 Vinayditya - Title - Bhattarak, Rajashraya, Yudhmalla
 Vikramaditya II -
 He defeated the Pallava king Nandi Varman and assumed the title of Kanchinkode.
 During his reign, his nephew Pulakeshin foiled the Arab invasion. Pleased with this,
Vikramaditya II gave Pulakeshin the title of 'Avanijanashray'.
 Kirtivarman-II - Last ruler
 His vassal Dantidurga ended it and founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 The Vesara style of temple construction originated during the reign of the Chalukyas of
Badami.
Vengi Chalukyas
 Capital - Pishtapura or Pithapuram (Andhra Pradesh)
 Second capital - Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
 Founder - Vishnuvardhana - Brother of Pulakeshin II.
 After the death of Pulakeshin-II, Vishnuvardhana declared himself independent.
Pallava dynasty
 Original region - Tondamandalam
 In Pallava inscriptions, they were described as belonging to Bharadwaja gotra and descendants
of Ashwatthama.
 In Talagunda inscription, they were described as Kshatriyas.
 Shivaskanda Varman -
 Vishnugopa - Dakshinapath campaign of Samudragupta
 Singhahavishnu - Actual Founder
 Title - Avani Singh
 Construction of Adivaraha cave Temple of Mammalapuram
 Courtier –
 Bharavi – Kiratarjuniyam
 Mahendravarman - I
 Titles - Vichitrachitta, Mattavilas, Gunabhara, Shatrumall
 Pulakeshin - II attacked him and defeated him.
 He composed a book called Mattavilas Prahasana.
 A book called Bhagavadajjukiyam
 He became a Shaivite under the influence of a Nayanar saint called Appar.
 He developed the Mahendravarman style.
 Narasimhavarman I
 Title - Mahamalla
 Establishment of the city named Mahamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
198
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Constructed the chariot temples of Mahabalipuram, which are 7 in number, they are also
called Saptaratha Temple or Sapta Pagoda.
 Among these temples, the largest was Dharmaraja Temple and the smallest was Draupadi
Temple.
 He started a new style of temple construction, Mamalla style.
 He defeated the Chalukya King Pulakeshin-II.
 During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi, Hiuen Tsang has called the Pallava region the
size of gems.
 Mahendravarman - I
 Defeated by Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya and died.
 Parmeshwar Varman - II
 Defeated by Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya.
 Built the famous Ganesha temple of Mahabalipuram.
 Title - Vidhavinoda Pallava Maheshwar
 Narasimhavarman - II (Rajasingh)
 Title - Aagamanpriya, Badhvidhadhar, Veena Narada
 He built the Kailashnath temple (Rajasiddheshwar)
 Constructed the Airavatesvara temple
 Dandin, the writer of Dashkumaracharita was in his court.
 He started a new style of temple construction, the Rajasingha style.

Parmeshwara - II - Vikramaditya - II defeated him.

Nandivarman - II

 The Pallava-Rashtrakuta conflict began during his reign.

Nandivarman - II
 Tamil poet Parundevanar lived under his patronage who translated Mahabharata into Tamil
under the name 'Bharat Venava'.
 The last ruler of this dynasty was Aparajita Varman who was murdered by Chola ruler
Aditya-I.
Art and architecture of Pallava period
 Pallava rulers are credited for freeing architecture from cave and wood art.
 Four styles of architecture developed under Pallava rulers.
 In the first two styles, Mahendravarman and Mahamalla style, temples were built by cutting
the mountains.
 Temples of Rajsingh and Aparajita style were brick temples or independently built temples.
 Mahendravarman style -
 This style developed during the rule of Pallava king Mahendravarman.
 In this style, pavilions were built by cutting the mountains. These mandap temples were simple
pillared verandahs, in the back wall of which one or more rooms were built.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
199
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The garbha griha of the Shaiv mandap had a linga and the garbha griha of the Vaishnav
mandap had a Vishnu idol.
 Statues of gatekeepers are found on the main gate outside the mandap temples.
 Examples are Panchapandavas temple of Pallavaram, Trimurti mandap temple of
Mandagapattu, Varaha temple, Mahendravishnu Grihamandap temple of Mahendrawadi etc.
 Mamalla style -
 This style developed during the period of Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman - I.
 In this style, along with mandap type temples, chariot type temples also developed. In the
chariot type temples, the monolithic chariot shaped temples which were built by cutting
natural rocks were called Rath temples.
 Example - Rath temples of Mahabalipuram -
 Dharmaraja Rath temple, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakul-Sahdev, Draupadi Rath temple and Ganesha,
Pidari, Balaiyakuttai Rath temples are the main ones.
 The largest Rath temple - Dharmaraja Rath temple
 The smallest Rath temple - Draupadi Rath temple
 Except Draupadi Rath temple, the other seven temples are called Sapta Pagoda temples.
 Rajasingh style -
 This style developed during the time of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II (Rajasingh).
 In this style, temples were not built by cutting mountains but with the help of stones and bricks
like independent form (building) temples.
 In Rajasingh style, all the features of Dravidian style like courtyard, gopuram, pillared
mandap, vimana etc. can be seen.
 For example, Kailash temple of Kanchipuram and coastal Shiva temple of Mahabalipuram.
 Narasimhavarman style / Aparajita style -
 In this style relatively small temples were built, the main ones among which are - Mukteshwar
temple and Matangeshwar temple located in Kanchi were built.
 This style developed during the reign of Narasimhavarman.
 In this style relatively small temples were built, the main ones among which are - Mukteshwar
temple and Matangeshwar temple located in Kanchi were built.
 In these temples pillared mandapas and circular shikharas are found.
Rashtrakuta dynasty
 Manya Kheta - Capital
 Founder
 Dantidurga - He organized a Maha Yagya named Ujjain Hiranyagarbha.
 Krishna I –
 Built the famous Kailashnath temple in Ellora.
 Title - Rajadhiraja Parameshwar
 Dhruv –
 Title - Dharavarsha
 Participated in the tripartite struggle and defeated Pratihara king Vatsaraja and Pala king
Dharmapala.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
200
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Govind - III –
 Participated in the 'Tripartite struggle' and defeated Chakrayudha and his protector
Dharmapala and Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta II.
 He destroyed the union of Pallava, Pandya, Kerala and Gangas.
 Govind III snatched Malwa from the Palas and gave it to one of his officers Upendraraj of the
Parmar dynasty.
 Amoghavarsha –
 Follower of Jainism
 He composed Kaviraj Marg and Prashna-uttar Malika in Kannada language.
 Arab traveler Suleiman came to his court.
 Court scholar -
 Jinsen (Jain)- Adipuran, Harivansh
 Mahaviracharya - Ganitasaar Sangrah
 Shaktayana - Amoghavrutti
 Krishna - II
 Defeated by Chola rulers
 Defeated by Pratiharas
 Indra - III
 He defeated Pala ruler Devpala and Pratihara ruler Mahipala and captured Kannauj.
 During this time Arab traveller Al-Masudi came to India.
 Krishna - III
 Defeated Chola ruler Parantaka - I in the battle of Takkolam
 Title - Kanchiyum Tanjeyamkonda.
 With the help of Gangas he snatched Kanchi and Thanjavur from Cholas.
 Khottik -
 During his reign Siyaka Parmar completely destroyed Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta.
 Karka (nephew - Khottik) -
 Kalyani Chalukya king Tailap-II defeated him and laid the foundation of Kalyani Chalukya.
Other facts -
 Arab writers have addressed the Rashtrakuta dynasty as Balhara (Ballaraja).
Kalyani Chalukya
 Tailapa-II
 Founder
 He killed Karka, the last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty and established the Chalukya
dynasty in Kalyani.
 He defeated Ganga king Panchaldev and assumed the title of Panchalmardan-Panchanan.
 Satyashraya -
 He was attacked and defeated by Chola king Rajaraja-II.
 He patronized Kannada poet Gada yuddha.
 Vikramaditya V -
 His sister Akukadevi is mentioned in inscriptions, who was the ruler of kisukanda state?

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
201
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Jaisingh-II -
 During his reign, Bhojparmar, Kalchuri king Gangeydev and Chola ruler Rajendra Chola
formed a coalition and attacked but they were unsuccessful.
 Rajendra Chola is said to be the destroyer of the Tailapa dynasty.

 Someshwar-I -
 Rajendra Chola's son Rajadhiraj and grandson Rajendra-II attacked and defeated him, due to
which Someshwar-I committed suicide by drowning in the Tungabhadra river.

 Vikramaditya VI -
 He started the Chalukya Vikram Samvat on the occasion of his coronation.
 His court poet Vilhana wrote Vikramankadevacharita.
 Another of his courtiers was Vigyaneshwar, who wrote Mitakshara on Yagyavalkya Smriti.
 Someshwar-III wrote a book called Manasollas.

Chola Empire - Capital - Tanjore

 Vijayalaya -
 Narakesari - Title
 Feudal lord of Pallavas

 Aditya - I
 He defeated Pallavan king Aparajita Varman and freed Cholas
 He defeated Gangas and Pandyas and assumed the title of Maduraikonda.

 Parantak - I
 He defeated the ruler of Pandyas and Sri Lanka
 He was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Krishna - I in the battle of Takkolam.
 Parantak - I got the land surveyed
 His Uttarmerur inscription gives information about the local administration of Cholas.

 Parantak - II
 He is known as Sundara Chola.

 Rajaraja - I - Armolivarmana
 He adopted the policy of iron and blood like his grandfather.
 Victory -
 Chera ruler - Bhaskar Varman - defeated
 Pandya ruler - Arambhujanga - defeated
 Sri Lanka ruler - Mahendra V - defeated
 He attacked Sri Lanka and conquered northern Sri Lanka and destroyed Sri Lanka's capital
Anuradhapura, and named northern Sri Lanka Mamundi Cholamandalam
 Title - Shivapadasekhar, Ravikul Manikya, Mummadi Choldeva Cholamartanda.
 He built Brihadeshwara temple / Rajarajeswara temple in Thanjavur.
 He sent a delegation of his envoys to China.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
202
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Rajendra - I
 He attacked Sri Lanka and defeated its king Mahendra V and conquered entire Sri Lanka.
 He defeated Ganga, Chero, Pandyas and Shailendra ruler Vijayotugvarman.
 He crossed the Ganges and defeated Mahipala and assumed the title of Gangaikondachola.
 He established a new capital named Gangaikondacholapuram.
 He constructed a new pond called Cholagangam.
 He is also called Panditchola.
 His Guru's name was Isanshiva.
 During his time, the Bay of Bengal was called lake of Cholo.

 Rajadhiraj - I
 Chola-Chalukya conflict started

 Kulottung - I
 He defeated Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI.

 Kulottung - II
 He got the idol of Govindaraj situated in Chidambaram temple thrown into the sea, which was
later re-installed by the famous Vaishnav saint Ramanujacharya.

 Rajendra - III
 He was the last Chola ruler.
 During the Chola period, high-ranking officials were called Perundanam and low-ranking
officials were called Shirundanam.
 Provincial Administration -
 Mandalam - Valnadu (Kottam) - (Nadu - Kurram - Gram)

Administrative system of Chola period

 The most important aspect of Chola culture is its governance system, the Chola emperors
created a special governance system in which along with strong central control, there was also
a lot of local administration, which we can see under the following points.

 Emperor –
 The nature of Chola governance was monarchical, all the rights of which were vested in the
king.
 But the splendor of the king increased more than before in the palace.
 The position of the king had been deified, because the Chola kings were worshipped in the
form of statues, for example, the statues of Parantak and Rajendra Chola are found in a
temple in Thanjavur.
 The king was not the creator of the law but the protector of social rules and order, he
always worked in consultation with the royal gurus.
 The emperor often chose the crown prince during his lifetime.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
203
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Administrative officers

 There was a well-organized official system to run the Chola administration. The central
officers were divided into two categories - Perundanam (high officer), Shirundanam (lower
level officer).
 There is also mention of an officer named Udankuttam, who always stayed with the king.
According to Neelkanth Shastri, the work of Udankuttam was to maintain harmony
between the king and other officers.
 In place of salary, the officers were given land plots. These posts were hereditary.

Provincial administration

 The Chola empire was divided into provinces. The provinces were called Mandalam, which
was usually governed by the prince.
 The ruler of Mandalam had his own army and courts. There was a central officer in each
Mandalam, whose job was to keep an eye on the provincial administration.
 Mandalam was divided into Valnadu Kottam and each Valhadu had several Nadus
(districts). The institution of Nadu was called Nattar. Whose job was to collect land
revenue.
 Nadu was divided into Kurram (group of villages).
 The smallest administrative institution was gram.

City administration

 In the trading cities, there was an assembly of traders called 'nagaram'.

 The trading shrenis were recognized by the state, and those shrenis also kept their own
army for their security.

Revenue administration

 The main source of income of the state was land revenue, land revenue or rent was called
Kadmai.
 Land revenue was 1/3 of the total production, it was taken in cash or grain form. Apart
from land tax, the Chola rulers also increased their income from trade tax and looting in
the nearby areas.

Military organization

 The king was the head of the military organization, the army lived in Gulya and
cantonments (Kadagam), the leader of the army contingent was called Nayak and the army
chief was called Mahadandanayak.

(NOTE: Cholas laid special emphasis on the navy.)

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
204
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Justice and punishment system

 Local corporations used to do the work of justice, in the Chola records there is mention of
justice committees, which are called ‘Nyayatar’, the final court of justice was the king’s
court.
 The punishment system was lenient, like – in addition to heinous crimes, the punishment of
economic punishment or social humiliation was given for other crimes.
 The death penalty was usually given by crushing under the feet of an elephant.

Rural Administration of Cholas

 The main feature of the Chola Empire situated in South India

Gram Sabha
was their local administration. We get information about this
from the Uttarmerur inscription of Parantaka-I.
 The village was a complete unit of self-governance, in whose
administration there was no interference of the king. The Ur Sabha/Maha Sabha
villagers themselves administered it through committees.
 All the villagers participated in the assembly of ordinary villages.
 The working committee of the ur was Alunganam or Ganam.
 Its main functions are tax collection, construction of ponds and gardens etc.

 Mahasabha/Sabha

 Learned Brahmins of Brahmadeya/Agrahara village participated in it.

 Their working committee was called 'Variyama'. These were committees made up of elected
members.

NO Major Variyam Work Department Members

1- Totta Variyam Garden Committee 6 Members
2- Erivariyam Pond Committee 6 Members
3- Ponnavariyam Gold Committee
4- Samvatsara Control and supervision of various committees 12
Variyam Members
5- Udasina Monitoring relations with other villages (foreign relations)
Variyam
6- Koyila variyam Monitoring the work of temples

 Election process and qualifications

 According to the records, the members of the Variyam were elected.

 Each village was generally divided into 30 wards called Kudumbas and the election ballots
were called Kuduvolai.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
205
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 The members were generally elected for 1 year whose qualifications were -
1. People aged between 35 to 70 years
2. Who owns land (more than 1/4 Veli or one and a half acres of land).
3. Who knows the Vedas or its commentary.
4. Who has a private residence.
 There were also some disqualifications for the members of the committees.
1. Who has been a member of any committee in the last 3 years.
2. Who has not given the details of income and expenditure as a member to his department.
3. If convicted of serious crimes, he will be disqualified.

Dravidian style

 The style of temple construction that developed in South India is called Dravidian style.
 The development of this style began in the Pallava period, which reached its peak in the Chola
period.

 Development of Dravidian style

 The Pallava rulers are credited with freeing architecture from cave and wood art.
 Four styles of architecture developed under the Pallava rulers.
 The first two styles, Mahendravarman and Mahamalla style temples were built by cutting the
mountains.
 And the Rajasingha and Aparajita style temples were building temples or free-standing
temples.

 Mahendravarman style

 This style developed during the reign of Pallava king Mahendravarman.

 In this style, mandaps were built by cutting the mountains. These mandaps were simple
pillared verandas, with one or more rooms built in the back wall.
 They had a grabagraha at the back. The idol of Linga was installed in the grabagraha of the
ShaivA Mandap and the idol of Vishnu was installed in the grabagraha of the Vaishnav
Mandap. The idols of gatekeepers are found outside the Mandap temples at the main entrance.
 Examples- Panchapandava Temple in Pallavaram, Trimurti Mandap Temple in Mandagapat,
Varaha Temple, Mahendravishnu Grahamandap Temple in Mahendrawadi etc.

 Mamalla Style
 This style developed during the reign of Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman-I. In this style, along
with Mandapa type temples, Ratha type temples also developed. In Ratha type temples,
monolithic chariot shaped temples made by cutting natural rocks were called Ratha Temples.
 Example- Rath Temple of Mahabalipuram -
 Dharmaraj Ratha Temple, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakul-Sahdev, Draupadi Ratha Temple and
Ganesha, Pidari, Balayakuttai Rath Temple are the prominent ones.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
206
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Largest chariot temple - Dharmaraja Rath Temple

 Smallest chariot temple - Draupadi Rath Temple
 Except Draupadi Rath Temple, the remaining seven temples are called Sapta Pagoda Temples.

 Rajasingh style

 This style was developed during the time of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II (Rajasingh).
 In this style, temples were not built by cutting mountains but with the help of stones and bricks
like a free form (building) temple.
 In the Rajasingh style, all the features of the Dravidian style like courtyard, gopuram, pillared
mandap, vimana etc. will be seen.
 Example: Kailash Temple in Kanchipuram and Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram.

 Nandivarman style/Aparajita style

 This style developed during the reign of Nandivarman-II.
 Relatively small temples were built in this style, among which Mukteshwar Temple and
Matangeswara Temple located in Kanchi are prominent.
 Pillared mandap and circular shikhara are found in these temples.

Feature -

 First of all, a rectangular base (platform) is constructed for the temple.

 There was a square room at the base, in which the idol of the main deity was installed, which
was called Garbhagriha.
 Statues of fearsome gatekeepers were usually made at the entrance of the grabagraha.
 A pyramid-shaped structure was built on the top of the grabagraha, which was called Vimana.
 The pillared roof in front of the grabagraha was called Mandapa.
 The entire temple was surrounded by four walls, the door made for entry in which was called
Gopuram.
 A pond/reservoir was also constructed in the temple.
There was a crescent-shaped or crown-like structure on the top of the Vimana, which was
called Shikhara, small urns were made on the top of the Shikhara.

Development of education in ancient India

 Since ancient times, education has always been accepted as a great necessity for material and
spiritual upliftment and proper discharge of various responsibilities in India.
 Since the Vedic era, education has been considered the source of light, which illuminates
various areas of human life and gives it the right direction. It is also mentioned in the
Mahabharata that there is no eye like knowledge and no other penance like truth.
 In ancient times, contemplation, thinking and logic were considered the main means of
education. The Kshanbhangavaad, nairatmyavada of Buddhism and Syadvaad of Jainism were
based on the method of logic.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
207
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

 Later, Nyaya mentioned in Shaddarshan is a special form of logic. In the view of ancient
Indians, education is a means of all-round development of man, but here education could not
be acquired only from bookish knowledge, that is why it is said that even a scholar of
scriptures is a fool, if he has not acquired proficiency as a person of action.
 The main objective of education was to build, preserve and propagate character and to
inculcate devotion and religiosity.
 In the ancient era, education was of two types, technical education and spiritual education.
Technical education was passed on from father to son. Apart from this, various shrenis and
craft organizations used to spread technical education.
 The basic education was spiritual. Its objective was personality development. In this education,
special emphasis was laid on the development of mental ability, because it was believed that
mental ability is essential for higher knowledge.
 Patanjali is considered to be the psychologist of ancient India. Patanjali has described five
types of mental states, Kshipta, Vikshipta, Mudhachit, Ekagrachit and Niruddha Chitta.
Patanjali has considered Niruddha Chitra to be the state when the brain becomes free from
various tendencies and comes in a state of acquiring spiritual knowledge.
 The graduates of this era were expected to be proficient in Vedas and 18 crafts. The main
eighteen crafts were singing, playing instruments, painting, mathematics, administrative
training, military training, serpentology, etc.
 Well-cultured women were expected to be proficient in cooking and painting, music and
sewing-embroidery. Gurukul was the main educational institution.
 In this, students used to stay away from their homes at the Guru's house and receive education.
After the Upanayan ceremony, the stage of Brahmacharya Ashram came when the boy left
home and entered the Gurukul.
 Apart from education, he also had to do some practical work, such as animal husbandry and
begging. Probably, through animal husbandry, they were introduced to the importance of
animal products.
 Students were kept in Gurukul so that the character and behavior of the Guru had a direct
impact on the minds of the students.
 Some associations and councils were also working for higher education and research work.
 Brahmin associations have been discussed in the Rigveda. Similarly, in the Panchal region,
there was an educational council which was known as Panchal Parishad.
 It included scholars like Aruni and Uchalak. It is believed that a female scholar like Gargi was
also included in it.
 In ancient times, information is also available about many important universities for higher
education.
 Some of these universities developed from Buddhist monasteries, while some developed
independently.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
208
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Nalanda

 Nalanda, near Patna in Bihar, became the main Buddhist Sangharama (Vihara) centre of
education in the north.
 The source of our information about Nalanda in the sixth and first half of the seventh century
AD is the famous Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. He stayed in Nalanda for three years and
another Chinese traveller Itsing spent 10 years in the Vihar there in the latter half of the same
century. The accounts of these Chinese travellers show that there were one thousand monks
and students in Nalanda in that era.
 During Itsing's time, the number of students studying in this school in India was about three
thousand. Students from China and South-East Asia also used to come to Nalanda for studies.
 Excavations done in Nalanda show that there were well-planned monasteries and temples
there. Nalanda University was run by the income of villages donated to the Buddhists. Thus,
most of the facilities for teachers and students were obtained from the income of the villages.
 Students came here not only from different parts of the country but also from outside the
country. The teachers used to stay in the guest house. The teachers, famous for their
scholarship, used to talk to the students and in this process they used to get information about
the mental qualities, behaviour and lifestyle of the students.
 The daily routine in both the university and the guest house was very systematic and regular.
Everyone was informed about the time with the help of a water clock.
 The total number of teachers and students in Nalanda was ten thousand, out of which 8500
were students and 1500 were teachers. In the time of Hieun Tsang, Sheelbhadra was the
president of Nalanda University. Before him, Dharmapala of Kanchi was on this post, who had
been the teacher of Sheelbhadra. After Sheelbhadra, Dharma Kirti became the president.
 At that time, education was given in Nalanda in all the subjects and fields of acquiring
knowledge. The subjects were of both types - Brahmanical and Buddhist, religious and secular,
philosophical and practical, science and art, etc. But in reality, Nalanda focused more on the 18
sects, Vedas and other scriptures, Hetu Vidya, Shabda Vidya, Atharva Veda, Sankhya and
Sanskrit grammar etc. as well as Mahayana.
 Degrees were awarded after completion of studies. Degrees were given on the basis of both
merit and social status. It is said that the library was spread over a vast area and was given a
poetic name.
 The Dharmanan library had three large buildings, namely Ratnasagar, Ratnodadhi and
Ratnaranjak, of which Ratnasagar was nine storeyed. It housed manuscripts and rare works
such as Pragyaparamita-sutra etc. Nalanda was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1197-1203
and the entire institution was burnt down.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
209
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

Vallabhi

 Vallabhi, located at a place called 'Bala' in the Kathiawar region of Gujarat, was a famous
centre of education and culture in western India where there was a university of the stature of
Nalanda. This city was founded by the Maitraka dynasty ruler Bhattarka. It was the capital of
the Maitraka dynasty.
 Vallabhi became a famous commercial and educational centre in the seventh century. Hiuen
Tsang describes the prosperity of this city. According to him, there were one hundred Buddhist
monasteries here in which about 6000 Hinayana monks lived.
 Vallabhi was the main centre of education of Hinayana Buddhism. Students from different
parts of India came here to receive education. It was a centre of higher education. Itsing tells us
that scholars from all countries used to gather here and used to determine the truth of various
theories by debating them.
 The teachers here used to teach the students for two or three years and in this period the
students became great scholars. Kathasaritsagar tells us that even the Brahmins of Antarvedi
(region of Ganga) used to send their children to Vallabhi for higher education.
 Vallabhi University was famous for its tolerance and intellectual freedom. Along with
Buddhism, there was also a good system of higher education in subjects like justice, law,
communication, literature.
 Itsing tells us that graduates from here were appointed to administrative posts. This was
possible only when secular subjects were also included in the curriculum apart from religion.
 In the middle of the seventh century, the main teachers of the university were Sthirmati and
Gunmati. The writings of Dharsen I show that he had built their residence and from this place
later they went to Nalanda University.
 Like Nalanda, the names of the scholars of Vallabhi were also written in white letters as
Vishwavidyalaya.

Vikramshila

 Situated in Bhagalpur district of Bihar, Vikramshila has been an education centre of

international repute just like Nalanda.
 The Mahavihara of Vikramshila was established by the Pala king Dharmapala (775-800 AD).
He built temples and monasteries here and generously donated to them.
 There were 160 Viharas and many rooms for lectures. Dharmapala's successors continued to
provide it state patronage till the thirteenth century. As a result, Vikramshila remained an
international university for more than four centuries.
 There were six colleges in Vikramshila University. Each had a central room and 108 teachers.
The central room was called 'Vigyan Bhavan'. Each college had an entrance gate and a gate-
keeper sat at each entrance gate. Admission of a student to the college was possible only after
being tested by the gate-keeper.
 The special subjects of study in the university were grammar, logic, Mimamsa, Tantra,
legalism etc. Thus, the curriculum here was not as extensive as that of Nalanda.
 Among the Acharyas, the name of Dipankar Shrigyan is most notable, who was the Vice
Chancellor of this university. He was a scholar of Hinayana, Mahayana, Vaisheshika and tarka

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
210
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by
 Powered by

shastra and a great writer of Tibetan Buddhism. In the twelfth century, Abhayankar Gupta
was the Acharya here. He was a great scholar of Tantraism.
 He wrote many books in Tibetan and Sanskrit. Among other scholars, the names of Gyanpad,
Vairochan, Rakshit, Jetari, Ratnakar, Shanti, Gyanshree, Mitra, Ratnavajra, Tathagata, etc.
are famous. In the twelfth century, about three thousand students used to study here. Most of
them were from Tibet.
 A special guest house was built in the university for the accommodation of Tibetan students.
There was also a rich and huge library here. To manage the university, there was a council
under the supervision of the chief Sanghadhyaksha whose members used to perform various
administrative tasks like initiation of newcomers, arrangement of servants and their care,
supply of food and fuel, allocation of monastery works etc.
 The educational system was run by a committee of six Dwarpandits. This committee also had a
chairman. Later, the administrative council of Vikramshila University started looking after the
work of Nalanda University as well. We do not know about the duration of the course of
Vikramshila University. It is only known that the graduates here were awarded degrees by the
Pala rulers after studying.
 In 1203 AD, the Muslim invader Bakhtiar Khilji demolished Vikramshila University mistaking
it for a fort. The monks were killed en masse and the books were burnt. At that time the Vice
Chancellor of the University was Shakya Sribhadra. He somehow escaped with some of his
followers and fled to Tibet. Thus the end of the glorious educational institution was sad.

Indore: 3rd Floor, Sundaram Complex, Bhawar Kuan Indore (M.P.) cont. us 9893442214,
211
7970002214
Gwalior: Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near SaiBaba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.)
Cont.7524821440,7000360672Powered by