Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization (2024) 18:1825–1856

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-023-02287-8

REVIEW PAPER

Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest

shelf‑life of citrus fruits
Nishant Kumar1 · Ashutosh Upadhyay1 · Shruti Shukla2 · Vivek K. Bajpai3 · Marek Kieliszek4 · Ajay Yadav1 ·
Vighnesh Kumaravel5

Received: 1 August 2023 / Accepted: 13 November 2023 / Published online: 22 December 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Citrus is one of the most widely grown fruits globally, because of its remarkable organoleptic features, nutritional content
and bioactive ingredients. Microbial spoilage and other factors such as physiological disorder, mechanical and physical
damage, and fruit senescence are the major factors of postharvest loss to citrus industry. The postharvest losses in citrus
are directly have negative impcats on the economy, environment and healths due to production of carbon emission gases.
The fungal pathogens such as Penicillium digitatum, Penicillium italicum and Geotrichum candidum are the major cause
of postharvest spoilage in citrus fruits. These pathogens produce different mycotoxins such as citrinin, patulin, and trem-
orgenic. These mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds; they employ toxic effects on the healths. The acuteness of
mytoxin on toxicity is dependings on the extent exposure, age and nutritional status of individual. The toxicity of mytoxins
are directly related to the food safety and health concern including damage DNA, kidney damage, mutation in RNA/DNA,
growth impairment in childs and immune system etc. Several attempts have been made to extend the shelf-life of citrus fruits
by controlling physiological decay and fungal growth which has got limited success. In recent years, nanotechnology has
emerged as a new strategy for shelf life prevention of citrus fruits. The biopolymer based nano-formulations functionalized
with active compounds have shown promising results in maintaining the postharvest quality attributes of fruits and vegetables
by retarding the moisture loss and oxidation. This review exclusively discloses the postharvest losses in citrus fruits and their
causes. In addition, the use of biopolymer based nanoformulations functionalized with active agents and their developing
technologies have been also discussed briefly. The effects of nano-formulation technologies on the postharvest shelf life of
citrus is also described.The finding of this review also suggest that the natural biopolymers and bioactive compounds can
be used for developing nanoformulations for extending the shelf-life of citrus fruits by minimizing the fungal growth and
as an alternatives of fungicides.

Keywords Citrus fruits · Physiological disorder · Nano formulatons · Blue and green molds · High pressure
homogenization

3
* Ashutosh Upadhyay Department of Energy and Materials Engineering,
ashutosh@niftem.ac.in Dongguk University, 30 Pildong‑Ro 1‑Gil, Seoul 04620,
Republic of Korea
* Marek Kieliszek
4
marek_kieliszek@sggw.edu.pl Department of Food Biotechnology and Microbiology,
Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life
1
Department of Food Sciences and Technology, National Sciences—SGGW​, Nowoursynowska 159 C, 02‑776 Warsaw,
Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship Poland
and Management, Kundli, Sonepat, Haryana 131 028, India 5
International Center for Research On Innovative Biobased
2
Department of Nanotechnology, North-Eastern Materials (ICRI‑BioM)—International Research Agenda,
Hill University (NEUH), East Khasi Hills, Lodz University of Technology, Stefana Żeromskiego 116,
Shillong, Meghalaya 793022, India 90‑924 Łódź, Poland

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Vol.:(0123456789)
1826 N. Kumar et al.

Introduction citrus origin of fruits and their postharvest management

by using nano-formulation. The review also congregates
Postharvest losses and food safety of horticulture produce the information about the technologies i.e., high pressure
are the major concern for the developing countries; par- homogenization, ultrasonication, microfludizer etc. used
ticularly in terms of economic value [1]. Citrus is non- to develope nano-formulations enriched with natural active
climacteric fruits; considered as one of the major pro- ingredients i.e., plant extracts, essential oils etc. and their
duced and exported fruit genera worldwide (more than effects on shelf-life of citrs fruit. In addition, the natural
100 countries), specially grown in China, Brazil, America, plant-based materials such as plant extracts and essential
etc. [2, 3]. Citrus cultivation covers approximately 11.42 oils could be considered as alternatives of fungicides at
million hectares, with a total production of 179 million commercial scale.
tons production of citruis fruits. In 2017, the produc-
tion of different citrus fruits such as oranges (73.3 mil-
lion tons), mandarins (33.4 million tons), lemons (17.2 Post harvest issues
million tons), grapefruits (9.5 million tons), and others
(13.5 million tons) were recorded [4]. China is the lead- Citrus fruits, unlike climateric fruits (e.g., apple, pear,
ing country for the production of citrus fruits with (82.7 tomato, and melon,), lack a ripening associated increase in
million tons) annually followed by Brazil (18.14 million respiration and ethylene generation. Generally, citrus fruits
tons) and India (1.053 million tons) respectively [4–7]. have long shelf-life when compared to other tropical fruits,
Generally, citrus fruits are grown for consumption and but if not handled and stored properly during post-harvesting
processing, mainly to produce juice. According to [2, 8], they will become unfit for marketing and consumption. In
76% of juice oranges consumed worldwide; which gen- developing countries, postharvest losses might reach 30% of
erates economic benefits and employment. The citrus total production and 50% in less developed countries [10].
fruits are highly acknowledged by the consumers owing The higher oxidation and transpiration are the main causes
to their taste, flavor, aroma, and health benefits. It is an for higher deterioration effects, loss of nutritional value
excellent source for nutrients, ascorbic acid (Vitamin-C), and firmness, and appearance in citrus fruits. These factors
phenolic compounds, hydroxycinnamic acid, flavonoid influence the higher moisture loss and respiration rate of
compounds, anthocyanins, and other bioactive compounds fruits and vegetables, which are resposble for the microbial
which leads to improving antioxidant, antimicrobial activ- degrartion [14].
ity, retarded of cardiovascular disease and cancer risk [9,
10]. The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, neu- Physiological disorder and diseases incidence
roprotective, and cardiovascular protective properties of of citrus fruits
the citrus fruits mainly due to the presence of bioactive
compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, ascorbic Postharvest losses in citrus fruits are caused by improper
acid, ferulic acid, naringin, hydrocinnamic acid, cyaniding handling and storage factors including physiological disor-
glucoside, alkaloids, limonoids, coumarins, carotenoids, ders, mechanical, and physical damage, rot, and fruit senes-
essential oils, and others [11–13]. Various species of the cence. These factors are also responsible for degrading the
citrus genus have been grown globally such as oranges, quality of fresh fruits and are unsuitable for consumption
bergamot orange, mandarins orange, tangerines, lemons, due to oxidations thereby casing food wastage. Generally,
limes, grapefruits, pummelos, citrons, kumquats, clyme- the mandarins have the shortest shelf-life among the citrus
nia, desert lime, ginger lime, hyuganastu, kabosu, kawachi fruits; it has 15–30 days of shelf-life at ambient conditions.
bankan, koji orange, mangshanyegan, round lime, satsuma, [15–17] recommended temperature 5–8 °C with 90–95% of
sudachi and other hybrid varieties [7, 10]. The properties relative humidity to preserve the postharvest shelf-life of
and chemical compsoitions in citrus are varied accord- mandarins for a longer period. Table 1 summed up the rec-
ing to the varieties and species. For example; mandarians/ ommended conditions and shelf-life of citrus-origin fruits.
ornage/kinnow fruits are rich in vitamin C, antioxidants, Moreover, 30–50% of postharvest losses of citrus fruits
dietary fibers, fibers, potassium, flavonoid and tangeretin; genus have been accounted due to physiological disorder,
grapefruits exhibited higher antioxidants, anthocyanins higher respiration rate, and water transpiration; these causes
and vitamin C; pummelo/shaddock had good amounts are mainly dependent on the inadequate storage temperature
of vitamin C, antioxidants, fibers, and flavonoids; lemon and relative humidity or other environmental conditions [10,
posses vitamin C, flavonoid and antibacterials activity 18]. Approxmately, 20 different types of postharvest diseases
etc. [11]. In the present review, authors have briefly dis- are responsible for the spoilage of the citrus fruits. Fungal
cussed about the postharvest physiological problem in pathogens are the principal cause of wastage of citrus fruits
and economic losses by deterioration effects [19, 20]. The

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Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus… 1827

Table 1  Storage conditions and Citrus commodity Temperature (°C) Humidity (%) Shelf-life (Week)
shelf-life of citrus fruits [18, 37]
Mandarins and tangerines
Satsuma 1–3 80–85 12–18
Clementine 3–4 85–90 4–6
Nagpur 6–7 90–95 6–8
Dancy 5–6 90–95 2–5
Sweet orange 5–6 85–90 4–8
Shomouti 5–6 85–90 8–12
Valencia (Fla. & Texas) 0–1 85–90 8–12
Kinnow/Coorg 4–5 85–90 8–12
Valencia (Calif. & Arizona) 3–9 85–90 4–8
Naval 5–7 85–90 6
Mosambi 5–7 90–95 12
Sathgudi 5–7 90–95 12
Grapefruit 10–12 85–90 6–8
Pummelo 8–9 85–90 10–12
Lemons/Limes
Dark green lemons 13–14 85–90 16–24
Light green lemons 13–14 85–90 8–16
Yellow lemons 13–14 85–90 3–4
Tahiti limes 9–10 85–90 6–8
Maxican dark green limes 9–10 90–95 10–12
Maxican yellow limes 8–9 90–95 8–12

microbiological spoilage is considered the primary cause for during harvest and postharvest handling often triggers citrus
the spoilage of the horticulture produces, they reduced the fruit’s high sensitivity towards physiological abnormalities
quality and safety of the produced by increasing respiration, such as brush burn, zebra skin, and oleocellosis in the peel,
oxidation, enzymatic activities, weight loss, and suppression which are induced by rind abrasion, hard handling, or thorn
of ethylene production [21]. Furthermore, fungal and mold punctures [35, 36].
growth in citrus fruits poses serious threat to humans due to
production of prolific mycotoxins such as citrinin, patulin,
and tremorgenic compounds [22–24]. Among fungal patho- Conventional and alternative management
gens P. digitatum, P. italicum and G. candidum are the major strategies for improving shelf‑life
cause for the spoilage and are responsible for postharvest
disease incidence in citrus fruits and economic losses as well Postharvest management strategies such as cold storage,
[2, 25]. P. digitatum is responsible for the 90% postharvest modified atmosphere packagings (MAPs), controlled atmos-
losses in citrus fruits [2, 26]. Both Penicillium molds are phere packaging (CAP), thermal, non-thermal edible coat-
wound pathogens that infect citrus fruits via rind wounds ing, and nanoemulsion and nano-based formulations are
and produce spots on the fruit surface after 2–3 days due to required to improve the shelf-life and postharvest charac-
physiological and storage conditions [27, 28]. There are very teristics of citrus fruits [38, 39]. Nowadays, consumer pref-
few studies available on the infection mechanism of P. itali- erences have been shifting towards eco-friendly solutions as
cim; they do not produce any secondary metabolites [29]. alternatives to synthetic and plastic-based packaging, includ-
In addition, another important fungal pathogen is known as ing edible coating to ensure food safety and quality of fresh
Guignardia citricarpa which causes black spot/sour rot dis- citrus fruits with higher shelf-life and organoleptic charac-
ease in citrus fruits [30, 31]. The pathogenicity of G. citri- teristics. The conventional packaging system provides better
carpa in citrus fruits is due to the secretion of extra-cellular gas and water barrier properties but they directly affected the
endo-polygalacturonases; which are responsible for the rapid environment by emission of green house gases and human
breakdown of tissues and cause postharvest diseases [32]. health due to its non-biodegrabale nature and may acute
Similarly, Alternaria species such as Alternaria citri are toxicity. Citrus fruits have a mechanism that is very similar
responsible for the black rots in citrus fruits and cause post- to oxidative stress, and an edible coating/formulation could
harvest problems [33, 34]. Moreover, mechanical damage be a great way to reduce oxidative stress and extending the

13
1828 N. Kumar et al.

postharvest shelf-life of citrus fruits [40, 41]. Various types Fusarium sp., Mycelial and Botrytis cinerea in citrus and other
of treatments such as irradiation (UV, X-rays, gamma, hot horticulture produces.
water treatment, organic and inorganic salts, biocontrol
agents, nanomaterial’s, nanoemuslions, natural plant-based Role of nanotechnology
products, and edible coating can be used to reduce the blue
and green mold in citrus fruits [2, 28, 42]. The use of fungi- Currently, nanotechnology is considered as an economically
cides for postharvest treatment of citrus fruits has increased viable tool to extend the shelf-life of fresh foods. Owing to
in the last decade; posing environmental and health risks their higher surface area per mass compared to larger parti-
due to their remaining traces on the fruits’ surfaces and non- cles opens up a new avenue for developing more stable and
biodegradable nature. The concept of edible packaging is an biologically active nanoformulations to extend the shelf-life of
alternative to overcome the use of chemical and synthetic fresh foods. It is one of the promising technologies for devel-
fungicide for the postharvest treatments of citrus fruits [6, oping nano-formulations to extend the shelf-life of fruits and
36, 43, 44]. In this regard, the biopolymer-based materials vegetables while also delivering active ingredients like col-
such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipid, wax, essential oils, orants, flavoring agents, antimicrobial agents, preservatives,
and nano-particles can be used to develop nanoformulations and nutraceuticals [94–97]. The nanomaterials and nano-for-
for extending the shelf-life of food products such as fruits mulations are more potential to extending shelf life of fruits
and vegetables, dairy, bakery, meat, and meat products, etc. and vegetables due to nano size range, which influenced the
These formulations can be used alone or in combination with mechanical, thermal, barrier and anti-microbial properties
each others [45–53]. edible packaging. The use of synthesis technologies in nano-
In addition, numerous plant-derived natural and active technology is showed good intermolecular interaction between
agents such as terpenoids, alkaloids, phenolic acids, aldehydes, biopolymers and active agents, which influenced the proper-
essential oils, plant extracts, organic compounds of micro- tis of packaging materials and maintain postharvest quality
bial origins, and animal-derived compounds can be used for attributes of fruits and vegetables. The various additives such
incorporation in nano-formulations to extend the shelf-life of as silver nitrate (Ag), gold (Au), zinc (Zn) copper (Cu), tita-
horticulture produces while maintaining their physico–chemi- nium di-oxide ­(TiO2) and othernanoparticles (NPs) have been
cal and organoleptic characteristics [21]. The primary goal used in nano-formulations for extending shelf-life of various
of developing edible formulation as a postharvest technology foods [98]. Generally, the NPs described as colloidal and solid
around the world is to preserve the quality attributes of cit- particles with 10–100 nm of size; below 100 nm size of NPs
rus fruits while reducing postharvest losses between harvests showed excellent antimicrobial acivity [99, 100]. In recent
to consumption [20]. The natural active materials i.e., plant year, silver nanoparticles have been received more attenstion
extracts, essential oils, phenolic compounds, and others phy- due to its antimicrobial activity and application in food pro-
tochemicals such as α-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol, linalool, and cessing sector [94, 101–103]. According to [34], the use of sil-
limonene essential oils (EOs) [54], citral [55, 56], citronellal, ver nitrate nanoparticles has the potential to reduce the growth
carvacrol, thymol [57], hermal extracts [58, 59], trans-anet- of green and blue molds in citrus fruits during storage and
hole, anise oil, cuminaldehyde, perillaldehyde [60], flavonoids, extend shelf-life. Therefore, the use of silver nitrate has nega-
alkaloid, saponins, terpenoids, tannis, polyphenols, anthocya- tive impacts on the nervous sytem and gastrointestinal tract.
nin, essential oils [61–70], punicalagin [71], cinnamic acid, On other side, the use of food grade ­TiO2 nanoparticle is safe
cinnamaldehyde [71, 72], carnosic acid, carnosol, hispidulin for the consumption on daily basis is 0.2–0.7 mg/kg of body
[73], tannic acid [74], thymol, carvacrol, geraniol, eugenol, weight per day throughout the life [104]. ­TiO2 nanoparticle
octanal, citral essential oil [69, 75–78], garlic [79], neem [80], recommended for the use in food by the United States Food &
Withania somnifera L., Acacia seyal L. [62], mustard, radish Drug Adminstration (1966) due to its non-toxic in nature with
[81], chilli pepper, ginger extract [82], limonene, β-linalool, good antibacterial activity and film forming ability [105]. It
α-terpineol, citral, octanal, [30, 83, 84], plant extracts (Cistus has excellent ability to extending the shelf-life of food products
villosus, C. siliqua, and H. umbellatum, Cistus L. species) [85, by producing excellent barrier properties against gas and water
86], garlic, neem, mint, basil leave extracts [87–89], Anvillea transpiration, reduced particle size of the food packaging and
radiata, Thymus leptobotrys, Asteriscus graveolens, Bubonium microbial load [106–108].
odorum, Ighermia pinifolia, Inula viscosa, Halimium umbel-
latum, Hammada scoparia, Rubus ulmifolius, Sanguisorba
minor and Ceratonia siliqua [90] and eugenol [23, 91–93] Approaches to developing nanomaterials
are good agents for incorporation in formulations; which act
as antifungalactive agents and help to reduce the growth of The different types of methods can be used to synthesize
Penicillium digitatum, Penicillium italicum, Aspergillus niger, the nanoparticles to obtained nanoformulations using two
approaches such as bottom up” and top–down” approaches

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Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus… 1829

Fig. 1  Schematic of methods for the synthesis of metal-based nanoparticles [109–121]

(Fig. 1). The top-down methods is a destructive approach barrier properties against water and gas transpiration which
for the synthesis of nanoparticles; in this the bulk materials resulted to extending shelf-life of produces by retarded respi-
reduction in components using a nanometric scale [109]. In ration rate, control ethylene production, reduced weight loss,
case of bottom-up method (productive method), the nano- microbial contamination, and maintained firmness and other
materials are synthesized from elementary level. These postharvest characteristics, which make it acceptable in mar-
approaches include methods of nanoparticles synthesis such ket [45–47]. The concept of edible coating was started with
as sol gel method [110], chemical vapor deposition [111], application on citrus fruits (ornages and lemon) in twelfth
spinning [112], pyrolysis [113], biological synthesis (bacte- and thirteenth century in china to extending the shelf-life
ria, fungi, yeast, viruses, plants) [114–116], thermal decom- using wax-based materials. The first commercial wax coat-
position [117], mechanical milling [118], nanolithography ing was introduced in 1930 for pears and apples [49, 122].
[119], sputtering [120], and laser ablation [121] methods. Various types of matrix or biopolymers such as polysac-
charide (cellulose, starch, chitosan, pullulan, pectin, algi-
nate, carrageenan, and others), proteins (corn, casein, soy
Next generation formulations: blending protein, whey protein, wheat gluten, rice bran, and keratin,
of nanotechnology and conventional etc., and lipid wax/oils) are used to develop biodegradable
approaches edible coatings /to extend the shelf-life of food products;
these components can be used alone or in combination to
Nanobio edible coating develop edible packaging [123–125]. The plasticizers (glyc-
erol, sucrose, sorbitol, propylene glycol, fatty acid, polyeth-
The edible coating as an eco-friendly approach may hold ylene glycol, and monoglycerides) and emulsifiers [poly-
promise to shelf-life extension of horticulture produces sorbates (tween), soy lecithin, ester of fatty acids, ethylene
while maintaining food safety and quality [38]. In addition, glycol monostearate, fatty acids, sucrose esters, and sorbitan
the edible/nano coating is safe for consumption, biodegrad- monostearate] are also used to improve the mechanical and
able/biocompatible in nature with antioxidant and antimi- physical properties of the edible packaging; these materi-
crobial actions. It also acts as carrier of active ingredients als act as carriers of food additives such as antioxidants,
to improve the functionality of coating materials as well as colorants, flavors, nutraceuticals, nutrients, antimicrobial
fruits and vegetables [48, 49]. Nano bio coatings possess and antifungal agents for improving the properties of edible

13
1830 N. Kumar et al.

packaging as well as food products by decreasing intermo- secondary metabolites and other volatile compounds [145,
lecular force between the matrix and additives [36, 48, 49, 146]. Owing to their antimicrobial, antioxidant proper-
126–132]. Plasticizers are low molecular weight components ties, EOs can also extend the shelf-life of food products.
and polar in nature. The edible coating/film maintained the In recent decades, essential oils among the natural prod-
integrity of the food products and protect from mechanical, ucts were extensively used as stabilizers, antimicrobial
physical, biological, textural properties and oxidative stress and antioxidant agents to incorporate into food products
[133–137]. It is also effective in barrier environmental mois- and packaging materials [147]. In food sectors they can
ture, aromas, flavor, gases, water, and oxygen barrier proper- be used in alcoholic & non-alcoholic beverages, gelatins,
ties [124, 133]. Numerous researchers have been examined sweet, soft drinks, milk & dairy products, ice-cream,
the postharvest shelf-life and physiochemical attributes of soft drinks, baked foods, cakes, and candies as flavor and
citrus fruits using edible formulations for example; [138] stabilizer agents to enhance the organoleptic and phys-
was improved the shelf-life of orange fruits using forultions icochemical properties; on other hands, they can be also
of edible coating i.e., chitosan, locusts bean gum comprised used in pharmaceutical sector to improve the taste and
with pomegranate peel extract by reducing the growth of P. flavor of drugs [145, 148]. In vivo and in vitro experi-
digitatum molds. The sodium alginate, citric acid, sucrose ments indicated that the EOs is effective against the food
formulations with or without Ficushirta fruit extract were borne pathogens [146]. Previously, the antifungal activity
also found effective to reduce the decay incidence, weight of the essential oils such as (citrus, cinnamon, lemongrass,
loss, respiration rate, and enzymatic activities of ‘Nanfeng’ thyme, oregano, tea, cumin, birch, and bergamot) against
mandarin fruits during the storage period [139]. The anti- the citrus pathogens (P. digitatum and P. itallicum) has
oxidant activity of the ‘Nanfeng’ mandarins was improved been confirmed through in vivo and in vitro studies [36,
by stimulation the accumulation of phenolic contents and 149]. Generally, EOs are environmentally friendly, non-
defense enzymes such as SOD, PPO, POD, CAT, CHI toxic, and biodegradable in nature; they are generally rec-
and PAL, etc. On the other side, the clay-chitosan formu- ognized as safe (GRAS) for human consumption and are
lation was also found potential to reduce the growth of P. frequently employed in postharvest citrus fruit manage-
digitatum in ‘Thomsan navel’ oranges [140, 141]. Youssef ment as antifungal agents, as well as edible coatings and
and Hashim [142] has applied different formulations and formulations [150, 151]. The use of EOs in edible coat-
treatments on citrus fruits for improving their postharvest ing and formulations is considered an effective technique
shelf-life by reducing the activity of fungal pathogens; the to prevent the postharvest decay and quality attributes of
essential oils such as cinnamon oil & eucalyptus oil, cal- fruits and vegetables as well as other food products by
cium chloride, bavistin, paraffin wax, paraffin wax + bavistin minimizing phenomena of lipid oxidation or they can also
(0.1%) formulations were applied. The paraffin wax-based be used to reduce or replacethe usage of chemical and
formulation with bavistin was found effective to extending synthetic additives [146, 152]. Various technologies and
the shelf-life of citrus reticulata blanco fruits up to 73 days methods such as liposome, polymeric particles, ultra-son-
by minimizing postharvest decay incidence and diseases. On ication, nano-emulsion, and solid-lipid nanoparticles have
other side, the treatment of 1-MCP was also found effective been used to incorporate or encapsulate the EOs in the
to control the growth of blue mold rot, supressed ethylene food matrix and edible packaging [148, 153, 154]. These
production and postharvest pitting [143, 144]. Evidently, it techniques coud improve the stability and efficiency of EO
has been proved that the biopolymer based edible coating, in the matrix by reducing the interaction between unstable,
composite, and nano-formulations with addition of nanopar- volatile compounds and external factors.
ticles, essential oils, and other natural source such as plant As per the European council (EC) regulation no.
extract, antioxidant, antimicrobial and antifungal agents are 1907/2006, should be stands on the improving protection
potential to extending the shelf-life of citrus fruits by main- of human health and the risk of environment degradation
tain their physiochemical & postharvest characteristics and by reducing the use of chemical and substances. The frame-
retarded the growth of blue and green molds during storage work EC 1935/2004 amended as 2023/2006, covers all
conditions. the primary materials comes in to food contact including
active materials, adhesives, ceramic and plastics materials.
Nanoformulations based on essential oils (EOs) Whereas, the plastic food contact materials (EC 10/2011)
stated that, the materials should be nano forms as per speci-
Essential oils (EOs) are natural plants products can be fication of Annex-I of the regulations to avoid the migration
extracted from plant sources and are utilized as preserva- of substance. Therefore, EU 450/2009 stated that, the addi-
tives, flavorings, and stabilizers in the food and pharma- tion of active agents in nanoformulations for food packag-
ceutical industries. The essential oil possesses antimicro- ing applications able to release or absorb substance in food
bial, antioxidant, antifungal activities due to presence of packaging [155].

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Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus… 1831

Several researchers have incorporated various types of edible packaging as well as food products due to molecular
EOs such as Thymus capitatus [156], sunflower [157], citral interaction between natural antioxidant and biomaterials.
and eugenol [158], cilantro & coriander [159], clove & clove Previous studies confirmed that the addition of tea extract
bud [160, 161], Ziziphora persica [162], cinnamon, palma- in gelatine based edible film established the hydrogen bonds
rosa, lemongrass [163–169], nettle [170], thymol [171, 172], with base materials to reduce free hydrogen. On other hand,
viride [173], anethum graveolens [174], mentha [175], oreg- [196] reported that the water barrier property of the edi-
ano [176–179], lemon [180, 181], nigella sativa [182], rose- ble film could be reduced by incorporation of plant based
mary [181], neem essential oil, and moringa oil [183–186] natural extract. Some researchers reported that the edible
as an active agents in edible coatings and films to shelf life coating enriched with plant extract or natural antioxidant
extension of fruits and vegetables. The addition of essential agents help to improve the postharvest characteristics and
oils in biopolymer based nanoformulations influenced the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables by reduction of weight
flavor and aroma of the fruits and vegetables help in control loss and respiration rate [197, 201, 202]. Similarly, addition
release, which improving or maintaining the antimicrobial of plant extract such as propolis [197, 203], clove [204],
and antioxidant effects for longer period. Many researchers rosemary [205], ginger, ginger tea, grape seed, ginko leaf
reported that the nanoformulations based on EOs are novel [199, 202, 206], pomegranate peel [45–47, 125, 207–209],
methods to extending the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables tartary buckwheat extract [210], olive leaf extract [211],
by improving their postharvest characteristics [187]. For cocoa (leaf and pod) extract [212], curcuma [198], beetroot,
example, Rizzo and Muratore [148] reported that the incor- carrot [194], ginseng [196], moringa oleifera extract [213,
poration of essential oil with packaging materials improved 214], borage extract [195], pineapple fruit: peel, pulp and
the UV barrier and biological activity, and increased surface core etc. Bitencourt [201] as natural antioxidant agents to
hydrophobicity of the food packaging; that resulting in the improve the properties of edible coating in different types
extending shelf-life of food products due to release of anti- of fruits and vegetables. The antioxidant and antimicrobial
oxidant and antimicrobial agents. The combination of eco- potential of these plants extracts; results mainly from bioac-
friendly packaging with essential oils extracted from natural tive compounds such as phenolic and flavonoids compounds
sources and agro industrial waste are a sustainable approach and their additives, antagonistic and synergistic effect; they
in food packaging and processing sector [188, 189]. Never- also help to provide strong free radical scavenging activity to
thelss, essential oil has been reported by several studies as protect the food from microbial load and free radicals [192].
a potential inhibitor of postharvest infections and molds, The natural extracts as active agents can be incorporated in
however there are few reports on the use of lemon grass, edible packaging directly, encapsulation using wall materi-
clove, neem oil, and eucalyptus oil on mandarins (citrus) als and through nanoparticles [215]. It is well documented;
[184]. Nowadays, the food packaging industries facing the the citrus origin fruits can be affected by the green molds
challenges related to negative impact of essential oils on the (P. digitatum) and blue molds (P. italicum); they are respon-
natural flavor of the fruits and vegetables, which reduced sible for cause postharvest decay and disease incidence in
consumer acceptability. Therefore, the masking of unpleas- citrus fruits [2]. The plant extract in combination with an
ant aroma of the essential oils should be control using dif- edible coating could operate as a light barrier, preventing
ferent types of masking techniques such as use of hydrocol- ascorbic acid degradation and controlling color browning
loids, blending of essential oils and emulsifiers etc. in citrus fruits by inhibiting the growth of blue and green
molds [216]. The use of plant extract and natural bioactive
Nanoformulation based on plant extracts compounds extracted from plant sources are potential alter-
natives to solving the problems of food processing industries
The use of chemical and synthetic antioxidant has been by replacing traditional packaging, chemical and synthetic
barred by the regulatory bodied due to their health effects additives used for color and flavour [217]. The plant extracts
[190, 191]. Recently, scientists have focused on natural improved the properties such as antioxidant, phenolic activ-
sources, such as plant extracts, as antioxidants and antibacte- ity, anti-browning, and antimicrobial activity of the edible
rial agents to use in active edible packaging to improve food packaging as well as extending postharvest shelf-life in cit-
quality and integrity [192, 193]. Plant extracts from fruits rus and other fruits and vegetables [218–221] due to improv-
and vegetables are used as natural bioactive compounds as ing barrier, mechanical and biological properties of edible
antioxidant additives in the food and pharmaceutical indus- film and coating [215, 222–227]. The incorporated extract
tries [194]. Many studies have revealed that incorporation of of Ficus hirta fruits with sodium alginate and clove extract
natural plant extracts in biopolymer based edible packaging with carboxy-methyl cellulose were found improved shelf-
exhibited excellent antioxidant activity and reduced UV light life of ‘Nanfeng’ mandarin and ‘Xinyu’mandarin by enhanc-
transmission [194–200]. The incorporation of plant extracts ing the free radical scavenging activity and defence enzymes
as antioxidant agents influences the functional properties of [139, 228]. The incorporation of Ficus hirta fruits extract

13
1832 N. Kumar et al.

improved the antimicrobial activity of material to control significantly extending the shelf-life of kinnow mandarins
blue mold on mandarins. Similarly, the citrus fruit (Xinyu during storage at 4 °C and 10 °C for 120 days. The nano-
tangerine) shelf-life was extended by using chitosan based formulation has the potential to considerably improve post-
edible coating enriched with fruit extract of Ficus hirta Vahl harvest properties by inhibiting the growth of total aerobic
[229]. These results showed that the integration of natural psychrotrophic bacteria, yeast and molds. Table 2 summa-
extract of Ficus hirta Vahl fruits with chitosan coating was rizes the information about previously used nanoparticles to
found to be efficient in reducing the growth of the fungus developing nanoformulations and their effects on postharvest
strain P. italicum in citrus fruits during cold storage (5 °C). characterstics and shelf-life of citrus fruits.
The coating also activates the activity of defence enzymes The nanosystem is generally used for functional modifica-
or maintains postharvest quality of citrus fruits. Chen et al. tion of formulations that integrate to form polymeric nano-
[230] reviewed and concluded that the use of natural plant particle, nano emulsion, solid lipid nanaoparticle, nanofibers
extract (neem extract, oregano extract, clove extracts etc.) and others [96]. Techniques such as high energy emulsifica-
as herbal coating is a sustainable approach to extending the tion and low energy emulsification can be used to develop
shelf-life of fresh produce by improving their physicochemi- the nano-formulationnano-formulations [245–249]. The
cal and organoleptic characteristics. Similar to essential oils, high energy emulsification techniques include high energy
the incorporation of higher amount and concentration of homogenization; ultra-sonication and microfludization [98,
natural plant extract can impart bitter taste and off flavour 250–254] are potential to form nanoemulsion with nano size.
of the edible coating; which can also impair the acceptabil- In addition, the combined nanotechnology and essential oils
ity of fruits and vegetables [40, 130, 231]. Based on the significantly improved the antifungal activity of nanofor-
previous literature, it can be concluded that the inclusion of mulations and poetntail in control release mechanism. This
higher amounts of plant extracts and bioactive compounds mechanism improved the antifunla activity and stability of
can affect the organoleptic properties of the citrus fruits. The the matrix for longer period and their application resulted
strategies for stabilizing phenolic and bioactive compounds higher quality attributes in fruits and vegetables for longer
extracted from plant sources in edible packaging for release period. Figure 2 shows the scientific representation of high
control of bioactive compounds from food packaging system energy techniques such as high-pressure homogenization,
should be optimized for citrus origin fruits [232, 233]. ultrasonication, and microfludization for developing nano-
formulationnano-formulations. These techniques of emul-
Antifungal properties of nanoformulations sification help to generate the nanoparticles, influencing
zeta potential, and poly-dispersity index of the formula-
The antifungal activity of T­ iO2 nanoparticle against Peni- tions; which resuls in droplet size of nanoemulsion [223,
cilium in edible coating and film has been reported by [234]. 255, 256]. The high-pressure homogenization process can
Moreover, ­TiO2 has higher tendency to form aggregates and be used to yield droplet size of nano emulsion up to 1 nm.
lower capacity to homogeneously disperse in organic media The microfludization process considered as efficient tech-
[108]. On the other hand, [235] reported that the incorpora- niques for developing nano-formulation. For example; [257]
tion of silver NPs in CMC and guar gum nano-formulations reported that the microfludization technique produced the

Table 2  Applications of nanoformulations—as a fungicide for inhibition of fungal growth of citrus fruits
Nano-formulations Fungus References

40 mg of Limonin + 4 g eugenol + 1 g paraffin oil + tween 80 (1%, m/v) P. italicum [236]

Cu2O (copper (I) oxide; cuprous oxide + Chitosan P. italicum and P. digitatum [237]
Silver nitrate (AgNO3) + fungal biomass P. italicum [238]
0.02 M Silver nitrate (­ AgNO3) + leaf extract of Centella asiatica Macrophoma theicola B1 [239]
Silver nano particles ­(AgNO3) A. citri [89]
Copper (Cu) and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles P. digitatum and P. italicum [240]
Copper (Cu) nano-particles P. digitatum and Fusarium solani [241]
Zinc oxide (ZnO) Alternaria alternata [242]
Ag-zeolites P. digitatum [98]
Silver nitrate (­ AgNO3) A. alternata, P. digitatum and A. citri [34]
Panomycocin (exo-beta 1,3 glucanase) P. digitatum and P. italicum [243]
Silicon dioxide (­ SiO2)/Silver sulfide (­ Ag2S) nano-particles Aspergillus niger [244]
Titanium dioxide ­(TiO2) nanoparticles P. expansum [234]

13
Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus… 1833

Fig. 2  Schematic of high-pressure techniques for nano-formulations

nano size of fish oil powder emulsion in the range between nano droplet size of the formulations by disrupt their particle
(210–280 nm). In case of ultra-sonication process; it is size [262]. On other hand, the strawberry fruit shelf-life was
considered as very reliable techniques to developing nano- extended using Chitosan based nano-formulationnano-for-
formulationnano-formulations using sonicator probe. Fur- mulation enriched with lemon essential oil; prepared using
thermore, the low energy emulsification techniques include single pass of microfludization at 165 MPa [180]. Similarly,
phase inversion [252], spontaneous emulsification [250], [263] also developed chitosan-based nano-formulationnano-
solvent evaporation [258], and hydro gel technique [259]. formulation using ultra-sonication techniques at 60 °C for
Recently, the application of nanotechnologies has been 30 min to extending the shelf-life of loquat fruits. The high-
drastically increased to extending the post harvest shelf-life pressure homogenization and ultra-sonication technology
of the fruits and vegetables. In addition, the high pressure was used to formulated capsaicin nanoemulsion added with
technologies such as high pressure homogenization, ultra- tween 80 as surfactant; the nano-formulation size was below
sonication and microfludization improved the encapsulation 65 nm and it also showed potential antimicrobial activ-
efficiency of the active agents by intermolecular interac- ity against E. coli and S. aureus [264]. Akbas et al. [265]
tion between biopolymers and active agents and resulted in also produced ginger essential oil-based nano-emulsion
reduction particle size of the matrix with improveing higher using microfludization technique to develop gelatine-based
stability, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The sev- nanoformulation.
eral researchers have used the high-pressure techniques Several researchers have developed chitosan-based
such as homogenization, sonicator, and micro-fluidization nano-formulationnano-formulation using curcumin [266,
to developing nano-formulations for extending the shelf-life 267], gelatin-gum arabic based nano-formulation with
of fruits and vegetables for example; [260] improved the incorporation of jasmine essential oil [268], resveratrol
poly-dispersity, zeta potential and reduce the nano droplet and curcumin in grape seed oil [269], incorporation of
size of chitosan-based nano-formulation using ultra-sonica- polyphenolic compounds in polymeric nanoparticles
tor (300W, 60 °C per second). [270–274], and cassava-based nano-formulations enriched
The size of flax seed oil and surfactant-based formulation with lycopene [275]; these nano-formulations exhibited
was reduced below 70 nm using high intensity ultrasonica- excellent antioxidant an antimicrobial activities. Another
tion [261]. The increasing time of ultrasonication is directly side, the researchers also incorporated various types of
dependent on the input energy, which tends to generate the nanoparticles with essential oils such as peppermint [276],

13
1834 N. Kumar et al.

cinnamaldehyde [277], thymol containing EOs of Lippia the materials [251, 284]. On another side, [285] reported
sidoides in chitosan-gum NPs [278], and zein sodium that the combination of ultra-sonication and microfludiza-
caseinate NPs [279], oregano EOs in chitosan nanoparti- tion technologie that significantly improved the emulsifi-
cles [280] to develop nano-formulation for the application ying and thermal stabilit of the pectin; also exhibited the
as edible coating and packaging materials for food com- good encapsulation efficiency of the vitamin ­D3.
modities [281]. For example, [282] improved the antibac-
terial and antifungal activities of the essential oils (eugenol
& cinnamaldehyde) based on nano-formulations against
Salmonella and Listeria using poly (d, l-lactide—co-gly- Effects of edible nanoformulations
colide) nanoparticles. On the other hand, liposome-based on postharvest shelf‑life of citrus fruits
nanoparticle with Origanum dictamnus essential oil was
exhibited to controlling the growth of gram positive and Various researchers have investigated the use of edible
gram-negative microbes [283]. On basis of the scientific formulations based on biopolymers with natural plant
evidences, it can be concluded that the nano-formulations extracts, essential oils, and nanoparticles as antioxidant
containing essential oils and their derivatives are highly and antimicrobial agents on citrus fruits at various storage
potential to reduce the microbial load. The outcomes of conditions; they reported that edible formulations have the
the previous studies also showed that the high-pressure potential to extend the postharvest shelf-life of citrus fruits
technologies such as microfludization and ultra-sonication while maintaining overall physicochemical and organo-
are superior and effective technologies for the developing leptic quality attributes (Fig. 3). Table 3 summarizes the
nano-formulationnano-formulations compared to conven- previous applications of edible coating/formulations and
tional homogenization by distribution of particle size of their effects on shelflife extensions of citrus fruits.

Fig. 3  Functionality of coating formulations on citrus fruits

13
 Table 3  Shelf-life of citrus fruits influence by edible nanoformulations as postharvest treatments
Nano-formulations Citrus Effects of nano-formulationnano-formulations and key References
findings

Paraffin wax (50%, 75% and 100%), mustard oil, aloe vera, Mandarins Different concentrations of paraffin wax (50%, 75% and [286]
turmeric paste 100%), mustard oil, aloe vera, turmeric paste based
edible coating was applied. 75% of paraffin wax-based
coating was most effective to improve storability and
postharvest quality attributes of mandarins throughout
the storage period at 18 °C up to 21 days
Bee wax, coconut oil Lemon The formulations of coconut oil and bee wax (90:10) and [287]
(80:20) were effective to prevent the shelf-life of lemons
under MAP and ambient (21 °C, RH-50%)
Aloe-vera gel, paraffin wax, starch (4%), tragacanth (4%) ‘Sweet’ orange The lower reduction in weight loss (5.83%) and maximum [288]
recovery of juice were recorded in paraffin wax coated
oranges; minimum shrinkage (4.27%) was found in corn
starch treated oranges, The minimum disease index was
recorded in oranges treated with tragacanth gum-based
coating followed by aloe vera and corn starch
Chitosan, Guar gum, Gum acacia + plant extract of C. Oranges Gum acacia based edible coating enriched with Choero- [289]
axillaris spondiasaxillarismethanolic extract was most effective
to extending the shelf-life of oranges during storage at
25 °C for 30 days by maintained higher quality attributes
in oranges
Rhamnolipid + Aloe vera gel ‘Agege Sweet’ orange The different formulations of aloe vera gel (0–2.5%) [290]
and rhamnolipid (0–2.5%) were prepared and applied
on orange. 2% Aloe vera and 2% rhamnolipid based
Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus…

formulation was most potential to significantly control

the decay and microbial load (Penicillium digitatum) in
oranges during the storage period for 8 weeks at 25 °C.
Furthermore, the 2% treatment was also efficient to
reduce the microbial load of
Salicylic acid + Aloe vera gel ‘Thomson Navel’ oranges Treatment of salicylic acid (SA) and aloe vera (AV) gel [291]
(2 Mm SA; 30% AV; 2 Mm SA + 30% AV) was effective
to maintain the quality attributes of orange fruits during
the storage at 4 °C for 80 days
Sagez (4, 8 & 12%) and zein (4, 8 & 12%) Sweet lemon The the composite edible coating of zein and sagez was [292]
significantly more potential to prevention quality of lime
fruits during storage period at 5 °C (RH = 70%) through-
out the 90 days of storage period
Hydroxy-propyl methyl cellulose and bee wax + GRAS Ortanique (mandarins) and Barnfield oranges The coating containing GRAs salts was found effective [293]
salts Ammonium carbonate, potassium sorbate & car- to reduced weight loss, maintained physicochemical
bonate and quality attributes of citrus during storage compared
to control. Furthermore, after storage of 21 days and
42 days at 5 °C and 7 days at 20 °C

13
1835
 Table 3  (continued)
1836

Nano-formulations Citrus Effects of nano-formulationnano-formulations and key References

findings

13
Carnauba wax + organooclay ‘Valencia’ oranges The nano-formulationnano-formulation based on carnauba [294]
wax and nanoclay (1%) significantly maintained higher
organoleptic properties, color, aroma, flavor and overall
acceptability, retarded weight loss and respiration rate
throughout the storage period for 56 days at 4 °C
Carnauba wax + (2%) mononitrile nano-clay, (0.5%) ‘Blood’ oranges The prepared nano-formulationnano-formulation was [295]
orange peel essential oils effective to preserving the freshness, appearance as well
as shelf-life of oranges during the storage at 7 °C for
100 days
Cinnamaldehyde–chitosan (Cl–CH) Cl–CH based coating significantly slow down the degra- [6]
dation of sugar contents, reducing water loss, disease
incidence, maintained fruit quality, improve antioxidant
activity and defense enzymes in ‘Naval’ oranges during
storage at 10 °C for 120 days with 80–90% relative
humidity
Pea starch, Guar gum + shellac ‘Valencia’ orange The pea starch and guar gum based edible coating with [296]
addition of shellac and oleic acid was applied on ‘Valen-
cia’ orange as single layer and double layer and storage
at 5 °C and 20 °C for 4 weeks. The edible coating pre-
pared with composition of pea starch + guar gum + shel-
lac was more potential to prevention of nutritional and
quality attributes of oranges
Gelatin (5%, 6%, 7%), persian (3.5%, 4%, 4.5%), shellac ‘Valencia’ orange All the treatments were applied to improve postharvest [297]
(9%, 10%, 11%) characteristics of ‘Valencia’ oranges at 5 °C up to
60 days. All the treatments were found effective but
shellac wax based edible coating was more potential
to improving firmness, appearance without off odor as
compared to other treatments
Chitosan-clay nano-composite and fogger wax ‘Thomson’ oranges The oranges coated with Chitosan-clay based nano- [140]
composite was most effective to retention of higher
color, firmness, pH, moisture and other quality attribute
compared to other treatments and control samples during
storage at cold temperature (6 °C) with 85–90% of rela-
tive humidity
CMC + clove oil ‘Xinyu’ mandarin oranges The CMC based edible coating enriched with clove oil as [228]
antifungal agent significantly reduced the decay percent-
age, maleic dialdehyde (MDA) content and weight loss
of treated ‘Xinyu’ mandarin oranges during storage at
5 °C for 120 days compared to control samples
N. Kumar et al.
 Table 3  (continued)
Nano-formulations Citrus Effects of nano-formulationnano-formulations and key References
findings

Sodium alginate and locuts bean gum + yeast (Wicker- ‘Valencia’ oranges Both the bio-based edible films enriched with W. anom- [298]
hamomyces anomalus) alus were potential to preserving the quality attributes
and postharvest shelf-life of oranges throughout the stor-
age period by reducing weight loss, maintain firmness
and inhibition (more than 73%) against green molds such
as Penicillium digitatum in synthetic medium
Chitosan + clove essential oil Citrus The chitosan-based coating enriched with clove essential [299]
oil was showed antifungal activity against green mold
(Penicillium digitatum) and inhibited growth of mycelial
in citrus fruits
Chitosan, acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM), β-aminobutyric Lemon (Femminello),Orange (‘Valencia’, ‘Tarocco Scirè’ Chitosan based treatment significantly reduced the decay [300]
acid (BABA) and ‘Washington Navel’), Grapefruits (Marsh Seedless) in citrus fruits at 1000 mmoL of concentration (12–16%
disease incidence). The ASM based coating did not
found effective. Chitosan and BABA treatments were
recommended for the citrus fruits to inhibit the posthar-
vest decay and microbial load
Carnauba wax (Aruá Tropical® and Star Light®) Ortanique (Tangor) citrus The treatment of commercial Aruá Tropical® and Star [301]
Light® wax coating was found effectual to maintain the
apperance and freshness of the oranges
Chitosan, Chitosan + essential oils (bergamot, thyme oil, ‘Navel Powell’ orange The coating treatments were potential found to reducing [302]
tea tree oil) weight loss, maintain firmness, TSS, pH, acidity, color
and reduced rate of respiration and microbiological loads
of oranges fruits throughout the cold storage period.
Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus…

Chitosan based edible coating enriched with trab tree oil

was most effective to reduction of fungal growth (50%)
as compared to control
Chitosan (glycol), funcicide, sodium carbonate Oranges ans lemons (green/yellow) The chitosan-chloride (0.025%) concentration was found [303]
effective to inhibited spore germinations of Botrytis
cinerea, Penicillium expansum, and Candida saitoana.
The glycochitosan (0.5%w/v) was also found to potential
inhibitor against Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum
but not inhibited growth of Candida saitoana. The 0.2%
glycolchitosan combination with C. saitoana
Chitosan, citral Lime fruit The blend formulation of chitosan (6 and 8 g/L) and citral [304]
(4 and 5 mL/L) was most effective to reduced the disease
incidences and reduced the growth of Geotrichum can-
didum of lime fruits
Commercial coatings (StaFresh series and Carnauba ‘Tomango’ oranges citrus The commercial coating StaFresh and Carnauba Tropical® [64]
Tropical®) + essential oil of L. scaberrima, Mentha enriched with essential oils were effective maintained
spicata and Lippia scaberrima, pure (d)-limonene and quality attributes of ‘Tomango’ oranges during storage
R-(−)-carvone period by retarded the growth of fungal strains ‘Penicil-
lium digitatum’ in oranges

13
1837
 1838 N. Kumar et al.

Physiological loss in weight (PLW)

References

[305]

[306]

[307]

[308]
The weight loss in the citrus fruits during storage are the
The higher concentration (5%) of bee wax along with 0.5% major cause for unacceptability and food waste; the respira-

inoculation of Candida saitoana was effective to control

quality attributes by reducing weight loss, maintain TSS,

and valencia oranges during the storage period by delay-

ing maturity index, reducing decay incidences, ripening,
tion and transpiration of the water content is main reason for
decay of oranges throughout the storage period as com-

found potential to extending the shelf-life of mandarins

acidity, pH and protection against moulds (Penicillium
of benlate formulation was best in terms of prevention

The active agent of chitosan biolpolymer (Biorend) was

minimize PLW, and reduce ding the growth of molds

Effects of nano-formulationnano-formulations and key

The coating formulation of (0.2%) glycolchitosan with

weight loss, which can be determining by changing the water
The preaperd formulation improved the shelf-life and
vapor pressure between environment and fruits [309]. The
use of edible coatings on citrus fruits reduced weight loss
pare to other treatments and control samples

by slowing down the rate of respiration and water exchange

digitatum and Penicillium italicum) through transpiration [287, 294, 296, 310–313]. The main
objective is to reduce the physiological loss in weight of
citrus fruits to maintain their postharvest quality attributes
and consumer acceptability [134, 314]. Several studies have
found that using edibles with natural plant extracts, essential

the deacy incidences

oils, nanoparticles, and other bioactive compounds as active
ingredients can reduce physiological weight loss in citrus
fruits by slowing respiration and lowering water loss [34,
139, 228, 235, 286–288, 315]. Barsha et al. [302] reduced
findings

weight loss of ‘Navel’ oranges by coating them with a Chi-

tosan-based edible coating supplemented with bergamot
thymes oil, tea tree oil, and lowering water transpiration and
respiration rate during storage at 25 °C. The pectin-based
Oranges (Valencia, Washington Naval, pineapple, Ham-

edible coating with incorporation of essential oil (0.5%,

1.0%, and 1.5%) has been used for extending the shelf-life of
‘Valencia’ orange [316]. The application of commercial wax
was used as an edible formulation which was found effective
Fortune mandarins, ‘Valencia’ oranges

to minimze the respiration rate and water transpiration which

resulted lower mass loss in citrus fruits [317].

Total soluble solids (TSS)

lin), Eureka lemons
‘Blood red’ oranges

TSS expressed the presence of carbohydrate content in

fruits and vegetables. During the storage conditions of
fruits and vegetables, the TSS content has been increased
due to hydrolysis of carbohydrate and conversion into sugar,
Oranges
Citrus

High TSS is a result of higher respiration rate, microbial

contamination, and ethylene biosynthesis [47, 318]. The
edible coating is an effective way to maintain the TSS of
Chitosan + amino acid + calcium + bicarbonate + antibiot-

the citrus fruits during storage condition due to controlling

Chitosan: Biorend(R) (active molecules of chitosan)

respiration rate and metabolism of sugar into organic acids

[319], which resulted in minimizing the electrolytic leakage
of the citrus fruits. The biopolymer based edible coating
functionalized with natural plant sources such as essential
Bee wax (1%, 3%, 5%) + 0.5% benlate

oil, plant extract, phenolic and bioactive compounds etc. are

potential to prevent the increasing TSS by reducing weight
loss, respiration rate and ethylene biosynthesis [286, 287,
290, 297, 320]. The various researchers have scientifically
proved that the application of biopolymer-based formula-
Table 3  (continued)
Nano-formulations

tions could be potential to maintained the TSS of citrus

Chitosan (glycol)

fruits for example; “Newhall” naval orange TSS maintained

by using CMC based active and non-toxic formulations dur-
ing storage period at 5 °C [321]. The wax-based commer-
ics

cial formulation enriched with citral and octanal was found

13
Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus… 1839

potential to maintained TSS of citrus fruits at 25 °C storage on citrus fruits leads to control respiration rate and mini-
condition [55, 322]. mized ethylene biosynthesis of citrus fruits during different
storage conditions; which is resulting to maintain fiemness,
Titratable acidity/pH color attributes and other postharvest characteristics of citrus
fruits for longer time [296, 310, 312, 328]. Numerous studies
Acidity is one of the most important features that indicate have reported that the edible coating could restrict the gas
the taste and quality of citrus fruits [323]. Furthermore, exchange and ethylene biosynthesis [329–331]. The previous
the pH of the fruits and vegetables indicated the acidic and studies confirmed the aptness of the edible coating on citrus
basic nature of the fruits and vegtables; which is always fruits for example; Velásquez et al. [317] reported that the
in the opposite direction of acidity [45]. The pH of fruits HPMC-lipid based edible composite coating enriched with
is a direct result of free hydrogen ions, and acidity is the food additives was reported potential substitute for citrus
method through which hydrogen ions are released [324]. The commercial wax as antifungal and non-toxic formulation to
biopolymer-based edible formulation contains essential oils, improving the storability and appearance of citrus fruits.
plant extract, antioxidant agents and nanoparticles are the The efficiency of essential oil (0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) with
effective approaches to mainteinedthe acidity and pH of the pectin-based edible coating was found effective to extend-
citrus origin fruits during the storage period due to reducing ing the shelf-life ‘Valencia’ orange at 23 °C by maintaining
the accumulation of organic acids and their conversion in the postharvest characteristics, minimize lipid-oxidation
respiratory substrates in TCA and glycolysis cycles [45, 286, and weight loss. Several researchers have applied different
290, 291, 297, 301]. The various researchers have reported types of edible coating and nano-formulations such as bee
the scientic evidences on these aspects for example; [226] wax, coconut oil [287], carnauba wax + organooclay [294],
reported that the application of polysaccharide (cactus) chitosan + essential oils (bergamot, thyme oil, tea tree oil)
based edible coating maintained higher acidity of the citrus [302], sodium alginate + extract of Ficus hirta fruit [139]
fruits (kinnow mandarins) during storage. Similarly, [321] and nano-particles based formulations [236, 237]; and such
also maintained the acidity of the ‘Nehwall’ orange using treatments were found effective to control the respiration
formulation of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with Impa- rate and ethylene biosynthesis of citrus fruits during storage
tiens balsamina extract at 5 °C with 90–95 relative humidity. periods. These treatments are also effective to reduce the
Similarly, the ‘Navel’ oranges acidity was also maintained decay incidence, weight loss, reduced microbial/fungal load
by [325] using chitosan-cinnamaldehyde based edible coat- and enzymatic activities of citrus fruits during.
ing at 10 °C throughout the storage period by reducing the
losses of fructose, citric acid, and glucose contents. This Color
might be possible due to creation of barrier properties by
edible coating between surface of citrus fruits and storage Color is an important factor for visual appearance of the
environment. Furthermore, the lipid-based nano-formula- fruits and vegetables; it is first preference of the consumers
tionnano-formulation enriched with nanoclay and essential to choose the fruits and vegetables for consumption [327,
oil of orange peel was also found effective to controlled deg- 332]. Generally, the color browning is a result of degra-
radation of titratble acidity of blood orange as compared to dation of chlorophyll content, higher ethylene biosynthesis
control samples [295]. and respiration rate [333, 334]. The enzymatic activity and
granuataions are responsible for browning and reduction of
Respiration/ethylene color properties of citrus fruits [40]. The recent studies have
shown that the edible coating as eco-friendly approach is
The inadequate amounts of ethylene and respiration rate considered to maintain the color attributes of the citrus fruits
are main cause for the degradation of quality attributes and by reducing enzymatic activation, degradation of chlorophyll
shelflife of citrus fruits during storage; they are responsible contents, reducing respiration rate, and ethylene biosynthesis
for color browning, weight loss, deterioration, and off flavor [312, 335]. The shellac and bee wax-based edible coatings
[10, 326]. Additionally, the environmental conditions such enriched with food additives such as potassium sorbate,
as temperature and humidity are responsible for increas- sodium benzoate and sodium propionate and their composi-
ing respiration rate; which increases temperature inside tions have also been applied on Ortanique mandrains [336],
the fruits [287, 327]. Specially, in citrus fruits the ethylene and Clemenules mandrains [337] to extend their shelf-life by
biosynthesis increased the stimulation of chlorophyllase; controlling weight loss, color properties, and other quality
which process responsible for break down pectin methyl attributes at 5 °C and 20 °C respectively. The formulation
esterase and chlorophyll content. The texture quality and containing wax, citral, and octanal was reported potential
color attributes are loss by the breakdown of pectin methyl approach to maintained the color attributes of citrus fruits
esterase and chlorophyll contents [287]. The edible coating at 25 °C storage temperature by minimizing enzymatic

13
1840 N. Kumar et al.

browning (polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase), ethylene bio- grape fruits compared to commercial polyethylene wax. The
syntheis and respiration rate [55, 67, 287]. edible coating derived from shellac wax was also reported
to maintain the firmness of oranges by [297].
Firmness
Antimicrobial/antifungal
Firmness is a most important quality attributes of the fruits,
which directly influences the marketing and consumer The microbial spoilage is main factor to reduce the shelf-
appealance; it can be measured using texture analyzer and life and quality attributes of the citrus fruits by increasing
sensory analysis methods [295, 338]. The firmness of the lipid oxidation, ethylene biosynthesis, and higher respira-
any fruits can be degrading by insoluble proteopectin to tion rate. They also produce mycotoxins such as citrinin,
more pectin and pectic acid. Furthermore, in case of cit- patulin and tremorgenic compounds in citrus fruits [21, 22,
rus fruits the degradation of insoluble proteopectin process 24, 343]. P. digitatum and P. italicum are the major mold
is very slow as compared to other climatric fruits [339]. pathogens responsible for postharvest diseases in citrus
Moreover, the edible and non-toxic formulations containing fruits [2, 25]. On basis of the scientific evidence, it has
of plant nautral sources (essential oils, plant extracts, and been reported that the application of edible formulations
antioxidants) and nanoparticles are an alternative and sus- enriched with plant natural sources and nanoparticle could
tainable approaches to extend the shelf-life of citrus fruit by be beneficial in reducing the growth of bacteria and molds
maintained their texture and firmness properties by retarded (green and blue) in citrus fruits in citrus fruits (Fig. 4). The
the respiration rate, weight loss and ethylene biosynthesis addition of active agents such as plant extract, essential
[140, 294, 295, 298, 302, 317, 320, 330, 331, 340–342]. oils and nanomaterisal significantly enhanced the antimi-
Previously, researchers have applied various types of edi- crobial and antioxidant activity of nanoformulations due
ble coating and formulations like bee wax to maintain the to presence of bioactive compounds such as phenolic and
firmness of the citrus fruits. On the other side, Barsha et al. flavonoid content. These bioactive compounds inhibit the
[302] investigated the effects of chitosan coating contain- growth of free radicals, minimizing the oxidation and enzy-
ing bergamot, thyme, and tea tree oil on ‘Naval’ oranges matic activations in citrus fruits during the storage period.
during storage. The coating treatments were found effective In addition, the nano range of biopolymer based formula-
to improving the postharvest quality of oranges at 25 °C. tion compatibale with the active agents and controls their
No significant changes were observed in the development release mechanism for a longer period which resulted higher
of quality parameters of orange fruits throughout the cold antioxidant and antmicrobial agents [296, 312, 344, 345].
storage using coating treatment but reduced loss of physi- [346] reported that the composite edible film developed with
ological weight and firmness was observed. Kaewsuksaeng hydroxypropyl methyl-cellulose (HPMC) and lipid showed
et al. [310] also reported that the application of polysaccha- antifungal activity against P. digitatum and P. italicum in
ride based edible formulations (chitosan/CMC) was more citrus fruits. They also reported the salt such as potassium
effective to maintaind the firmness of citrus fruits such as sorbate, sodium benzoate is also effective against both the
‘Or’ & ‘Mor’ mandarins, ‘Navel’ oranges and ‘Star ruby’ pathogens. Similarly, [320] also investigated the antifungal

Fig. 4  Antifungal postharvest

strategies for citrus fruits [2, 20,
28, 48, 49, 347, 348]

13
Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus… 1841

efficiency of hydroxypropyl methyl-cellulose and lipid com- storage at 5 °C for 35 days by maintain their physicochemi-
ponents (shellac and bee wax) based edible formulations on cal and physiological characteristics.
clementine mandarins, hybrid mandarins and oranges. The The polysaccharide derived biopolymer-based edi-
composite formulation was found effective against green and ble coatings was also reported potential to extend the
blue molds of citrus. The additive sodium benzoate with shelf-life of citrus fruits. For example: the treatment of
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and lipid components was chitosan-based edible coating on naval oranges showed
found to be most the effective strategy to prevent posthar- promosing results [349]. This study found that treating
vest decay of citrus and inhibit fungal pathogens. On other orange fruits with 2% chitosan-based coating reduced
hands, HPMC-lipid based edible coating enriched with disease incidence and lesion diameter when compared to
food preservatives (potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate control fruits treated with a 0.5% glacial acetic acid solu-
and sodium propionate) and their compositions were also tion which is mainly by increasing defense enzyme activ-
applied on ‘Valencia’ orange to retarded the fungal activity ity, inhibiting catalae activity, lowering ascorbate content.
against green and blue molds (P. digitatum and P. italicum) The activity of ascorbate peroxidase of naval oranges was
and extending the shelf-life of oranges at 5 °C for 60 days slightly induced by chitosan based edible coating dur-
by maintained the postharvest characteristics. The HPMC- ing 14–21 days of storage. Furthermore, the inhibition
lipid based edible coating enriched with food additives was activity of chitosan-based coating on naval orange fruits
reported to be an ideal substitute for citrus commercial wax against pathogens was remarkably (P < 0.01) improved at
as antifungal and non-toxic formulation for improving the ambient temperature. The preharvest treatment as spray
storability and appearance of citrus fruits [317]. The HPMC- of chitosan-based coating was also effective to resistance
lipid (shellac and bee wax) based edible coating enriched against gray mold [350].
with food additives such as potassium sorbate, sodium ben- The effects of chitosan-based edible coating with or with-
zoate and sodium propionate and their compositions were out incorporating essential oils on citrus fruits were inves-
also applied on Ortanique mandrains [336] and Clemenules tigated by various researchers. For examples; [302] inves-
mandrains [337] to extending their shelf-life by controlling tigated the effects of chitosan coating containing bergamot,
weight loss, maintaining firmness, visual appearance, colors, thyme, and tea tree oil on ‘Naval’ oranges during storage.
and growth of fungal pathogens. The Ortanique and Clem- The coating treatments were found effective to improve
enules mandrains were stored up to 8 week (5 °C) or 1 week the postharvest quality of oranges at 25 °C. The chitosan
(20 °C) and 30 days (5 °C) or 7 days at 20 °C respectively. coating enriched with tea tree oil was most effective coat-
On other hands, [321] formulated non-toxic formulation ing treatment to reduce 50% microbial growth and decay
using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) enriched with Impa- as compared to other treatments and uncoated. The treat-
tiens balsamina extract as antifungal agents to extending ment of chitosan-based coating could induce the resistance
the shelf-life of “Newhall” naval orange during the storage against black spot disease caused by Guignardia citricarpa,
period at 5 °C with 90–95 relative humidity. The treatment in oranges by regulating the level of hydrogen peroxide,
of developed formulation was found potential to improv- ascorbateglutathione cycle and antioxidant enzymes; also,
ing the appearance and postharvest characteristics of orange potential to inhibit the growth of P. digitatum, P. italicum,
by reducing the weight loss, respiration rate, maintained Geotrichum citri-aurantii, and B. cinerea in citrus fruits
TSS, acidity, ascorbic acid, reduced undesirable effects by during storage periods [31, 340, 341, 349, 351, 352]. El-
minimizing lipid per-oxidation. Moreover, the treatment of Mohamedy et al. [353] reported oligo-chitosan based coat-
CMC + Impatiens balsamina extract based coating was also ing treatment effective against Colletotrichum gloeospori-
found effective to increased free radical scavenger activity, oides in citrus fruits, which is responsible for the sensory
defense enzymes such as peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and nutritional quality of fruits. Oligochitosan treatment also
chitinase and β-1, 3-glucanase respectively. On other side, helps to enhancement of ascorbate, phenolic & flavonoids
“Newhall” naval orange was treated by 95% ethanol-based contents, lignin, hydrogen peroxide and glutathione. Deng
clove extract (100 mg/mL) and stored at 7 °C (90–95% RH). et al. [354] was incorporated Mycoparasite and Verticillium
The treatment of ethanolic clove extract was effective to lecanii in chitosan-based coating to protect the citrus fruits
maintain physiological factors of orange including reduced from green mold at the cellular level. Chitosan based coat-
weight loss, decay rate, maintained TSS, acidity, ascor- ing was found capable to reducing the growth of Penicil-
bic acid content. The activity of defense enzymes such as lium digitatum on citrus fruit. The salicylic gel, aloe vera
superoxide dismutase and chitinase was effectively enhanced gel [291] and carnauba wax coated with mononitrile nano
[321]. This study also suggested clove extract as substitute clay [295] was also reported effective way to maintained the
of synthetic fungicide to extend the shelf-life and storability physico-chemical quality and reduced the microbiological
of naval oranges. The Opuntia cactus-based coating was also load of ‘Thomsan Navel’and ‘Blood’ oranges at 4 °C and
used by [226] to extend the shelf-life of mandrain during 7 °C during storage.

13
1842 N. Kumar et al.

The pectin-based edible coating with incorporation of coating (2000 mg/L). Orange’s treated with the formula-
essential oil (0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) was found effective to tion composed of natural seal, methyl cellulose and yeast
extend the shelf-life of Valencia orange [355], they reported candida (guillermondii) maintain the colony forming units/
that, incorporation of 1.5% of essential oil-based with pec- cm in ‘Valencia’ orange for 3 weeks. The alginate and gellan
tin has potential to extend the shelf-life of orange at 23 °C based edible formulation were found effective to extending
by maintaining the postharvest characteristics, minimize the shelf-life of Fortune mandarins throughout the storage
lipid-oxidation and weight loss. The essential oil applied period by maintaining the quality attributes and organolep-
in a commercial packaging line and oranges were stored tic characteristics [328]. Coating on citrus fruits following
up to 7 days at 25 °C with minimum losses of weight loss a layer by layer (LBL) approach such as using cellulose
(0.9% compared to control ones. Numerous researchers derivatives, methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, car-
incorporated essential oils and applied on citrus fruits to boxymethyl cellulose and chitosan coatings, were investi-
extending their shelf-life for example; [64] applied essential gated, and the results showed that carboxymethyl cellulose
oil (L. scaberrima) as fungicides to prevent the shelf-life as internal layer and chitosan as external layer gave the best
of ‘Tomango’ oranges by maintain the postharvest char- performance for keeping mandarins unaffected from micro-
acteristics. The applied essential oil coating was inhibited bial growth [15]. They also used several formulations of
the growth of P. digitatum. Similarly, the lemon shelf-life carboxymethyl cellulose, with steric acid, oleic acid, glyc-
was extended by using carvacol and thyme essential oil erol, and the results were compared with commercial wax.
by retarded the growth of P. digitatum and P. italicum and The chitosan-based coating enriched with clove essential oil
maintains the postharvest characteristics and visual appear- showed antifungal activity against green mold (P. digitatum)
ance of lemons during the storage period [317, 356]. The and inhibited growth of mycelial in citrus fruits during stor-
incorporation of citral and octanal with the commercial wax age. Shao et al. [299] was also reported that the chitosan
coating was potential reported to extending the postharvest (1%) without addition of clove essential oil is more effective
storability of citrus fruits during the storage period at 25 °C compared to chitosan coating enriched with essential oil for
[55, 67, 357]. They reported that two treatments, having inhibition of mold growth in citrus fruits. Orri mandarins
combination of wax and citral (10 × mfc) and another hav- shelf-life was extended using potato starch based edible
ing combination of wax and octanal (2 × MFC) were effec- formulation enriched with sodium benzoate as antifungal
tive to inhibit the growth of P. digitatum (green mold); also agents. The optimized starch-based formulation signifi-
significantly increased the antioxidant activity and vitamin cantly reduced the growth of blue and green mold such as
C, minimized enzymatic activity, maintained TSS, acidity, P. digitatum, P.italicum and G. citri-aurantii as compared
pH, color of citrus fruits during storage. On other hands, the to control [348].
formulation of essential oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and
commercial wax (shellac, carnauba, paraffin, and polyeth- Sensory characteristics
ylene) were used to control blue and green molds of citrus;
the C. zeylanicum essential oil formulation with shellac and Sensory analysis is a process to evaluate quality attributes
carnauba wax was reported most potential to improve the of the fruits based on their texture, flavor, aroma, and visual
shelf-life and postharvest quality attributes of citrus dur- appearance [359, 360]. It is considered as a key influncer
ing storage at 23 °C compared to other formulations [150]. on consumer preferences to accept or reject fruit produce
This might be possible due to permeable to gas, solubility based on their selectable parameters [361]. The several fac-
of formulation, biocomapatability between wax and essen- tors such as ripening index, respiration rate, climatic con-
tial oil compounds. The nano-zinc oxide-2S albumin protein ditions, water activity, microbiological contamination and
formulation significantly reduced the growth of Candidatus enzymatic activity are known to affect the quality attributes
Liberibacter asiaticus [358]. of the fruits. Thus, the edible coating and nanoformulations
The biobased films made from sodium alginate and locust are the alternative way to be used as packaging or coating
bean gum were found to have the capability to safeguard to citrus fruits to improving their sensory characteristics
Wickerhamomyces anomalus viability while inhibiting P. by maintaining their overall postharvest quality attributes,
digitatum growth. Furthermore, these formulations were reducing microbiological load, weight loss, maintain firm-
applied on ‘Valencia’ orange to prevent their postharvest ness and reducing enzymatic browning [362, 363]. The inhi-
quality attributes by reducing the growth of yeast and green bition of weight loss and respiration rate in cuitrus fruits
mold [298]. Cellulose (methyl, CMC, HPC cellulose) based by using edible/noano formulations significantly reduced
coating treatments are potential to control decay of ‘Pine- the risk of pathogens contamination, enzymatic browning,
apple’ and ‘Valencia’ oranges for first 2–4 weeks at 16 °C utilization of organic acids, PPO/POD and maintained the
temperature condition. The methyl cellulose formulation higher color attributes with retention of freshness and color/
was able to control decay similar to commercial shellac aroma for a longer period during the storage period [45–48].

13
Next generation edible nanoformulations for improving post‑harvest shelf‑life of citrus… 1843

Studies have reported that the edible coating and formula- masking the flavor and aroma of essential oils in the nano-
tions can improve or maintain the sensory characteristics of formulations. Many researchers have reported, essential
citrus fruit by reducing enzymatic browning and microbial oils as potential inhibitors of postharvest pathogens and
spoilage [291, 295]. The citrus (Kinnow mandrain) fruits molds, yet the reports on the use of lemon grass, clove,
postharvest shelf-life was improved using polysaccharide neem oil and eucalyptus oil on mandarins (citrus) are lim-
(extracted from opuntia cactus) based edible coating during ited. The silver nanoparticles are widely used for develop-
35 days of storage period [226]. Based on sensory score ing antifungal formulations to inhibit the growth of blue
and overall quality attributes the higher acceptability was and green molds. In addition, the use of silver nitrate NPs
found by citrus treated with 2% of opuntia cactus polysac- may have negative impacts on the nervous system and
charide based edible coating compare to other treatment and gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, the NPs such as titanium
control samples at end of the storage period. The alginate dioxide ­( TiO 2) have been reported safe for human con-
and gellan-based edible formulations were found effective sumption, which has also shown antifungal activity against
to extending the shelf-life of Fortune mandarins throughout P. digitatum and P. itallicum.
the storage period by maintain quality attributes and organo- Further research should focus on finding biopolymers
leptic characteristics [328]. El-Mohamedy et al. [353] also that are compatible with additives like plant extracts,
revealled that the sensory charactersitics of citrus fruits were essential oils, and nanomaterials, and that improve the
maintained after treating with oilgo-chitosan based coating antifungal activity of coating materials and citrus fruits.
treatment. Similarly, [310] reported that the application of The biopolymers extracted from different types of fruits
polysaccharide-based edible formulations (chitosan/CMC) and vegetables by products such as kernels, seed, and peel
were more effective to maintain the sensory characteris- can be considered as alternatives and sustainable ways
tics such as color, aroma, texture, and visual apparnace of to reducing the cost of coating formulations. The study
‘Or’ & ‘Mor’ mandarins, ‘Navel’ oranges and ‘Star ruby’ on genetic variation on acidity of citrus fruits will also
grapefruits compared to commercial polyethylene wax by explore new area of research for scientific community.
reducing the respiration rate, weight loss, color broening, There are several commercial industries developing the
and microbial load during their storage. coating formulations for fruits and vegetables preven-
tion but they are using different types of fungicides to
avoiding the fungal growth in fruits and vegetables. The
Conclusion and future perspective effects of essential oils such as lemon grass, clove, neem
oil and eucalyptus oil in edible/nano coating on the post-
Being a non-climacteric fruits, citrus has a short shelf- harvest shelf life of citrus fruits needs more elaboration.
life due to higher growth of blue and green molds. The Furthermore, more depth research is required to explor-
edible coating/nano-formulations are the effective and ing and find out natural active agents as an alternative of
sustainable approaches to extend the postharvest shelf- fungicides to reducing the environmental as well as health
life of citrus fruits by retarding mold growths, control effects. Therefore, the control release mechanism, toxicity
respiration rate, ethylene biosynthesis, and weight loss. and masking of unpleasant aroma/flavor of the essential
The nano edible formulations are being developing using oils in nano formulations should be explore in future with
different types of biopolymers as alone and blend with more details.
each other’s. The poor water barrier and gas barrier prop-
erties of polysaccharide and protein based biopolymers
Author contributions NK: Conceptualization, Investigation, Data
are the main disadvantage. Therefore, the composite/ Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing,
blending (binary/ternary) of these biopolymers exhibited Visualization; AU: Resources, Writing—Review & Editing, Visuali-
good properties and potential for shelf life extension of zation, Supervision, Project administration; SS: Writing—Review &
citrus fruits. Furthermore, the plant-based sources such as Editing, Supervision, Project administration; VKB: Writing—Review
& Editing; MK: Visualization, Writing—Review & Editing; AY: Writ-
plant extracts, essential oils, and nanoparticles can also be ing—Review & Editing; VK: Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft.
used to develop antifungal formulations as an alternative
of fungicides for extending the shelf life of citrus fruits Funding The work was funded by The Department of Biotechnology,
by retarded the growth of fungal pathogens. There are Government of India in project entitled “Use of non-toxic nanoformu-
lations for prolonging shelf life and reduction of post-harvest loss of
very limited reports have been available on the masking Khasi mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) of North East India (Grant
of unpleasant aroma/flavor of the essential oils use in the No. BT/PR39789/NER/95/1664/2020)”.
coating formulations for fruits and vegetable applications.
Based on these findings, authors suggested research on Data availability Not applicable.
the different types of masking techniques such as use of Code availability Not applicable.
hydrocolloids, blending of essential oils and emulsifiers to

13
1844 N. Kumar et al.

Declarations grown in Turkey. Food Chem. 107, 1710–1716 (2008). https://​

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Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. 13. X. Lv, S. Zhao, Z. Ning, H. Zeng, Y. Shu, O. Tao, Y. Liu, Citrus
fruits as a treasure trove of active natural metabolites that poten-
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- tially provide benefits for human health. Chem. Cent. J. 9, 1–14
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- (2015). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1186/​s13065-​015-​0145-9
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long 14. M. Ladaniya, Fruit morphology, anatomy, and physiology, in
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Citrus fruit: biology, technology and evaluation. ed. by N.J.
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes Maragioglio (Academic Press, London, 2010), pp.103–124
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are 15. H. Arnon, R. Granit, R. Porat, E. Poverenov, Development of
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated polysaccharides-based edible coatings for citrus fruits: a layer-
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in by-layer approach. Food Chem. 166, 465–472 (2015). https://d​ oi.​
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not org/​10.​1016/j.​foodc​hem.​2014.​06.​061
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will 16. A.A. Kader, M.L. Arpaia, Postharvest handling systems: sub-
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a tropical fruits, in Postharvest technology of horticultural crops.
copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. ed. by A.A. Kader (University of California, Agriculture and
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