The Tydings-McDuffie Act included provisions that maintained U.S.

military presence in the

 The National Defense Act, passed in December 1935, aimed to establish an independent Philippine
military. It called for the creation of a regular army and reserves, with funding for military
development. General Douglas MacArthur played a key role in shaping military policy, receiving a
significant compensation for his advisory position.

Despite the establishment of new governmental departments, political power was unevenly
distributed, leading to instability. Political parties became influential, often sidelining capable public
servants. Social issues persisted, with labor unions advocating for better working conditions and
peasants pushing for land reforms, but the government responded with repression.

However, the U.S. continued its control of the Philippine’s armed forces.

 Philippine Labor Congress: In 1929, the Philippine Labor Congress, a workers' union, aligned itself
with the Red International Organization of Labor Unions, reflecting a growing internationalist
perspective among Filipino labor movements.

 Socialist Party: Pedro Abad Santos, a veteran of the 1896 Revolution, established the Socialist
Party in 1929. Later, on November 7, 1938, this party merged with Crisanto Evangelista's Congreso
Obrero de Filipinas to form the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas. The PKP aimed to secure workers'
rights and promote trade unionism

 Hukbalahap Formation: During the Japanese occupation in 1942, Abad Santos and Luis Taruc
formed the Hukbalahap (People's Army Against the Japanese). This group originated from peasant
resistance to Japanese rule and quickly grew from 500 to 20,000 fighters by 1943. The Hukbalahap
became known for their effective guerrilla tactics against Japanese forces, drawing from the historical
context of landlord-tenant exploitation rooted in the Spanish colonial system.

 Guerrilla Warfare: The Hukbalahap conducted significant operations against the Japanese,
including intercepting supplies and attacking tax collectors. They created training programs based on
Marxist theory, aiming to build a strong ideological and tactical foundation.

After World War II, the PKP shifted from armed struggle to pursuing parliamentary politics. This
transition was marked by a failure to recognize the extent of American influence on Filipino political
leaders, which hampered their efforts.

In the 1946 elections, the Hukbalahap, as part of the Democratic Alliance, won six congressional
seats, campaigning against collaboration with colonial powers and advocating for national
sovereignty. However, President Manuel Roxas later expelled them from Congress on dubious
accusations of cheating and terrorism.

The U.S. recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, but the economy remained heavily
dependent on American interests due to the Bell Trade Act, which tied economic rehabilitation to
compliance with U.S. trade conditions. The political landscape remained stagnant, with increasing
social tensions and little progress toward genuine independence.

Struggle for Sovereignty: Despite the challenges, the Filipino people continued to fight for true
sovereignty and rights, often facing repression from both the government and American interests.
 Sedition Law of 1901: This law was enacted by the Philippine Commission and made it illegal for
Filipinos to advocate for independence from American rule. It served to stifle nationalist movements
and suppress any efforts toward self-governance, labeling such advocacy as "seditious." This law
effectively criminalized political dissent.

 Flag Law of 1907: This legislation prohibited the display of the Philippine flag, symbolizing a
further attempt to undermine national identity and pride. It sought to suppress any expressions of
Filipino nationalism.

The widespread adoption of American standards and lifestyle created a mindset among Filipinos that
fostered economic dependency on the U.S. This dependency was not just material but also
psychological, leading to a preference for foreign over local culture and values.

 Cultural Attitudes: The American "altruism" promoted through propaganda fostered a mentality
that often looked down on native traditions and languages. This created a disconnect, where local
customs were undervalued in favor of American ideals.

 Influence of American Media: Hollywood films played a significant role in shaping Filipino
perceptions of success and lifestyle, often equating success with material possessions like luxury cars
and extravagant homes. This portrayal contributed to rising social issues such as gangsterism,
juvenile delinquency, and corruption, as these themes were mirrored in both American media and
local contexts.

 U.S. Defense Strategy: By 1924, the U.S. was aware of the potential threat posed by Japan in the
Pacific. This awareness shifted the perception of the Philippines from a colonial asset to a strategic
liability, leading to considerations for the Philippines' transition to independence.

 Justification for Independence: The looming possibility of war with Japan was used as a rationale
for granting Philippine independence. The hope was that by establishing an independent
government, Japan would lack a legitimate pretext for occupying the Philippines. The expectation
was that if Japan did invade, American forces would no longer be there.

3. ydings-McDuffie Act (1934): This legislation established a ten-year transition period (1935-
1945) for Philippine independence, during which the U.S. would gradually relinquish its
control and responsibilities. The aim was to prepare the Philippines for self-governance by
the end of this period.

4. Commonwealth Establishment: The Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated in 1935,

Economic and Social Challenges

5. Dependency on the U.S.: The Philippines had long relied on the U.S. market, making it
difficult to establish a self-sufficient economy as American influence waned. The nation faced
significant challenges, including inadequate health services, education, and social unrest
over land reform and justice.

6. Lack of Military Capacity: At this time, the Philippines did not have its own standing military.
While there was a constabulary force and the Philippine Scouts, these were insufficient to
form a robust defense against potential invasions.
 1. Embargo and Asset Freezing: In July 1941, the U.S. imposed an embargo on scrap iron and
oil exports to Japan and froze all Japanese assets in the U.S. and the Philippines. This action
was in response to Japan's aggressive expansion into French Indochina and significantly
strained Japan's resources, pushing it closer to war.

2. Philippine Army Integration: Shortly after the embargo, the Philippine Army was integrated
into the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE). This integration aimed to
consolidate military efforts and resources in anticipation of potential conflict.

Heightened Tensions

3. Failed Peace Talks: By November 1941, peace negotiations between Japan and the U.S. had
broken down, leading to increased military readiness in the Philippines. Despite the
anticipation of conflict, the situation remained precarious.

The Attack on Pearl Harbor

4. Surprise Attack: On December 7, 1941 (December 8 in the Philippines), Japan launched a

5. Philippine Readiness: Upon learning of the Pearl Harbor attack, Philippine military leaders
quickly ordered their aircraft to take to the skies to avoid being caught on the ground by
potential Japanese bombers. This decision reflected the urgent need to protect military
assets

After the American surrender, the Japanese reorganized the Philippine government with the help of
Filipino leaders like Jorge B. Vargas and Jose P. Laurel. These leaders, initially meant to ease the
transition, became crucial in establishing a centralized government under Japanese oversight. Vargas
became the Chairman of the Executive Commission, while Laurel was appointed president. The
Japanese promised eventual independence, which was symbolically granted on October 14, 1943,
with the establishment of a Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic. However, this was largely an
illusion of freedom, as wartime conditions required strict control over Filipino life.

Only one political party, the pro-Japanese KALIBAPI (Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilinas),
was allowed, led by Benigno S. Aquino (Ninoy Aquino's father). The Japanese also formed the
MAKAPILI

(Makabayang Katipunan ng mga Pilipino), a militant group that acted as informants against guerrillas.
Key figures like Benigno Ramos and Artemio Ricarte, who had previously fought against foreign
colonizers, collaborated with the Japanese in hopes of achieving independence.

To manage local communities, the Japanese organized Neighbourhood Associations, which were
responsible for policing and other communal tasks. However, these groups also held each other
accountable for any member’s actions, including guerrilla activity.

The Japanese aimed to shift Filipino culture away from American influences towards a more Asian
orientation. They taught Nihongo in schools and promoted activities like Radio Taiso exercises. The
economy suffered greatly during the occupation, leading to hyperinflation and the creation of
worthless currency nicknamed "Mickey Mouse Money." Travel restrictions meant that tracking the
movement of individuals became necessary, and bartering became common as traditional goods
became scarce.

Entertainment options declined, with media heavily censored and gatherings monitored. Only old
films, after Japanese edits, were allowed to be shown. Amidst this, comedy duos like Togo and Pugo
provided much-needed laughter, though their jokes about Japanese soldiers occasionally got them
into trouble.

The phrase "The Liberation of the Philippines" raises questions about who deserves credit for this
achievement, as it touches on Filipino nationalism. Acknowledging American forces as liberators can
hurt Filipino pride and imply incompetence. While it’s true that Filipinos played a crucial role in the
liberation alongside American forces, the best understanding of this period is as a collaborative effort
involving civilians, guerrillas, and Americans.

Guerrilla units had been coordinating with American forces before the landings, receiving supplies
and sharing intelligence. During the invasions, guerrillas helped block Japanese reinforcements and
were instrumental in rescuing Allied prisoners of war. Their local knowledge proved vital in successful
operations, such as the rescue at the University of Santo Tomas internment camp.

The liberation also had implications for Japanese soldiers, who faced dire conditions, including
starvation and disease, while being subjected to violence from both American forces and Filipino
guerrillas. Although many Japanese soldiers committed atrocities, not all were brutal; for instance,
Captain Isao Yamazoe is noted for his unexpected actions that earned him local respect.
 The Worth of Liberty
What might a country seek when emerging from 333 years of
colonialization from the Spanish? Perhaps, in their desperation for
pacification, they would turn to another power, the US, hoping for the
support to achieve the long-awaited liberty. Yet, the independence they
fought so hard for turned out to be short-lived. Instead of the freedom
they envisioned, they faced a new kind of domination, one that would
later be recognized as imperialism.
Another country, another domination, and another experience of
suppressed liberty. The Philippines fell under American control after the
former defeated Spain, transitioning from military presence to significant
influence over Philippine sovereignty. At that time, American leaders had
a significant impact on the decisions of the Philippine government,
leading some politicians to side with the imperialists rather than serving
the interests of the Filipinos. Americans further penetrated the
sentiments of many Filipinos by promoting foreign cultures and lifestyles,
causing them to look down on their native traditions. This propaganda
instilled a mentality in Filipinos that affected their perception of
traditional ideals.
This Philippine-American relationship later was converted into an
alliance, as the Japanese involved the American forces in the Philippines
—signifying the commencement of World War II. There were failed peace
talks to resolve the conflict between the two countries, leading to the
surrender of the Americans and the reorganization of the Philippine
government by Japan, giving birth to another imperialism. Despite
granting the promise of independence in October 1943, a Japanese-
sponsored Philippine republic was instead established, creating an
illusion of freedom. Back then, there was severely strict and brutal
control over Filipino life, including tracking individual movements,
filtered broadcast contents, establishment of Neighborhood Association
that strictly governed local communities, sexual slavery for Japanese
military personnel, and Japanese surgeons performing experiments on
Filipinos among others.
Given that the Philippines experienced drastic imperial domination
from two countries, there were undoubtedly some comparisons. The US
imperialism differed from the Japanese one in that the former aimed for
modernization of the Philippines amidst the military control they had
over them, thereby integrating the economy with innovations and
developments. However, the Japanese one had more of an authoritarian
control and exploitation of the resources, including atrocities that
severely oppressed the civilians through human trafficking, forced labor,
and sexual slavery.
 Today, remnants of American imperialisms are still strongly evident
in the preference of Filipinos. The standards set by the Americans are
turning into Philippine standards even if in unnecessary contexts. English
has become a prominent language, with some finding it more comfortable
to than Filipino. And most importantly, the history that emerged the US
and Philippines during World War 2, has led to strong economic ties
between them.
However, though the formal years of imperialism have ended, it
seems like there’s still some questions in the sovereignty of Filipinos—
that it persists as a reckoning issue individually in terms of preference
and liking. Is the liberation granted to them back then ever worth of how
some Filipinos are trying to act differently today?
Geeane Jillah C. Blanca | BS – Accountancy II | Section 16 – KAS 1
2023-07045
Word count – 499 words