ACT III

SCENE 1
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-CAESAR DIES

Rome-in front of the Capitol.

The scene takes place outside the Capitol. There is a crowd of people in the street
leading to the Capitol, among them are Artemidorus and the soothsayer, both of
whom try their best to warn Caesar about the plot to kill him.

The mighty Caesar arrives at the Capitol accompanied by Antony, Lepidus and the
conspirators. Trumpets sound and just as Caesar approaches, he sees the
soothsayer. Tauntingly, he reminds him that it is 'The Ides of March' today. The
soothsayer replies that it indeed is the Ides of March today but the day is not yet
over. (his prophecy comes true for Caesar is murdered within a short time)

Then Artemidorus comes forward and urges Caesar to read his suit written on a
piece of paper, but Decius quickly steps ahead to present Trebonius' suit just to keep
Artemidorus away from Caesar. Seeing that his chance of warning Caesar against
the conspirators is getting ruined, Artemidorus desperately calls out to Caesar to
read his petition since it concerns him personally, but the irritated Caesar arrogantly
tells him that whatever concerns him personally will be attended to last. Now Cassius
quickly steps in and diplomatically advises Artemidorus to present his petition in the
Senate House instead. Thus, we see that Caesar is destined to die for in spite of the
soothsayer, Calpurnia and then Artemidorus trying to warn him, he ignores them.
Indeed, one of three sisters of Fate, Atropos, is waiting to cut his thread of life and
hence, nothing can save him.

Caesar leaves without reading the paper. Tension and suspense build up as
Trebonius cleverly leads Antony away as planned, leaving the unsuspecting Caesar
to the mercy of the conspirators. Caesar enters alone and sits down on the gilded
chair. The conspiracy unfolds. Metellus Cimber approaches Caesar proffering a plea
on bended knees that he should annul the sentence of banishing his brother. Caesar
shows his disgust and in a determined manner refuses to alter his decision,
declaring that Publius had been banished for valid reasons and that he' Caesar is
"constant as the Northern Star". The other conspirators thronging around add their
voices to his appeal and move closer to Caesar. When Caesar rejects his plea,
Cimber rips the toga from Caesar's shoulders and Casca who has been circling
behind strikes his first dagger blow at the back of Caesar's neck. Others follow suit
and each of the conspirators begins to stab Caesar and it is when Brutus delivers the
blow of the sword which is the last Caesar does not resist any more. Crying, 'Et tu
Brute, then fall Caesar'. He falls at the foot of great enemy Pompey's statue and
dies.

There is utter chaos and confusion and the citizens run about the streets crying out
while C tells them to shout "Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead!" Brutus tries to
reassure and address the senators but they are too terrified to hear him. Antony in a
fit of shock and amazement runs to his house and sends his servant to find out the
reason why Caesar deserved to die. From the moment the servant sent by the clever
Antony, enters the scene the cause of the conspirators is doomed.

Brutus vouches for Antony's safety. Antony appears soon after, overcome with grief
and lamentations. Brutus reassures Antony that no harm is meant for him and he will
explain his friendship to all the conspirators and requests Brutus to give him
permission to speak in Caesar's funeral. Cassius is alarmed, but Brutus overrules
Cassius and this is the greatest blunder Brutus makes of allowing Antony to speak in
Caesar's funeral. He lays certain conditions before Antony that the latter will speak
only after Brutus' speech, Antony in no way will blame the conspirators, but, can
speak all good of Caesar. Moreover, before he speaks he must tell the crowd that he
speaks with the permission of all the conspirators. Last of all, he must speak from
the same platform as Brutus.

Antony accepts all the conditions and the conspirators leave the scene. When left
alone, Antony, grieves over the body of Caesar and asks Caesar's body to forgive
him for extending his hand of friendship to all the conspirators who so brutally have
killed him. In an extreme state of emotion, Antony prophesies that a curse will fall
upon the limbs of men and domestic fury and fierce civil strife shall cumber all the
parts of Italy. A servant of Octavius Caesar comes with the news that his master is
approaching Rome. Antony sends a message that Octavius should wait a while as
Rome is not a safe place for him. Antony requests the servant to help him carry
Caesar's body to the marketplace.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

Known as the assassination scene, Act III Scene 1 is the most important and action
filled one. Julius Caesar's assassination is the halfway or the turning point of the
play. The first part of the play led to the planning of murdering him while from now
onwards we will read about the consequences of this ghastly murder.

This is the central moment or the climax scene of the play because:

· It results in Caesar's assassination.

This is the scene in which Mark Antony emerges from the shadows after being
deliberately kept in the background till now and whose sole intention is that of
seeking revenge for his beloved Caesar's murder.

Thus, we can clearly see three important parts this scene is divided into:

i. Caesar's assassination and the events leading up to it.

ii. The entry of Mark Antony's servant followed by the shrewd Mark Antony himself,
his meeting with Brutus and his assuming the major role in the play henceforth.

iii. Reversal in sympathy for Caesar after the lament and planned revenge of Mark
Antony and the play once again moves forward.

This highly theatrical scene is filled with tension and suspense. It is the central
moment of the play. Shakespeare builds tension at a furious pace from the beginning
of the scene.

Caesar appears to be proud and arrogant. He projects himself to be a man who is

strong-willed and not liable to change under any circumstances. He also invokes
justice divine with "he is the "Northern Star" and the conspirators are flatterers who
are given to "low-crooked curtsies", and ones who Caesar is liable to kick aside as
dogs in his way. The conspirators are submissive to the core and on bended knees
and fall "low as thy foot". This fawning is an act of sheer hypocrisy and betrayal.
Casca who has been circling behind strikes Caesar from the back which shows the
lowness of the assassination even though it was considered to be a righteous act.
The way Caesar hopelessly resigns to his fate and dies when Brutus, his friend is the
last to stab him. When Caesar dies with the words 'et tu Brute?" we feel two things at
the same time - pity for Caesar and sorrow for Brutus who has committed the awful
act of killing his dear friend for the sake of his principles.

Chaos and confusion prevail all over. The conspirators seem to have imagined that
once they had killed Caesar, they would be hailed as liberators by the Senate and
people. They try to calm the mob who run about in panic on the streets. The
conspirators are full of suggestions but they do not seem to have a plan of action.
The conspirators wash their hands in Caesar's blood because Brutus 'prompts' them
to do so. This rather grotesque ritual is carried out to portray the conspirators as
'purgers' instead of 'murderers'. The modern audience may believe this to be a silly
act, but, primitive Roman citizens would have been adequately moved on seeing
such a scene. Shakespeare added this ritual because the Elizabethan audience was
very pleased with blood on stage.

The arrival of Antony changes the movement and direction of the action. Antony
sends his servant to be assured of his safety. The servant speaking with servile
flattery is very significant as Antony knows that if men could kill Caesar they are
unpredictable and his safety is in question. He knows that Brutus extraordinary pride
can be won over by flattery. Antony enters immediately and he carefully dupes the
conspirators into believing that he is a simpleton who is not in favour of opposing
them. This is the turning point of the play-the ball is now in Antony's court.

Antony plays on Brutus' emotions and impresses Brutus by ignoring Brutus' love for
honour and integrity. Antony praises Caesar and grieves over his body openly. This
arouses in Brutus a feeling of emotion as being honorable, he is impressed by the
loyalty displayed by Antony towards his beloved friend in front of the conspirators
who relentlessly had killed his dear friend. Antony offers himself as a victim to be
killed and placed by the side of the body of his friend and ruler. The only person who
is least impressed is Cassius. He is suspicious of Antony and his instinct warns him
that Anthony is a shrewd manipulator. He does not extend any hand of friendship
towards Antony and only offers him the political power and material wealth arising
out of Caesar's death. After winning Brutus' support, Antony enlarges his role a little
bit by winning the favour of the assassins. He seeks Brutus' permission to speak at
Caesar's funeral which is his main intention and even though Cassius voices his
apprehensions Brutus again ignores Cassius' warnings. As later events reveal, these
two actions of Antony play a significant role in bringing about the doom of the
conspirators.

Antony's violent outburst when he is left alone is a fair indication of the kind of turmoil
that is to surface from him. He addresses the conspirators as butchers though he
had called them "gentlemen". Antony conjures Caesars spirit to rage for revenge.
Antony's invocation of Caesar' spirit tells us of the presence of two Caesars, being,
the mortal body of Caesar which the conspirators have destroyed and his "spirit"
which will haunt the rest of the play. Antony predicts "domestic fury" and "fierce civil
strife" because Caesar's spirit will pervade through Rome. Thus, begins Antony's
planned revenge.

CHARACTERISATION

Caesar - Caesar in history was a polished, dignified and a thorough gentleman.

Shakespeare presents Caesar to be proud, arrogant and a dictator. Shakespeare
plays down Caesar's role in order to show that his murder was justified. It is through
Mark Antony that the true account of Caesar comes to light.

Mark Antony - Mark Antony, who is here with the sole purpose of avenging Caesar's
murder, is a person of great insight and one who can assess the drawbacks of the
conspirators, especially that of Brutus. He plays along with his self confidence and
honourable intentions through flattery and humility. He does not hide his loyalty and
grief for Caesar, an aspect which greatly impresses the honourable Brutus. Thus, by
slowly inching his way forward, he completely wins over Brutus so much so that
Brutus even overrules Cassius' misgivings regarding Antony. And now, Mark Antony
is all set to let 'mischief thou art afoot....
Brutus - Brutus is noble and patriotic. He assumes leadership though he is not fit for
the role of a politician as he lacks foresight and he is not one who is capable of
judging people. He is one who puts honour above everything. He is outwitted by
Antony from the moment the clever Antony sends his servant to him seeking his own
safety. He is unwise and an incapable statesman due to his irrational judgments and
thrusts himself and the conspirators into greater trouble. He is unrealistic in his views
and is guided more by his emotions than his intellect.

Cassius - Cassius is a true schemer, a shrewd and practical man who is quite
capable of leading the conspiracy himself. He hands over the leadership to Brutus
mainly because of his reputation as an honorable and upright Roman. Cassius is a
politician and a true statesman. Being a man of action, he diplomatically prevents
Artemidorus from getting close to Caesar and giving him the warning letter. He
directs Metellus and Trebonius to carry out the duties assigned to them. After Caesar
is murdered, there is confusion everywhere. But, along with Brutus, we see him
directing the other conspirators to the public speaking place to shout slogans instead
of being directionless like some of them. Above all, he is deeply suspicious of Mark
Antony from the very beginning and is most unhappy about Brutus allowing him to
speak at Caesar's funeral. He voices his apprehensions, but Brutus once again
makes a blunder by overruling him. We see that he allows Brutus to overrule him
each time because of the deep bond of love and affection the two share.

Most importantly, we see that Cassius' reason for killing Caesar is purely personal,
based on sheer jealousy and hatred but he has to give it a political colouring in order
to make the assassination fair and just in the eyes of the common man.
 SCENE 2
PLOT DEVELOPMENT - FUNERAL ORATIONS

Rome - the forum

Brutus and Cassius enter the forum amidst a throng of citizens. The forum is full of
anxious men who are agitated after the death of their beloved Caesar. They angrily
demand the reason for his death. Brutus decides to take charge of half of the mob,
while Cassius controls the other half.

Brutus addresses the crowd in a logical but unappealing manner. People listen to
Brutus only because of his reputation as an honourable and upright Roman. He tells
them that he loved Caesar, but his love for Rome was greater and the freedom of the
citizens even more. He justifies to the crowd that he was compelled to kill Caesar
because he had become too ambitious and wanted to make the Roman citizens his
slaves. The citizens are convinced with Brutus' speech. They even express their will
for Brutus to be crowned king and decide to honour him by carrying him home in a
procession. They are ignorant and fail to comprehend the gravity of the situation.
Brutus appeals to them to hear Mark Antony which was the greatest blunder Brutus
was committing.

Antony addresses the crowd which has been swayed by Brutus. Antony however,
knows how to sway the emotions of this very mob. The crowd shouts out to him that
Caesar was a tyrant. Antony addresses them first as friends then as Romans and
then as countrymen. He assures the crowd that he has come to bury Caesar, not to
praise him. He tells the crowd that he will try to be as logical as Brutus. He accepts
that Brutus had honourable intentions in killing Caesar and if Caesar was ambitious,
then, he truly deserved to die.

He appeals to their emotions by reminding them about how Caesar filled the state
treasury with the ransoms he received from freeing captives. He reminds them of
Caesar's soft heartedness, about how he wept whenever the poor cried. He asks
them whether that even was what Brutus termed as ambition?
He reminds the crowd about how at the feast of the Lupercal he had offered a crown
to Caesar not once but thrice and all the three times Caesar had refused the crown.
Did he refuse the crown due to ambition? He does not once refute what Brutus has
said but keeps on stressing on the fact that Brutus is honourable and what he has
assessed about Caesar cannot be refuted.

He gradually plays on the emotions of the crowd and stirs them to fury. He reminds
them of the love they had for Caesar and what prevents them now to mourn his
death. He wonders if men have lost their power of reasoning. He purposely decides
to pause at this point as he wants to know the reaction of his speech on the crowd.
He has already excited them to anger, now he only waits for their reaction. Antony,
on resuming his speech after having got the crowd into his fold tells them that he has
no intention to wrong the conspirators since they are all honourable men.

He urges them further just by cleverly hinting at Caesar's will. At the same time he
incites them to curiosity and greed by refusing to read the contents of the will lest
they may resort to mutiny and bloodshed once they hear that they are the heirs of
Caesar's will. The crowd is now mad with frenzy and revenge and they roar out to
hear the contents of the will.

Antony steps down from the pulpit and while he stands before the body of Caesar,
the crowd makes a wide circle and it is then that Antony lifts the bloody mantle of
Caesar and exposes his wounds to them. He names all the conspirators and shows
them the places they stabbed Caesar's body, but, yet, he keeps addressing the
conspirators to be "honourable men" by which he rouses the crowd to such a state of
anger "moving the very stones of Rome to rise and mutiny". The crowd is mad with
fury and then Antony holds up the will and reads it out to them that Caesar has left
seventy five drachmas to each citizen along with his private walks and famous
gardens across the Tiber for public use.

The crowd is sufficiently incensed to become a senseless mob. They seize benches,
chairs and place them on top of each other to make a fire. They place Caesar's body
on it. They snatch torches from the pile and rush to set fire to the houses of the
conspirators, while Antony stands satisfied that he has put 'mischief' on the
rampage. He decides to allow mischief to take whatever course it desires.

A servant arrives and tells Antony that Octavius Caesar has already arrived in Rome
and has gone to Caesar's house with Lepidus. Antony is pleased that Octavius has
arrived at the most opportune moment. Antony is further pleased when the servant
informs him that Brutus and Cassius have ridden like mad men through the gates of
Rome and escaped the mobs. Antony feels satisfied that he has truly stirred the
passions of the people of Rome.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

Chronologically, the forum scene immediately follows the capitol scene. It is perhaps
one of the most dramatic scenes written by Shakespeare. Antony surpasses as a
master in oration and manipulation of the crowd. He is able to incite the Roman
citizens to become a senselessly destructive mob. They had praised Brutus for killing
Caesar, and now they want to burn the houses of the conspirators. This masterful
scene sharply contrasts Brutus and Antony. Brutus defends the assassination of
Caesar, while Antony attacks it. Brutus thrives on logic, while Antony uses emotions.
Shakespeare brings out mob psychology and how they succumb to emotions when
they are in a group.

Antony's oratory skills are highlights in the play and are important to the whole. We
must consider whether Caesar and Antony, or Brutus and Cassius chose the path of
truth. Caesar may be ambitious, but he is aware that he has to suppress his ambition
and rule Rome compassionately. Cassius is the master manipulator who has an eye
on the power that will come to him once Caesar is out of the way. Brutus is truly
honorable and has the good of the Roman citizens in mind. Brutus kills Caesar
without any evidence, assuming that power will corrupt Caesar. Brutus speaks in
prose and tries to attract the attention of his class.

Brutus makes two crucial errors due to his admirable qualities. His honor and
integrity are valuable traits, but they can be dangerous and useless in front of a
senseless and unthinking mob. Brutus believes that since his cause is just, all he
needs to do is present the bare facts. He is confident that justice and truth will
prevail. His second mistake is believing that the mob will listen to logic. Brutus' lack
of insight and understanding of mob mentality brings about his doom.

Then comes Antony's magnificent speech over Caesar's body. Antony succeeds
because he backs truth. He loves Caesar deeply. Antony sways public opinion and
wins the crowd over. He does not praise Caesar but calls Brutus honorable. He uses
the word "honorable" as a repeated refrain to convince the crowd that Brutus did not
act honorably. He uses the word "honorable" eight times, each time with increased
bitterness, sarcasm, and finally, open contempt. Verbal irony is at its best here.

Antony disproves to his listeners that Caesar was ambitious. He reminds the crowd
of three things: how Caesar would share the spoils of war with them, how Caesar
wept when the people of Rome wept, and how Caesar refused the crown each time
Antony offered it to him. He points out to the crowd that "ambition should be made of
sterner stuff." He appeals to the crowd, which now begins to see reason in what he is
saying. He moves the crowd to rise in mutiny and rage against the conspirators.

Antony, the master manipulator, teases and torments the crowd. He shows them
Caesar's will but does not read it. He descends from the pulpit and tells the mob to
make a ring around Caesar's corpse. He shows them each wound inflicted by the
conspirators, naming each of them. Looking at the wounds, the mob is incited with
fury and madness. He wishes that his oratory skills have "moved the very stones of
Rome to rise in mutiny." The mob is incensed and goes to find the conspirators.

At this juncture, Antony calls them back and reads Caesar's will. He tells them that
Caesar has bequeathed walks, arbors, orchards, and seventy-five drachmas to
every man. This is enough for the mob to be let loose on the conspirators. Antony is
satisfied to have let mischief afoot. He knows that he must "pick up the rubble" and
convert it into something constructive if Rome is to survive.

CHARACTERISATION

Brutus - Brutus is straight forward upright and dignified. He lacks insight and fails to
understand the psychology of the mob. He equates the mob to himself and
misunderstands the intentions of the conspirators. He incorrectly assesses the
conspirators to be high-principled like himself. He speaks to the mob as if they are
senators who will assess each word of his. Rather, the mob misconceives his
intentions. He is too trusting and fails to understand Antony's intentions. His ill-timed
generosity to Antony for granting him the funeral oration was his monumental
blunder so much so that he even insists on the mob to stay and listen to Antony, thus
bringing disaster upon himself and the conspirators.

Antony - Antony is a shrewd manipulator and a master orator. He knows how to

sway the crowd. His opening theme is sympathy with bereavement. He cleverly
masks his hostility towards the conspirators beneath his portrayal of love towards
Caesar. He is a great orator and moves the mob to madness, moving from mood to
mood, from argument to emotion, from reason to rhetoric. He plays on their emotions
and works them up to such a frenzy that their passion quickens and intensifies to
rage, to fury and to mutiny. The fall of the conspirators is now inevitable.

Mob - The mob is fickle and inconstant and are led by their emotions. They have no
mind of their own. They are emotional and Brutus fails to appeal to their emotions,
whereas Antony understands their psychology and plays on their emotions. He
appeals more to their hearts than to their intellect. They rush to build their own pyre
for Caesar. There are picturesque accounts of wood being torn from the forum and
the surrounding buildings heaped into a pile and on this pyre they cremate Caesar.
At the same time, they set the Senate on fire where he had been stabbed to death
and chase the conspirators out of Rome.
 SCENE 3
PLOT DEVELOPMENT - MOB FURY

Cinna the poet is on his way to attend Caesar's funeral. The night before, he had
dreamt that Caesar had invited him to dinner. He is in a disturbed state of mind
because a dream such as this (the dead Caesar inviting a living person to be with
him) was considered to bring bad luck. He has no wish to walk about in the streets,
but some urgent impulse has pulled him outdoors.

He is stopped by the furious mob and is asked several questions pertaining to what
his name is, where he is going, his address, and whether he is married. He is precise
and tells them that he is unmarried. The second citizen takes his reply as an offence
because he and his friends actually are bent upon picking a quarrel. He tells the mob
that he is going to attend Caesar's funeral and they ask him whether he is going
there as a friend of Caesar's or to rejoice at his death. When they ask him his name
and he says that his name is Cinna, the mob assumes that he is Cinna, the
conspirator and cry out, "Tear him to pieces!" His protests that he is Cinna, the poet
and not the politician have no effect upon the blood thirsty mob and he is lynched to
death. - What cruel comedy!

The mob then rushes out to set fire to the houses of Brutus, Cassius, Decius, Casca
and Ligarius among other conspirators. Thus, what Mark Antony had predicted
'blood and destruction' has come to pass in this scene.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

This scene highlights the consequences of Mark Antony's speech to this very same
mob, a speech which has driven these citizens to seek revenge for Caesar's murder
and are hell bent on mutiny and destruction. They only have blood and destruction
on their minds. This mob which is out to kill Caesar's murderers is ready to kill
anyone in their way, even poor Cinna, the poet who is an admirer of Caesar.

With Cinna's dream, we think back of all the supernatural happenings that took place
before Caesar's murder and his dream predicts further violence and bloodshed.
We must contrast this mob, swayed by blind emotions, with the delightfully well-
behaved and at times, comical citizens of Act I Scene 1. Shakespeare wishes to
drive home the fact to his audience that when incited to fury, these peace-loving
citizens are rendered into a bloodthirsty mob. This scene foreshadows violence and
personal tragedy.

CHARACTERISATION

Cinna, the poet - A poet who is innocent is introduced in the play to portray the
recklessness of the mob who are ready to kill anyone in their frenzy.

The mob - The mob who Antony has let loose on the streets of Rome, appears to be
ruthless, irrational and illogical. They are devoid of feelings of humanity and are
stirred to mutiny and rage. They are guided by their emotions and not by their
intellect. They are driven to rage to avenge the death of Caesar.
 ACT IV
SCENE 1
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-THE TRIUMVIRATE MEETS

A house in Rome

After quite a lapse of time Mark Antony, Octavius and Lepidus, who after Caesar's
death, are now the new regime or the Second Triumvirate (i.e. a joint rule or a union
of three men in one government with Antony being the most powerful of the three)
are seated around a table in a room in Rome. They are discussing a list of all those
who are marked to die and are purging Rome of all those who were instrumental in
Caesar's death. The list also includes Antony's nephew and Lepidus' brother.

Mark Antony sends Lepidus to Caesar's house to fetch the will so that they can
discuss how to cut down the payment of some part of the will, which was
bequeathed to the citizens of Rome, so as to raise funds for the army. While Lepidus
is away, Antony criticises Lepidus to be a slight unmeritable man and a barren
spirited fellow, lacking originality and who does not deserve to have an equal share
of the triumvirate. The young Octavius disagrees and reminds him that Lepidus
already is an equal partner since he has had a say in the list of all those who are
condemned to be killed.

Antony tells him that he intends to use him as an errand boy, to take the blame for
some of their unpopular decisions and later discard him. Lepidus once again
disagrees with the senior Antony and tells him that he has underestimated the worth
of Lepidus who is an experienced and brave soldier. Antony however feels that
Lepidus is a mere follower and imitator and degrades him further by comparing him
to an 'ass' and his 'war horse and is bent on discarding him as soon as he has
served his purpose.

Antony informs Octavius that Brutus and Cassius are raising an army and so they
must engage in battle at once as they are surrounded by enemies. The two men
resolve to combine their forces and defeat the conspirators.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

In this scene, Shakespeare reveals to the audience the perils of the new political
atmosphere in Rome and the impending civil war - just as Mark Antony had
predicted in an earlier scene - 'Domestic fury and fierce civil strife...' along with 'blood
and destruction.' The triumvirate has captured power and are determined to
eliminate anyone - Antony is ready to kill his own nephew and Lepidus his own
brother - who may prove to be dangerous.

This scene advances the action of the play and keeps the interest of the audience
alive by showing that the triumvirate and other supporters of Caesar have resolved
to show no mercy to the republicans, who are collecting forces to fight them.

This scene reveals the character of Antony at his worst - Antony who is at the height
of his power is portrayed to be ambitious, cold blooded, ruthless and a hypocrite at
times. Brutus was honourable in his intentions as he was clear that only Caesar
would be killed but Antony is ready to even kill his own nephew regardless of
relations and friends. Antony uses the mob to serve his own ends of taking revenge
on the conspirators but having done so is ready to cut down some of the benefits
given to them in Caesar's will by changing a part of it in order to gather funds for the
army.

This scene also establishes the fact that the young Octavius who is the grand
nephew and heir (say air) of Caesar, has a will of his own and that he will rule the
land one day.

CHARACTERISATION

Mark Antony - Mark Antony, at present is the greatest general of his times, having
been trained under Caesar himself. He appears to be cold blooded, ruthless and
uncaring, having no regard for principles or friendship in his hunger for punishing the
conspirators. He uses Lepidus for his own ends and then turns him off... with no
consideration. He is guided by his own self-interest, enjoying his power to the utmost
and being devoid of moral values. He is money minded in his dealings even though it
is to raise funds to build up an army. He now lacks that spark of greatness which he
had earlier displayed in the play.

Octavius - he is Caesar's young grand nephew and heir and one of the three
triumvirates. From the way he protested against Antony shows that he is fair-minded
and has a will of his own. He defends Lepidus to the best of his ability and makes his
stand clear.

Lepidus - According to Octavius a tried and valiant soldier but according to Antony a
slight unmeritable man only fit to be sent on errands.
 SCENE 2
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-THE QUARREL BEGINS

Brutus' camp near Sardis, before Brutus' 'tent'.

The scene moves out of Rome and is set in Brutus' camp near Sardis, the ancient
capital of Lydia (near modern Turkey) in Asia Minor. Brutus and Cassius organize
their armies in the various Roman provinces and kingdoms of Asia Minor. They
decide to join forces at Sardis on their way to meet the forces of Antony and
Octavius who are advancing towards them. The crisis in the Roman Empire has
reached a stage where only a showdown can resolve it. Brutus, accompanied by his
servant Lucius and his friend Lucilius greet Titinius and Pindarus who have just
arrived from Cassius' camp located nearby.

Pindarus hands Brutus a letter from Cassius. Brutus reads the letter and then makes
the pardonable mistake of criticizing Cassius in front of his own servant. The servant
has the grace to support his master in front of Brutus, who, makes another mistake
by asking Lucilius how he was treated by Cassius. He then criticizes Cassius in front
of Lucilius.

When Cassius enters, his first statement to Brutus is that of reproach, Most noble
brother, you have done me wrong. His tone is that of accusation and there is a
heated conversation between them till Brutus warns Cassius to stay calm in front of
their soldiers. They go inside Brutus' tent to continue with the quarrel with Lucius and
Titinius guarding the entrance.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

This is the first time that Brutus and Cassius appear on stage after they had fled
Rome and from this scene onwards the audience will only see their declining
fortunes.

This scene is important because the famous Quarrel Scene between friends takes
place here. The Quarrel Scene shows how low both the friends have fallen that even
the soft-spoken Brutus has hardened into an unpleasant personality. This scene is a
kind of preparation for the next scene, for the quarrel between Brutus and Cassius
continues and is well developed in the next scene (scene III). A feeling of expectancy
develops in the audience as they become anxious about what developments shall be
seen between Brutus and Cassius.

We have already seen how Octavius and Antony plan their strategy against the
conspirators. A sharp division is seen between Brutus and Cassius. These
differences between Brutus and Cassius threaten their friendship and dampen the
morale of their armies. Fortunately, the two decide to sort out their differences in the
privacy of the tent. The falling fortunes and decline in the fortunes of Cassius and
Brutus is contrasted by the rise in the fortunes of Antony and Octavius.

CHARACTERISATION

Brutus - There is a change in Brutus' behaviour. He is not the same calm and
dignified Brutus. He is working under a terrible strain which he has never been used
to. He is seen in terrible light during his quarrel with Cassius. He is agitated and
distressed. His behaviour towards Cassius is unpleasantly harsh and intolerable. His
impatience and antagonism towards Cassius is against the code of conduct in the
army.

Cassius - Brutus and Cassius are both ill-matched in their nature. Cassius is a very
practical man and not the stoic that Brutus is. He believes in straight talk and cannot
hide his anger. He blames himself for all the blunders Brutus makes.
 SCENE 3
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-THE QUARREL AND THE GHOST OF CAESAR

Sardis-The rebel camp and the appearance of the Ghost of Caesar.

The entire scene is the 'Quarrel Scene' between Brutus and Cassius. Brutus and
Cassius vent out their feelings of animosity towards each other inside Brutus' tent.
This is a continuation of scene 2. Cassius complains that Brutus has condemned
Lucius Pella for taking bribes and has ignored all his letters of appeal in his favour.
Brutus accuses Cassius of having an itching palm and selling offices for money.
Cassius is enraged and threatens Brutus that had they not been old friends, he
would have killed Brutus for such slander. Brutus now reminds Cassius that 'Did not
great Julius bleed for justice' sake?' He was killed just because he allowed robbers
to go unpunished and now Brutus implies that Cassius is corrupt and not worthy of
having been a part of the honourable killing of Caesar.

Brutus also reminds him of having sent a message to him asking for money to pay
his troops which he had refused to give. Cassius makes violent threats but Brutus
remains unmoved. Cassius, getting very emotional offers his chest for Brutus to
strike him and laments the fact that Brutus has lost all affection for him. Brutus is
finally moved and they both reunite in friendship. Brutus tells Cassius that Portia is
dead and that she committed suicide by swallowing burning coals. Cassius is
amazed at the self control that Brutus exercises. Lucius enters carrying bowls of
wine and the two leaders drink as a sign of their reconciliation, after which they are
joined by Titinius and Messala. Messala brings reports that Octavius and Antony are
marching with their armies towards Philippi. They report further that they have
already 'put to death an hundred Senators' including Cicero. Brutus proposes that
they march towards Philippi to meet the enemy at once. Cassius thinks it better to
wait for the enemy to attack them, first, rather than counter them. Brutus overrides
Cassius' decision and commits yet another grave blunder. Seeing Brutus being very
adamant, Cassius does not want to cross him at this juncture.

After the guests have departed Brutus asks Lucius to play his instrument and get
Varro and Claudius to lie in the tent and sleep. While Lucius plays the instrument, he
falls asleep. Brutus is unable to sleep and continues to read his book and it is then
that the Ghost of Caesar appears giving a sense of impending disaster. Brutus on
seeing the apparition wonders whether he is dreaming but he clearly hears the
Ghost speak. The Ghost calls itself 'thy evil spirit'. It tells Brutus that they will again
meet at Philippi. Brutus is alarmed and summons his servants and sends them
immediately to Cassius with the instructions that Cassius should march early in the
morning to meet the enemy at Philippi.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

The most famous single scene of all Shakespeare's plays is this scene popularly
known as the Quarrel Scene. This is an intensely dramatic scene. The fight between
Cassius and Brutus threatens to disrupt the unity of the Republican forces during a
time of need and danger. The basic difference in the temperaments of Brutus and
Cassius is exposed. They both shared the same views till the murder of Caesar, but
now their differences of opinion surface. Brutus appears to be idealistic and lofty and
Cassius is practical and all his actions are focused towards his survival. Brutus never
doubts the course of action he has undertaken and still flinches at anything that is
dishonest. He accuses Cassius for not sending him money and also accuses
Cassius of acquiring money by unfair means. Cassius and Brutus misunderstand
each other's intentions and indulge in useless arguments over trivial matters,
forgetting the massive task they have in hand. It is fortunate that Cassius and Brutus
reconcile with each other.

The tragic flaw in Brutus' character was his one-sided extreme idealistic philosophy.
In this scene, he does not show his stoic philosophy. The only time he shows it
admirably is when he absorbs the news of his wife's death. The Ghost of Caesar is a
debatable issue whether it is real or a product of Brutus' imagination. In either case,
it is a frightening reminder of Caesar, whose presence is felt continually in the
second half of the play even though he is long dead. The conspirators had hoped to
resurrect Rome by killing Caesar. Ironically, Caesar proves to be more powerful
dead than alive. The irony is further driven home to us when we are reminded that
Brutus only wanted to destroy 'Caesar's spirit' and not 'dismember him'. The Ghost's
appearance is signified by the candle that 'burns ill' giving a sense of impending
disaster. The Ghost tells Brutus that it is 'thy evil spirit'. There is no suggestion that it
is Caesar's spirit. The Elizabethan audience would have empathized with Caesar's
Ghost more than an evil spirit. The appearance of the Ghost of Caesar adds to the
tension and excitement. It contributes to the atmosphere of horror in the play and all
the dark events warn us of the coming catastrophe and point out to the doom of
Brutus and Cassius.

CHARACTERISATION

Brutus - Brutus appears to be tense and agitated. There is no doubt that Brutus is
still at war with himself. Despite this inner turmoil, Brutus never doubts the course of
action he has undertaken. He appears to be illogical and an idealist. Brutus suffers
because his private virtues become his biggest public enemies. His idealism has no
place in a battlefield because war is the most irrational way of solving any problem.
Even in the midst of stress and struggle of events, Brutus remains a voracious
reader. He lacks the art of adapting his means to his end. In him, Shakespeare
seems to give us a warning how even able men who love their country may with a
little indiscretion injure her and wreck themselves.

Cassius - Cassius has greater far-sightedness than Brutus. He cannot afford to

have moral standards at this time when survival is most vital and he has no
hesitation in taking money by unfair means in order to pay his army. He is more
practical and having more military service experience is better able to handle this
battle. He abides by Brutus' ever confident and once again wrong decision to be the
first to march to Philippi (instead of waiting for the enemy to attack them first).
Because of his deep respect for him, he does not want to cross him at this juncture.
Thus, Cassius is doomed because of his alliance with Brutus and his extremely
idealistic philosophy that others are as highly principled as him.

The quarrel scene shows him in better light than Brutus. It is he who makes the first
move towards reconciliation and being good natured he tolerates Brutus' outbursts.
Cassius is soft hearted and he repents for having angered Brutus when he learns
that Portia is no more and he joins Brutus in burying all their differences over a cup
of wine. His quick temper and melodramatic outbursts lower his dignity but his love
for Brutus is genuine.
 ACT V
SCENE 1
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-AT PHILIPPI

This Act takes place on the plains of Philippi in Macedonia. In this scene the
confrontation of both the armies of Brutus and Cassius with Octavius and Mark
Antony takes place.

Brutus and Cassius march with their armies towards Philippi as per Brutus' earlier
decision. Octavius and Mark Antony await their arrival with their own forces.
Octavius is surprised that the Republican army is openly challenging them instead of
waiting for them on the upper regions and tells Antony so. When the Messenger
warns them of the enemy approaching, Antony wants Octavius to take the left side of
the battefield but Octavius insists on taking the right side. Their argument is cut short
with the arrival of Brutus and Cassius with whom they enter into a heated discussion
just before the battle is to begin.

In this battle of words, Antony accuses Brutus and Cassius of the sheer hypocrisy in
Caesar's murder and attacks the conspirators for the cowardly manner in which they
'fawn'd like hounds and kissed Caesar's feet while damned Casca, like a cur,
behind/Struck Caesar on the neck. The taunting continues and both sides spew
venom on each other.

Cassius voices his fears that the storm is about to break out and they have gambled
everything in one engagement while the outcome is yet to be seen. Cassius confides
in Messala and tells him that it is his birthday and fears that it could be his last one.
All his life he has followed the teachings of Epicurus who did not believe in omens
and portents, but now he renounces the Epicurean philosophy. This is due to the fact
that when they marched from Sardis, two mighty eagles flew over them, but in the
morning in their place there were 'ravens, crows and kites' who seemed to foretell
doom, defeat and death. Brutus appears to be pessimistic and when asked what his
intentions would be if he was defeated, he does not advocate suicide, but, he
contradicts himself that he will never allow himself to be led in chains to Rome.
There is a touching farewell scene between Brutus and Cassius. Brutus tells Cassius
that no one can predict what will happen at the end of the day, but it is sufficient to
know that the day will end and then the result will be known.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

The Fifth Act foreshadows gloom and disaster. It is a preparation for the last battle
and is full of suspense. We get to know from Antony and Octavius that the
republican generals have been inexperienced enough to leave their strategic place
on the hills and come down to fight on the plains. In the confrontation between the
two pairs of leaders, Caesar's name is so often repeated that it invokes his presence
and power on the battlefield- so Caesar lives on in spirit.

This scene throws light on the four characters. Brutus appears to be in an odd
mixture of emotions and despair. He is ready for inevitable defeat. He is ready to
choose personal honour and discard his philosophy of stoicism. Like Brutus and
Cassius in the earlier scene, Octavius and Antony have their share of differences,
but they show more maturity and are more rational in their approach. Cassius
appears to be illogical and superstitious, while Brutus indulges in exaggerated pain.
Antony and Octavius are confident of their victory.

CHARACTERISATION

Cassius - There is a significant change in the behavior of Cassius. From a clever

manipulator he emerges to be sentimental and apprehensive. He abandons the
philosophy of Epicurus which disregarded omens and portents. Now Cassius begins
to believe in omens and feels that the gods are trying to warn him symbolically by
sending eagles and replacing them with birds of prey to show his doom. Cassius
appears to be brave and is ready to face all dangers bravely. He is very practical in
his approach when he bids farewell to Brutus and tells him that if they meet again
they shall rejoice, if not, it is well that they have made this parting.

Brutus - Brutus too seems to renounce his philosophy of stoicism and prepares for
the defeat. He resigns to his fate and bids farewell to Cassius in a manner that he
will never meet him again, especially when he emphasizes on the words 'forever and
forever'.

Antony - Antony shows unusual courage and art in confronting the conspirators.
Though he is able and cunning, he plays into the hands of Octavius and allows
Octavius to dictate terms.

Octavius - Octavius is only nineteen years old and so is referred to be a 'peevish

school-boy'. He is seen to be a worthy successor to Caesar. He is cold, crafty and
passionless. He grows impatient at the abusive language of his opponents and
challenges them tauntingly to an open contest. Though young and inexperienced as
compared to Antony, the latter allows him to lead the contingent.
 SCENE 2
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-THE BATTLE BEGINS

The plains of Philippi are alive with troop movements. The signals are given for the
battle to start. Brutus hands Messala a message for Cassius who is in charge of the
other wing of their army. Brutus misconstrues Octavius to be timid and lacking in
zeal and vigor, so, he gives orders to attack immediately.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

The first glimpse of the battle is seen. This scene tells us about Brutus leading the
battle as general. He has the upper hand. He appears to be confident. He feels that
he has broken the will of Octavius' forces and all he needs is to prevent Antony from
strengthening the forces. Brutus' folly is shown clearly as he gives the order to attack
too early. The next scene fully exposes his mistakes. For, he is definitely moving
towards a terrible defeat.

CHARACTERISATION

Brutus - In this scene, Brutus plays the part of a general of the combined forces of
the conspirators. He appears to be too impulsive and headstrong.

Cassius - Cassius remains active and alert, but, we see that he is totally disillusioned
and his pessimism leads to his death.
 SCENE 3
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-THE DEATH OF CASSIUS

Philippi, another part of the battlefield.

Antony's forces have defeated the army led by Cassius in another part of the
battlefield. Cassius, seeing his men retreating, gets alarmed. At the same time
Brutus' forces have driven back Octavius' forces which Cassius is unaware of.
Unfortunately, the 'honourable' Brutus' forces lack the integrity of their master and
resort to looting. This gives Antony's army an opportunity to surround Cassius'
troops. Cassius is in despair and sends Titinius to ride towards the soldiers seen in
the distance in order to find out who they are. To make things doubly sure Cassius
asks Pindarus to climb the hill and watch Titinius. Pindarus returns and reports to
Cassius that he has seen Titinius surrounded by soldiers who were shouting in joy
over their victory against Octavius' forces. Cassius mistakenly believes that Titinius
has been taken prisoner. He arrives at a decision to kill himself. Cassius urges
Pindarus to kill him and when the latter refuses to do so, Cassius reminds him about
how he had saved him from death and now it is time for Pindarus to repay his debt.
Handing his sword to Pindarus "that ran through Caesar's bowels" commands
Pindarus to stab him and dies with the words"Caesar, thou art revenged!" Pindarus
does as ordered and flees.

Titinius returns with Messala, as he had not been captured. He had in fact been
welcomed by Brutus' troops. He comes with the good news to comfort Cassius that
Octavius' men have been overthrown by Brutus. On seeing Cassius dead, Titinius is
heart broken and kills himself with the same sword with which Cassius had
committed suicide. Messala goes to report the tragedy to Brutus.

Brutus comes to where Cassius lies dead and pays a sad farewell to Cassius and
calls him' The last of all the Romans". He then leaves with Messala, young Cato,
Strato, Voluminous and Lucilius and orders his troops to engage in battle again.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

This scene tells us about the characters of Brutus and Cassius. The tactical blunder
committed by Brutus in the previous scene is exposed. His premature attack permits
Antony to encircle Cassius and his troops. Brutus' men lack the integrity of their
master and resort to plunder after their victory over Octavius' army. Their looting
means that they are unprepared for battle when Cassius is surrounded by Antony's
men. This makes Cassius' position very vulnerable. It is ironic that the 'honourable'
Brutus' men are busy looting instead of coming to Cassius' rescue.

It is Cassius' mistaken judgement of Pindarus' report that leads to his suicide.

Already sensing defeat, Cassius sends Pindarus to the top of the hill because his
eyesight is 'thick'. Though Cassius is defeated by Antony, Brutus wins against
Octavius.

Shakespeare brings about a huge transformation between Brutus and Cassius. Both
Brutus and Cassius uphold their philosophy only till everything goes in their favour. It
is ironic that they discard their philosophy the moment they are put under pressure.
Cassius was the hunter in the first half of the play, but, he becomes the hunted in the
second half of the play while Brutus now feels that suicide is a cowardly action.

CHARACTERISATION

Titinius - Titinius remains a loyal friend when he sees Cassius dead. He is

heartbroken. Unable to bear the shock, he kills himself with Cassius' sword after
paying his tribute to Cassius by placing a laurel on the dead brow of his beloved
friend.

Pindarus - A slave of Cassius from Parthia who was saved by Cassius from being
killed adheres to Cassius' wish of being killed by his own sword. Pindarus kills
Cassius and obtains freedom from slavery at such a price, though, he had no other
option as he was very obliged to Cassius. Having performed this unpleasant task of
killing Cassius he runs away so that no Roman can capture him.

SCENE 4
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-A BATTLE LOST

Another part of the field where the battle is lost.

This is another part of the field where a battle is being fought. Brutus enters with
Dardanius, Clitus, Strato and Volumnius. He motivates them to be brave. In the
confusion of battle Brutus and his men are hard pressed and young Cato falls dead
gallantly shouting the name of Rome and his father 'Marcus Cato'. Lucilius is taken
prisoner as the enemy mistakes him for Brutus. When Antony arrives, Lucilius tells
him that Brutus is alive and will never be taken as prisoner. Antony is impressed by
the loyalty and bravery that Lucilius displays in defending Brutus. Antony sends his
soldiers to look for Brutus and to report to him in Octavius' tent.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

There was no clear winner in the first battle at Philippi because Brutus had defeated
Octavius but Cassius had to commit suicide. In this scene Brutus tries his best to
boost the morale of his soldiers, but he fails. Young Cato dies, uttering his hatred for
tyranny, suggesting that the triumvirate has become even more tyrannical than
Caesar. Once Cato dies, Lucilius is taken prisoner and the defeat of the republican
armies becomes inevitable.

Lucilius impersonating Brutus is a sheer reflection of his love and loyalty towards
Brutus. Antony is so impressed with this brave gesture of Lucilius that he decides to
invest in men like Lucilius for the future when Rome will be governed by him and
Octavius.

CHARACTERISATION

Lucilius - Lucilius' loyalty towards Brutus is portrayed. He pretends to be Brutus and

asks for immediate death from his captors. This gives Brutus an opportunity to
escape.

Antony - Impressed with the loyalty and devotion of Lucilius, he considers Lucilius a
price no less in worth than Brutus. Antony is a clever statesman who decides to win
the loyalty of Lucilius in future when he will govern Rome along with Octavius.
Brutus - Brutus truly remains honourable till the very last in the play. He kills himself
with double pleasure than with which he killed Caesar. Death brings honour to
Brutus and heals all wounds. The greatest tribute is given by Antony to Brutus
himself who remarks, "To say to the world, "This was a man!"

Antony - Antony may admire Brutus but as he eulogies Brutus, it makes the reader
wonder as Brutus was not really a 'perfect man'. He made blunders at every step
and was extremely illogical and unpractical. Antony's generous tribute to Brutus
speaks volumes of his lofty character.
 SCENE 5
PLOT DEVELOPMENT-THE DEATH OF BRUTUS

Philippi - Another part of the field

The last scene presents the final catastrophe. The conspirators suffer terrible defeat
at the hands of the triumvirate. The spirit of Caesar is finally victorious.

Brutus enters along with Dardanius, Clitis, Strato and Volumnius. It is apparent that
they are on the run after having lost the battle. Brutus is totally broken and requests
Clitus and then Dardanius to kill him. They both refuse to do so. Brutus tells
Volumnius that Caesar's ghost met him at Sardis once and the night before in the
Philippi fields. This itself is revelation that Brutus' hour of death has come. He
requests Volumnius to hold up his sword while he runs into it, but Volumnius refuses
to comply to Brutus' request. Clitus advises Brutus to run away as the place is too
dangerous. Brutus is left alone with Strato as all the others flee. Brutus requests
Strato to hold the sword so that he can end his life by running into it. He tells Strato
to turn his head away so that he cannot see him die. Strato agrees. Brutus runs over
the sword and dies.

Amid the ringing of alarms, Octavius, Antony, Messala, Lucilius and others enter.
They find Strato along with Brutus' body. Octavius offers positions to all who had
served Brutus. Antony pays the greatest tribute over Brutus' body. He calls Brutus
"the noblest Roman of them all". All other conspirators who attacked Caesar did so
out of hatred and envy, but, according to Antony it was only Brutus who killed Caesar
for the good of Rome. Octavius promises a proper funeral for Brutus. He gives
orders for the battle to end as the time has come for them to celebrate their victory.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCENE

This scene is important because it brings out the characters of Brutus, Antony,
Octavius and also the character of Dardanius Clitus, Volumnius and Strato. Caesar's
ghost exerts a string force as can be seen with Brutus' reference to him when he is
dying. Caesar has been avenged and Mark Antony has fulfilled his promise given at
Caesar's funeral. Antony's praise of Brutus is noteworthy especially when he says
'This was the noblest Roman of them all' and 'This was a man'. Octavius is satisfied
that Caesar has been avenged and he now inherits the mantle of Caesar. He also
rises to the occasion and promises Brutus a proper funeral.

This is how the curtains fall on the play 'Julius Caesar'.

CHARACTERISATION

Octavius - Octavius is the new Caesar and he inherits the mantle of Caesar. It is
only proper to state that he should have the last word in the play and he does have
it.

Brutus - Brutus truly remains honourable till the very last in the play. He kills himself
with double pleasure than with which he killed Caesar. Death brings honour to
Brutus and heals all wounds. The greatest tribute is given by Antony to Brutus
himself who remarks, "To say to the world, "This was a man!"

Antony - Antony may admire Brutus but as he eulogies Brutus, it makes the reader
wonder as Brutus was not really a 'perfect man'. He made blunders at every step
and was extremely illogical and unpractical. Antony's generous tribute to Brutus
speaks volumes of his lofty character.