African Genesis In 1856, In the Neander Valley of Germany, fossilized bones of creature were discovered, these bones were

compared with modern human and ape bones. Charles Darwin researched on fossilized bones, different plants and animal species made him, conclude that species evolve over long periods of time through a process called natural selection and also stated that human come in to existence from Ape through the same process of natural selection. Evidence Questions were where the evolution started and how did it take place? Charles Darwin pointed at Africa as home of human without any fissile evidence. Next major evidences discoveries hominid skeleton in Java Indonesia (1891) called Java Man and Perking (Beijing) pointed Asia as human origin, However By the discovery of Australopithecus africanus in 1924 confirmed Africa as origin. Modern Technology helped archeologist to trace evidence of evolution 4.5 million years ago. Among all the living primates, modern human are genetically closely related to chimpanzee, African ape and gorillas. Around 99% of Basics DNA is identical, so scientists conclude that human and ape came from common ancestors. The australopithecines and modern human are hominids. Hominids such as australopithecines were different from other primates by three characteristics: larger brain, bipedalism and larynx (voicebox). Scientists theorized, Around 2 -3 million years ago, Geological occurrence also known Great Ice Age gave hominids advantage to struggle for survival. These climate changes cause the evolution of Homo Habilis whose brain was 50% larger than the brain of australopithecines. Around 1 million year ago Homo habilis and all the australopithecines were extinct; they were replaced by homo erectus that lived in Africa over 1.8 million years ago and also accounted for their better survivability. Their skeleton closely related to human skeleton from neck to bottom. Around 400,000 and 100,000 years ago new species emerged known as Homo Sapiens. They had larger brain. The archeological evidences suggest their development around 50000 years and the emergence of language produced first modern human. How and why human migrated? Homo erectus and Homo sapiens first evolved in Africa, and Migrated from Africa to various part of the planet. Low sea level in Ice Age and land bridge helped them to migrate to different place. Different environment at different places caused some minor biological evolutionary changes like skin pigment. Food gathering and Stone tools Creativity of humans mind leaded to create different tools to survive during the Stone Age. During ice age shortage of vegetables leads human to make two changes increase meat eating and tool making. Stone Age is divided in to the Paleolithic (Old Stone age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). During Paleolithic period human created stone tools to scavenging meat and hunting, but human creativity was not limited to stones they made useful object out of bone, skins wood and other materials less likely than stone to

survive. Homo Spence, Home erectus and Homo Habilis were creative and skillful. Among three species Home Spences were more intelligent which cause or helped to cause the extinction of mastodons and mammoths about 11000 years ago. Contracting to hunting evidences, many anthropologists do not believe meat as primary food source. Human use of fire can be traced back to 1.4 million years and evidence of clay cooking found in East Asia around 18000 years ago. Gender Role in Society: The slow maturation rate of human and the ability of adult humans to mate at any time of the year are thought to be causes of the development of the family which is the characteristic of the hominoids. Researchers also believe during the Ice Age, women would have house hold responsibility while men would have responsibility of hunting and feeding family. Researchers also believed that these people live in small group and migrated regularly because of food.

Hearths and Cultural Expression: Because frequent move was necessary hunter groups lived in natural shelters such as caves, also Where natural shelter were not exist, they built temporary shelter using stones, branches and animal skin. Also figure out to make clothes out of animal skin. Hunters did not spend more than three to five hours of their day on getting food. This left time a certain amount of time for group gathering, art, and religion. There is no trace for early music and dance but there are evidence of painting and drawing. Also old paintings from France suggested certain animals were not hunted. Also evidence suggested that cave and cave and rock art represent concerns with fertility effort to educate the young or elaborate mechanisms for time reckoning. The cave painting also suggested people had complex religion and believed in after life. The Agriculture Revolutions Around 10000 years ago, global climate change seems to have induced some societies to enhance their food supplies by domesticated plan and animals. These occurred independently in various part of the world During the process of Agriculture revolution first part was to scatter seeds of desire plant in the place where they like to grow and Use fire to wipe out unwanted plants. Specialized tools for agriculture were also invented. Around 8000 BCE, the transition in agriculture occurred in Middle East, around the same time agriculture transition also took place in Europe where practiced shifting cultivation, also known as Sweden agriculture. Around 2600 BCE poepole in central Europe began using ox-drawn wooden plows. The environment also played major role to develop dedicated choice of crop as for and example Wheat and barley were suited for Middle East environment while Rice where in China and North India.

Domesticated Animals and Pastoralist Domestication of animals and domestication of plants proceeded around same time. Human first domesticate dogs; sheep and goats were later domesticated for their meat, milk, and wool. Domestication of animals occurred independently in various parts of the world, Different part of the world domesticated different animals, water buffalo in China and donkeys in North Africa. In most parts of the world the domestication of plants went along with the domestication of animals as animals were used for pulling plows and supplied manure for fertilizer. In the Americas there were no animals suitable for domestication other than llamas, guinea pigs, and some fowl, and so hunting remained the main source of meat, and humans the main source of labor power. In the arid parts of Central Asia and Africa, the environment was not appropriate for settled agriculture, but it could support pastoralists who herded cattle or other animals from one grazing area to another. Around 6000B.C.E, Climate changes that reduced the supplies of game and wild food plants. The agricultural revolutions brought about a significant increase in the worlds human populationfrom 10 million in 5000 B.C.E. to between 50 and 100 million in 1000 B.C.E. Life in Neolithic Communities Cultural Expressions The early food producers appear to be religious. They worshiped ancestral and nature spirits. Their religions centered on sacred groves, springs, and wild animals. Religion also included deities such as the Earth Mother and the Sky God. Some of their religious believes also happened to be in Old Hindu Texts. They also believed to use megaliths to construct burial chambers and calendar circles and to aid in astronomical observations. Early Towns and Specialists Most people in early food-producing societies lived in villages, but in some places, the environment supported the growth of towns in which one finds more elaborate dwellings, facilities for surplus food storage, and communities of specialized craftsmen. The two best-known examples of the remains of Neolithic towns are at Jericho and atal Hyk. Jericho, on the west bank of the Jordan River, was a walled town with mud-brick structures and dates back to 8000 B.C.E. atal Hyk, in central Anatolia, dates to 70005000 B.C.E. atal Hyk was a center for the trade in obsidian. Its craftsmen produced pottery, baskets, woolen cloth, beads, and leather and wood products. There is no evidence of a dominant class or centralized political leadership. The art of atal Hyk reflects a continued fascination with hunting, but the remains indicate that agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. The remains also indicate that the people of atal Hyk had a flourishing religion that involved offerings of food. Evidence indicates that the religion may have centered on the worship of a goddess and have been administered by priestesses.

The remains at atal Hyk include decorative or ceremonial objects made of copper, lead, silver, and gold. These metals are naturally occurring, soft, and easy to work, but not suitable for tools or weapons, which continued to be made from stone. The presence of towns like Jericho and atal Hyk indicates the emergence of a form of social organization in which food producers had to support non-producing specialists such as priests and craftspeople and their labor had to be mobilized for nonproductive projects such as defensive walls, megalithic structures, and tombs. We do not know whether this labor was free or coerced.