First Epistle of Peter

The First Epistle of Peter[a] is a book of the New Testament. The author presents himself as Peter the
Apostle. The ending of the letter includes a statement that implies that it was written from "Babylon", which
is possibly a reference to Rome. The letter is addressed to the "chosen pilgrims of the diaspora" in Asia
Minor suffering religious persecution.

Authorship
The authorship of 1 Peter has traditionally been attributed to the Apostle Peter because it bears his name and
identifies him as its author (1:1). Although the text identifies Peter as its author, the language, dating, style,
and structure of this letter have led most scholars to conclude that it is pseudonymous.[3][4][5] Many scholars
argue that Peter was not the author of the letter because its writer appears to have had a formal education in
rhetoric and philosophy, and an advanced knowledge of the Greek language,[6] none of which would be
usual for a Galilean fisherman.

New Testament scholar Graham Stanton rejects Petrine authorship because 1 Peter was most likely written
during the reign of Domitian in AD 81, which is when he believes widespread Christian persecution began,
which is long after the death of Peter.[7] More recent scholars such as Travis Williams say that the
persecution described does not appear to be describing official Roman persecutions after Peter's death, thus
not directly ruling out an early date for the composition of the epistle.[8]

Another dating issue is the reference to "Babylon" in chapter 5 verse 13, generally agreed to be a claim the
letter was written from Rome. However, it is believed that the identification of Rome with Babylon, the
ancient enemy of the Jews, only came after the destruction of the Temple in AD 70.[9] Other scholars doubt
Petrine authorship because they are convinced that 1 Peter is dependent on the Pauline epistles and thus was
written after Paul the Apostle's ministry because it shares many of the same motifs espoused in Ephesians,
Colossians, and the Pastoral Epistles.[10]

Others argue that it makes little sense to ascribe the work to Peter when it could have been ascribed to
Paul.[8] Alternatively, one theory supporting legitimate Petrine authorship of 1 Peter is the "secretarial
hypothesis", which suggests that 1 Peter was dictated by Peter and was written in Greek by his secretary,
Silvanus (5:12). John Elliot disagrees, suggesting that the notion of Silvanus as secretary or author or drafter
of 1 Peter introduces more problems than it solves because the Greek rendition of 5:12 suggests that
Silvanus was not the secretary, but the courier/bearer of 1 Peter,[11] and some see Mark as a contributive
amanuensis in the composition and writing of the work.[12][13]

On the one hand, some scholars such as Bart D. Ehrman are convinced that the language, dating, literary
style, and structure of this text makes it implausible to conclude that 1 Peter was written by Peter.[9]
According to these scholars, it is more likely that 1 Peter is a pseudonymous letter, written later by an
unknown Christian in his honor.

On the other hand, some scholars argue that there is enough evidence to conclude that Peter did, in fact,
write 1 Peter. For instance, there are similarities between 1 Peter and Peter's speeches in the Biblical book of
Acts,[14] allusions to several historical sayings of Jesus indicative of eyewitness testimony (e.g., compare
Luke 12:35 with 1 Peter 1:13, Matthew 5:16 with 1 Peter 2:12, and Matthew 5:10 with 1 Peter 3:14),[15]
and early attestation of Peter's authorship found in 2 Peter (AD 60–160)[16] and the letters of Clement (AD
70–140),[8] all supporting genuine Petrine origin. Ultimately, the authorship of 1 Peter remains contested.

Audience
1 Peter is addressed to the "elect resident aliens" scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia,
and Bithynia. The five areas listed in 1:1 as the geographical location of the first readers were Roman
provinces in Asia Minor. The order in which the provinces are listed may reflect the route to be taken by the
messenger who delivered the circular letter. The recipients of this letter are referred to in 1:1 as "exiles of the
Dispersion". In 1:17, they are urged to "live in reverent fear during the time of your exile".[7] The social
makeup of the addressees of 1 Peter is debatable because some scholars interpret "strangers" (1:1) as
Christians longing for their home in heaven, some interpret it as literal "strangers", or as an Old Testament
adaptation applied to Christian believers.[7]

While the new Christians have encountered oppression and hostility from locals, Peter advises them to
maintain loyalty both to their religion and the Roman Empire (1 Peter 2:17).[17]

The author counsels (1) to steadfastness and perseverance under persecution (1–2:10); (2) to the practical
duties of a holy life (2:11–3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives to patience and
holiness (3:14–4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors and people (chap. 5).

Outline
David Bartlett uses the following outline to structure the literary divisions of 1 Peter:[10]

Greeting (1:1–2)
Praise to God (1:3–12)
God's Holy People (1:13–2:10)
Life in Exile (2:11–4:11)
Steadfast in Faith (4:12–5:11)
Final Greeting (5:12–14)

Context
The Petrine author writes of his addressees undergoing "various trials" (1 Peter 1:6), being "tested by fire"
(which isn't a physical reference but a metaphor for a spiritual warfare; 1:7), maligned "as evildoers" (2:12)
and suffering "for doing good" (3:17). Based on such internal evidence, biblical scholar John Elliott
summarizes the addressees' situation as one marked by undeserved suffering.[18] Verse 3:19, "Spirits in
prison", is a continuing theme in Christianity, and one considered by most theologians to be enigmatic and
difficult to interpret.[19]

A number of verses in the epistle contain possible clues about the reasons Christians experienced
opposition. Exhortations to live blameless lives (2:15; 3:9, 13, 16) may suggest that the Christian addressees
were accused of immoral behavior, and exhortations to civil obedience (2:13–17) perhaps imply that they
were accused of disloyalty to governing powers.[6]
However, scholars differ on the nature of persecution inflicted on the addressees of 1 Peter. Some read the
epistle to be describing persecution in the form of social discrimination, while some read them to be official
persecution.[20]

Social discrimination of Christians

Some scholars believe that the sufferings the epistle's addressees were experiencing were social in nature,
specifically in the form of verbal derision.[18] Internal evidence for this includes the use of words like
"malign" (2:12; 3:16), and "reviled" (4:14). Biblical scholar John Elliott notes that the author explicitly
urges the addressees to respect authority (2:13) and even honor the emperor (2:17), strongly suggesting that
they were unlikely to be suffering from official Roman persecution. It is significant to him that the author
notes that "your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering" (5:9),
indicating suffering that is worldwide in scope. Elliott sees this as grounds to reject the idea that the epistle
refers to official persecution, because the first worldwide persecution of Christians officially meted by
Rome did not occur until the persecution initiated by Decius in AD 250.

Official persecution of Christians

On the other hand, scholars who support the official persecution theory take the exhortation to defend one's
faith (3:15) as a reference to official court proceedings.[6] They believe that these persecutions involved
court trials before Roman authorities, and even executions.

One common supposition is that 1 Peter was written during the reign of Domitian (AD 81–96). Domitian's
aggressive claim to divinity would have been rejected and resisted by Christians. Biblical scholar Paul
Achtemeier believes that persecution of Christians by Domitian would have been in character, but points
out that there is no evidence of official policy targeted specifically at Christians. If Christians were
persecuted, it is likely to have been part of Domitian's larger policy suppressing all opposition to his self-
proclaimed divinity.[6] There are other scholars who explicitly dispute the idea of contextualizing 1 Peter
within Domitian's reign. Duane Warden believes that Domitian's unpopularity even among Romans renders
it highly unlikely that his actions would have great influence in the provinces, especially those under the
direct supervision of the senate such as Asia (one of the provinces 1 Peter is addressed to).[21]

Also often advanced as a possible context for 1 Peter is the trials and executions of Christians in the Roman
province of Bithynia-Pontus under Pliny the Younger. Scholars who support this theory believe that a
famous letter from Pliny to Emperor Trajan concerning the delation of Christians reflects the situation faced
by the addressees of this epistle.[22][23] In Pliny's letter, written in AD 112, he asks Trajan if the accused
Christians brought before him should be punished based on the name 'Christian' alone, or for crimes
associated with the name. For biblical scholar John Knox, the use of the word "name" in 4:14–16 is the
"crucial point of contact" with that in Pliny's letter.[22] In addition, many scholars in support of this theory
believe that there is content within 1 Peter that directly mirrors the situation as portrayed in Pliny's letter. For
instance, they interpret the exhortation to defend one's faith "with gentleness and reverence" in 3:15–16 as a
response to Pliny executing Christians for the obstinate manner in which they professed to be Christians.
Generally, this theory is rejected mainly by scholars who read the suffering in 1 Peter to be caused by
social, rather than official, discrimination.

The Harrowing of Hell

The author refers to Jesus, after his death, proclaiming to spirits in prison (3:18–20). This passage, and a
few others (such as Matthew 27:52 and Luke 23:43), are the basis of the traditional Christian belief in the
descent of Christ into hell, or the harrowing of hell.[24] Though interpretations vary, some theologians see
this passage as referring to Jesus, after his death, going to a place (neither heaven nor hell in the ultimate
sense) where the souls of pre-Christian people waited for the Gospel. The first creeds to mention the
harrowing of hell were Arian formularies of Sirmium (359), Nike (360), and Constantinople (360). It spread
through the west and later appeared in the Apostles' Creed.[24]

See also
Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter
Spirits in prison, 3:19.

Notes
a. The book is sometimes called the First Letter of Peter, or simply 1 Peter.[1] It is most
commonly abbreviated as "1 Pet."[2]

References
1. ESV Pew Bible (https://www.google.com/books/edition/ESV_Pew_Bible_Black/HiPouAEAC
AAJ). Wheaton, IL: Crossway. 2018. p. 1014. ISBN 978-1-4335-6343-0. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20210603093159/https://www.google.com/books/edition/ESV_Pew_Bible
_Black/HiPouAEACAAJ) from the original on 3 June 2021.
2. "Bible Book Abbreviations" (https://www.logos.com/bible-book-abbreviations). Logos Bible
Software. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220421100743/https://www.logos.com/bib
le-book-abbreviations) from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
3. Moyise, Steve (9 December 2004). The Old Testament in the New (https://books.google.com/
books?id=TCSOK_Q4D1sC&pg=PA116). A&C Black. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-567-08199-5.
4. Stephen L. Harris (1992). Understanding the Bible (https://books.google.com/books?id=a64
SAQAAIAAJ). Mayfield. p. 388. ISBN 978-1-55934-083-0. "Most scholars believe that 1
Peter is pseudonymous (written anonymously in the name of a well-known figure) and was
produced during postapostolic times."
5. Dale Martin 2009 (lecture). "24. Apocalyptic and Accommodation" (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=XJ9Gt_R5a-k) on YouTube. Yale University. Accessed 22 July 2013. Lecture 24
(transcript) (http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/apocalyptic-and-accommodation-6
817/)
6. Achtemeier, Paul. Peter 1 Hermeneia. Fortress Press. 1996
7. Stanton 2003.
8. Williams 2012, pp. 28– (https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28).
9. Ehrman, Bart D. (2011). Forged (https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm).
HarperOne, HarperCollins. pp. 65–77 (https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm/pag
e/65). ISBN 978-0-06-201262-3.
10. Bartlett, David, New Interpreter's Bible Commentary, 1 Peter. Abingdon Press. 1998
11. Elliot, John. 1 Peter: Anchor Bible Commentary. Yale University Press. 2001.
12. Williams 2012, pp. 25– (https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA25).
13. Moon, Jongyoon (2009). Mark As Contributive Amanuensis of 1 Peter? (https://books.google.
com/books?id=WPtf9DCl1S4C). Münster: LIT. ISBN 978-3-643-10428-1.
14. Daniel Keating, First and Second Peter Jude (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011) 18.
Norman Hillyer, 1 and 2 Peter, Jude, New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA:
Henrickson, 1992), 1–3. Karen H. Jobes, 1 Peter (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 14–19.
15. Lane, Dennis; Schreiner, Thomas (2016). "Introduction to 1 Peter". ESV Study Bible.
Wheaton, IL: Crossway. p. 2401.
16. Bauckham, RJ (1983), Word Bible Commentary, Vol. 50, Jude – 2 Peter, Waco
17. W. R. F. Browning. 10 May 2012. "Peter, first letter of (http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/
ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t94.e1457)", A Dictionary of the Bible. Oxford Reference
Online. Oxford University Press. University of Chicago.
18. Elliott 2000.
19. "Preached to the spirits in prison: I Peter iii:18–20" (http://www.christianmonthlystandard.co
m/index.php/preached-to-the-spirits-in-prison-1-peter-318-20/), Christian Monthly Standard.
20. Mason, Eric F.; Martin, Troy W. (2014). Reading 1–2 Peter and Jude : A Resource for
Students. Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-1-58983737-9.
21. Warden, Duane. "Imperial Persecution and the Dating of 1 Peter and Revelation". Journal of
the Evangelical Theological Society 34:2. 1991
22. Knox, John. "Pliny and I Peter: A Note on I Peter 4:14–16 and 3:15". Journal of Biblical
Literature 72:3. 1953
23. Downing, F Gerald. "Pliny's Prosecutions of Christians: Revelation and 1 Peter". Journal for
the Study of the New Testament 34. 1988
24. Cross, F. L. 2005, ed. "Descent of Christ into Hell." The Oxford dictionary of the Christian
church. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bibliography
Elliott, John (2000), 1 Peter: a new translation with introduction and commentary, Yale
University Press.
Stanton, Graham (2003), Eerdmans Commentary of the Bible, Wm.B. Eerdmans.
Williams, Travis B. (1 November 2012), Persecution in 1 Peter: Differentiating and
Contextualizing Early Christian Suffering (https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b
0C), Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-24189-3, retrieved 1 April 2013.

External links

Online translations of the First Epistle of Peter

NET Bible (http://net.bible.org/bible.php?book=1Pe&chapter=1#n1) 1 Peter Bible Text, Study
notes, Greek (https://web.archive.org/web/20071007130035/http://net.bible.org/bible.php?bo
ok=1Pe&chapter=1&tab=grkheb), with audio link (https://web.archive.org/web/20071010050
611/http://media.bible.org/mp3/netaudio/21-1Peter-01.mp3)
Early Christian writings: (http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/1peter.html) 1 Peter
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=1Peter+
1)
Bible: 1 Peter (https://librivox.org/search?title=NT+21+1+Peter&author=&reader=&keywor
ds=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog
 _date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced) public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Various versions

Other
The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (http://www.studylight.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?n
umber=T6839): 1 Peter
Easton's Bible Dictionary 1897: (http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0002900.html#T000
2912) First Epistle of Peter
Ernst R. Wendland, “Stand Fast in the True Grace of God! A Study of 1 Peter" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20100707173543/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/886)
1 Peter (http://www.bible-apologetics.com/history/1peter.htm) The authenticity and
authorship by Peter of the First Epistle of Peter defended
BibleProject Animated Overview (Evangelical Perspective) (https://bibleproject.com/explore/
video/1-peter/)

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