Level 3

Reading
5 Packet
3rd Edition

1
 Table of Contents
10

Main Ideas 5

Outlining

23

Signal Words

15 39

Inferencing

68

Vocabulary in Context

91

20 Summaries 99

Longer Readings

105
2
 Final Review

121

25 Paragraph to Essay 129

Word Processing

133

Introductions

138
30

3
 Main Ideas
Identifying a writer's main idea, or point, is the most important reading skill.
The main idea is a general idea supported by specific ideas and details. While
35 you are reading, you can ask yourself, "What is the writer's point?" to help you
find the main idea.

Here is a good two-

40 step way to find a While you read the paragraph below, ask
writer's point, or yourself, "What is the writer's point?"
main idea:
1. Look for a
Certain basic fears are part of our lives. For
general
45 one thing, we fear being disrespected. 'Bullies
statement.
play on this fear. They cruelly tease their
2. Decide if victims and take away their self-respect. And we
that feel hurt and disrespected when
statement someone doesn't return our phone
50 is calls or walks past us without saying
supported hello. Another of our deepest fears
by most of is being alone. No matter how tough
the other we act, we know that the poet who
material in wrote "No man is an island" was
55 the telling the truth. We need each
paragraph. other. Not having other people in
If it is, you our lives makes us feel empty
have found inside. A third basic fear is of growing old. Every
the main year, Americans use plastic surgery to try to
60 idea. turn back the clock. And our magazines and TV
shows and movies are full of beautiful young
people. We do not want to be reminded that the clock keeps ticking.

A Bully
65

Below are four statements from the passage about basic fears. What is the general
statement that is supported by the other material in the passage?
70

4
 Four statements from the passage:
A. We fear being disrespected.
B. Another of our deepest fears is being alone.
C. A third basic fear is of growing old.
75 D. Certain basic fears are part of our lives.

Explanation:
Sentences A, B, and C all refer to specific fears that we have in life: being
disrespected, being alone, and growing old. Only sentence D is a general statement
80 that covers all of the specific fears described in the paragraph. Sentence D, then, is
the sentence that expresses the main idea of the passage.

THE TOPIC AND MAIN IDEA

85 Another way to find the main idea is to look for the topic of the reading.
The topic is the general subject of the reading. It is usually one, two, or a
few words. It is NOT a sentence.

To find the topic of a selection, ask this simple question:

90 Who or what is the selection about?

Then, to find the main idea, ask:
What is the main point being made about the
topic?

95 Read the paragraph and answer the questions.

1
Spanking is a bad idea. 2First of all, think about the lesson that a child
learns when he is spanked. 3He learns that physical violence is a way to deal
with a problem. 4Spanking tells him that bigger, stronger people are allowed
100 to hit smaller, weaker people. 5Secondly, a spanking often has more to do
with a parent's emotions than with the child's behavior. 6Parents under
stress may spank a child to ease their own problems and frustrations. 7And
finally, spanking is just not effective discipline. 8Children should be taught
through careful and consistent explanations to behave in a certain way.
105 9
They will develop better self-control than children who behave only to avoid
getting hit.
What is the topic of the paragraph?
A. Spanking B. Lessons C. Children's behavior

5
 Which sentences states the main idea? _______
110
Explanation:
As the first sentence of the paragraph suggests, the topic is "spanking." Continuing to
read the paragraph, you see that, in fact, everything in it is about spanking. And the
main idea is clearly sentence 1: "Spanking is a bad idea." This is a general idea that
115 sums up what the entire paragraph is about. The parts of the
paragraph could be shown as follows:

Topic: Spanking
Main idea: Spanking is a bad idea.
120 Supporting details:
1. Spanking teaches physical violence.
2. Spanking often has more to do with the parent than with the child.
3. Spanking is not effective discipline.

125 Below are groups of four items. One item is the topic, one is the
main idea, and two are details that support the main idea. Label
each item with one of the following:

T – for the topic of the paragraph

130 MI – for the main idea
SD – for the supporting details

Group 1

135 _____ 1. Binge buyers go shopping on a regular basis to buy huge numbers of things.
_____ 2. Daily shoppers cannot miss a single day at the stores or on online shopping
sites.
_____ 3. Shopping addicts.
_____ 4. There are two types of shopping addicts.
140
Explanation:
All of the statements in Group 1 involve shopping addicts, so item 3 must be the topic.
Statements 1 and 2 each describe one specific type of shopping addict. Statement 4 is
a general statement: that there are two types of shopping addicts. Therefore, it is the
145 main idea.
Group 2

_____ 1. Headaches can be caused by changes in the supply of blood to the head.

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 _____ 2. Headaches can result from muscle tension.
150 _____ 3. Headaches can have two main causes.
_____ 4. Causes of headaches.

Group 3

155 _____ 1. Remedies for too much sun.

_____ 2. You can soothe a case of sunburn by spreading plain yogurt over the
burnt area for ten minutes.
_____ 3. Several remedies for too much sun can be found in your kitchen.
_____ 4. If your eyes have been irritated by the sun, cover them for five minutes
160 with chilled tea bags or a paper towel soaked in milk.

Group 4

_____ 1. Drinking excessively can lead to problems other than alcoholism.

165 _____ 2. Excessive drinking.
_____ 3. People who drink too much often develop liver disease.
_____ 4. Damage to brain cells results from heavy drinking.

High-Intermediate Reading: Main Ideas and Supporting

170 Details
Put an “X” next to the main idea in each group of sentences.

1. _____A mosquito can find you in the dark.

175 _____A mosquito can make you scratch yourself until you bleed.
_____Although a mosquito is small, it has power.
_____A mosquito can keep you awake all night.

180
2. _____The bread the waiter brought us is stale.
_____We've been waiting for our main course for over an hour.
_____The people next to us are awfully loud.
_____It's time to speak to the restaurant manager.
185

3. _____The apartment has some real drawbacks.

_____The kitchen is so small only one person can be in there.
190 _____Each morning the apartment fills with exhaust fumes from a nearby bus station.
_____The apartment has very small closets.

7
195 4. _____Certain harmless snakes can eat poisonous ones.
_____Despite their poor public image, snakes have their good points.
_____Snakes help control the rodent population by eating mice and rats.
_____Medicines for human beings have been developed from snake venom.
200

5. _____ Our daughter often points to certain letters and asks us what they are.
_____ She tries to sound out words on billboards and street signs.
_____ Our daughter is starting to read on her own.
205 _____ As we read books at bedtime, she says the words that she recognizes.

6. _____Couples committed to each other gain strength from their mutual support.
_____Committed couples are financially more successful than singles.
210 _____Committed relationships offer many benefits.
_____Happily married adults live longer and have fewer health problems.

7. _____Worldwide, one in seven people continually lacks adequate food.

215 _____The hungry people of poor, developing countries number about 800 million.
_____Ten million of the world's hungry people live in wealthy, industrialized countries.
_____Hunger is a global problem.

220

8. _____ Finding safety in numbers, bats live in large colonies numbering from several
thousand to a million or more.
_____Bats are creatures with a strong instinct to protect their own kind.
225 _____Mother bats, who usually have one offspring per year, leave their young only to
get food.
_____When colonies containing mother bats are disturbed, the mothers will try to move
their young to a safer location.

230
9. _____ In 17th century Europe, people went through a lot of trouble to wear makeup.
_____To wear makeup at that time, men and women had to put an unpleasant mixture of
lead, egg whites, and vinegar on their faces.
_____Once a person's makeup was applied, he or she had to be careful not to laugh, or the
235 new "face" would crack.
_____The lead in the makeup caused scars and blemishes, which had to be covered with
patches of cloth.

240 10. _____ Pet owners survive longer after major illnesses than people who don't own pets.
_____ Daily time with pets aids relaxation and decreases stress.
8
 _____ Pet ownership has positive effects on people's health.
_____ Petting an animal lowers blood pressure in humans.

245

11. _____ Naps improve people's mood and alertness.

_____ Taking a nap boosts energy and increases work productivity.
_____ After a nap, it is easier to concentrate and make decisions.
250 _____ People should take a nap every day.

12. _____ Even when Food City is crowded, there are only two cash registers open.
255 _____ The frozen foods are often partially thawed.
_____ I will never shop at Food City again.
_____ The market is usually out of sale items within a few hours.

260
13. _____ Buy only clothes that will match what's already in your closet.
_____ To be sure you're getting the best price, shop in a number of stores before buying.
_____ Avoid trendy clothes; buy basic pieces that never go out of style.
_____ By following a few simple rules, you can have nice clothes without spending a fortune.
265

14. _____Once my son said a vase jumped off the shelf by itself.
270 _____When my son breaks something, he always has an excuse.
_____He claimed that my three-month-old daughter climbed out of her crib and knocked a
glass over.
_____ Another time, he said an earthquake must have caused a mirror to crack.

275

15. _____There are several reasons for going to Mars.

_____ Astronauts could mine Mars for aluminum, magnesium, and iron.
_____ The huge volcano on Mars would be fascinating to study.
280 _____ Developing the technology to go to Mars would lead to the invention of
many new technologies we can use on Earth.

285 16. _____Instead of talking on the telephone, we leave voice mail messages.
_____ People rarely talk to one another these days.
_____ Rather than talking with family members, we sit silently in front of the TV all evening.
_____ In cars, we ignore our traveling companions to listen to the radio.

290
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 17. _____Bringing homemade popcorn to the movies is cheaper than buying expensive theater
popcorn.
_____Buying candy at a grocery store, not a theater, cuts candy costs in half.
295 _____Moviegoers can take several simple steps to save money at the movie theater.
_____Going to movies early in the day reduces ticket prices by as much as $3.00 each.

300 18. _____Tall buildings in the United States often have twelfth and fourteenth floors but not a
thirteenth floor.
_____Houses in France are never numbered thirteen.
_____Throughout the world, the number thirteen is viewed as unlucky.
_____Many global airlines have removed seat number thirteen from airplane seating charts.
305

19. _____Most teens who work do so to develop responsibility and gain independence from their
parents.
_____Almost all teens who work are motivated by a desire to earn spending money.
310 _____For a majority of teens, work offers an opportunity to spend time with peers.
_____Teenagers choose to work during the school year for a variety of reasons.

315 20. _____Between age 20 and 30, the average person who does not exercise regularly experiences
a 15 percent increase in body fat.
_____ An average person who lives an inactive lifestyle will lost nearly one pound of muscle
each year after age 30.
_____ After age 30, an inactive person can expect to lose 5 percent of his or her strength per
320 decade.
_____It is important for people to exercise regularly, especially after age 30.

21. _____Panic disorder, a type of anxiety in which people experience feelings of

325 panic, affects eight out of every thousand people.
_____ Anxiety is a widespread disorder that many people deal with each day.
_____ Five to ten percent of Americans suffer from phobias, a type of anxiety
in which people experience intense fear of things such as spiders, dogs,
or bridges.
330 _____ About 12 million Americans experience strong fear in social situations –
social anxiety – each year.

22. _____In 1908, a meteor struck a remote region in Russia, destroying thousands of square miles
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 of forest.
335 _____In March 2004, an asteroid just missed the Earth, passing
inside the moon's orbit.
_____ Asteroids are a real danger to Earth.
_____In 2028, a mile-wide asteroid, big enough to destroy a
continent, is expected to come dangerously close to Earth.
340

Topic Sentence: Tyrannosaurs were dangerous dinosaurs.

Which TWO sentences do NOT follow the Topic Sentence?
345
_____ The mouth of a tyrannosaur was so strong it could bite through bones.
_____ Tyrannosaurs lived in North America and Asia.
_____ The teeth of Tyrannosaurus rex were twelve inches long, and could cut like knives.
_____ Tyrannosaurus had very small arms, with only two fingers on each hand.
350 _____ Tyrannosaurus had the most powerful bite of any land animal in history.
_____ Tyrannosaurus was more than 40 feet long, and so was large enough to attack almost any
other dinosaur.

Topic Sentence: Penguins are well-adapted to live in cold climates.

355 Which TWO sentences do NOT follow the Topic Sentence?

_____ Penguins live in the Antarctic (the South Pole), but not the Arctic (the North Pole).

_____ Penguins have a high body temperature of 100○ F (38○ C), which keeps them warm even
360 in the cold Antarctic.

_____ Penguins have a lot of fat, which protects them from the cold temperatures.

_____ Also, penguins huddle close together to keep each other warm.
365
_____ The black feathers on a penguin’s back help absorb sunlight.

_____ A penguin’s feathers are coated with an oil that keeps the cold out.

370 _____ The female of some penguin species puts their egg on the male's feet to keep them warm
while she goes out and hunts for several weeks.

_____ Some species of penguin can be as tall as 120 cm (47 in).

375 Topic Sentence: There are several amazing facts about bananas.
Which TWO sentences do NOT follow the Topic Sentence?
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 _____ They have no fat and no cholesterol, and few calories!

380 _____ There are more than 1,000 kinds of bananas.

_____ I bought bananas yesterday at the supermarket.

_____ Bananas are the most popular fruit in the world.

385
_____ Rubbing the inside of a banana peel on your skin helps with
burns, scrapes, or insect bites.

_____ Many people like to eat bananas.

390

Topic Sentence: American football causes a lot of health problems.

Which TWO sentences do NOT follow the Topic Sentence?

395 _____ A common problem among football players is muscle strain.

_____ When the brains of dead football players are examined, doctors often find damage.

_____ 37% of American adults say football is their favorite sport.

400
_____ William “Pudge” Heffelfinger, the first professional player, was paid $500 to play in a
game in 1892.

_____ Some football players suffer from ankle sprains.

405
_____ Other football players have problems with their knees.

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410
Read each of the following paragraphs and choose the correct topic
and main idea.
Paragraph 1
415
Male and female children are sometimes treated and viewed differently
1

since birth. 2First, boys get a blue blanket and girls get pink. 3Also, although
more male than female babies get sick, studies say a number of parents are
more likely to consider a baby strong if it is male. 4Similarly, such parents urge
420 boys to take part in rough play. 5But these parents prefer that girls watch and
talk rather than be physically active. 6Parents say they want their sons to be
successful and independent, and they want their daughters to be loving and
well behaved.

425 _____ 1. The topic of the paragraph is

A. males and females. B. male and female children. C. childhood illness.
_____ 2. Write the number of the sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph.

Paragraph 2
430
An enlarged heart can be a sign that the heart is having trouble
1

pumping blood. 2This condition could be caused by a bad heart valve or

by high blood pressure. 3An enlarged heart could also be caused by a
high level of exercise. 4Athletes such as long-distance runners frequently
435 have larger than average hearts. 5However, their hearts operate at a high
rate of efficiency. 6An enlarged heart, then, can be a sign of bad health or
good health.

_____ 3. The topic of the paragraph is

440 A. pumping blood. B. athletes and their hearts. C. an enlarged heart.

_____ 4. Write the number of the sentence that states the main idea of the
paragraph.

445
Paragraph 3
1
Researchers who do surveys depend on what people tell them. 2People who are
surveyed, however, sometimes lie. 3In one survey, for instance, people were asked if
450 they used seat belts. 4Later, researchers checked to see how many people really did
use their seat belts. 5It turned out that almost 40 percent of those who said they used

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 seat belts did not. 6Also, researchers once asked people about their smoking habits.
7
Then they tested the people's saliva to find a chemical that is found in the mouths of
smokers. 8The tests showed that 6 percent of the women and 8 percent of the men
455 had lied about smoking.

_____ 5. The topic of the paragraph is

A. researchers. B. people who are surveyed. C. people who are
surveyed about smoking.
460
_____ 6. Write the number of the sentence that states the main idea of the
paragraph.

465

FINDING MAIN IDEAS

470 MAIN IDEA AT THE BEGINNING

Main Idea
Writers often begin a paragraph with the main idea. Supporting Detail
The rest of the paragraph then supports the main idea Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
with details. Supporting Detail
475
See if you can underline the main idea in the following paragraph.

1
My desk is well organized. 21 keep pencils and pens in the top left drawer.
3
Typing and writing paper are in the middle left drawer. 4The bottom left side
480 has all the other supplies I might need, from paper clips to staples. 5The top
of the desk is clear, except for a study light and a blotter. 6The right side of
the desk has two drawers. 7The bottom one is a file drawer, where I keep my
notes for each class. 8And in the top drawer? 9That's where I keep nuts,
raisins, small pretzels, and M&M's that I snack on while I work.
485
Explanation:

This paragraph follows a very common pattern: The main idea is presented in
the first sentence. The following sentences support the main idea with details
490 of just how the desk is organized.

14
 But a main idea does not always appear in the very first sentence of a passage.
See if you can underline the main idea in this paragraph:

495 1
Many people say they have a problem sleeping. 2But in many cases, sleep
problems can be avoided by following a few simple guidelines. 3First, don't
drink alcoholic beverages or drinks with caffeine close to bedtime. 4Next, do
not exercise within three hours of bedtime. 5Finally, plan a sleep routine.
6
Every day, go to bed at the same time and get up at the same time.
500
Explanation:

In the above paragraph, the main idea is stated in the second sentence. The
first sentence introduces the topic (sleeping problems), but it is the idea in the
505 second sentence-that sleep problems can be avoided by following a few simple
guidelines-that is supported in the rest of the paragraph. So keep in mind that
the first sentence may simply introduce or lead into the main idea of a
paragraph. Very often, a word like but or however then signals the main idea.
In the above paragraph, the word but helps mark the main idea.
510

515 Supporting Detail

MAIN IDEA IN THE MIDDLE Supporting Detail
Main Idea
Sometimes the first few sentences of a paragraph Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
act as an introduction to the main idea. The main
520 idea then appears in the middle of the paragraph.

Here is an example of a paragraph in which the main idea is somewhere in the

middle. Try to find and underline it. Then read the explanation that follows.

525 Today we take world-wide communication for granted.

1

2
Through TV and radio, we learn almost instantly what happens
throughout the world. 3In Roman times, however, military leaders
communicated with each other through a more down-to-earth
method: pigeons. 4Homing pigeons have a strong instinct to return home from
530 just about anywhere. 5The birds were kept in cages at the military camps.
6
When a message had to be sent, a soldier strapped it to the bird's leg. 7The
bird was then released, and it flew home, delivering the message.

15
 Explanation:
535 If you thought the third sentence contains the main idea, you were correct. The
two sentences before the main idea introduce the topic: communication. Then
the writer presents the main idea, which is that in Roman times pigeons were
used for military communications. The rest of the paragraph develops that idea
with supporting details that explain just how the pigeons were used.
540

MAIN IDEA AT THE END

545
Supporting Detail
Sometimes all the sentences in a paragraph will lead Supporting Detail
up to the main idea, which is stated at the end. See if Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
you can underline the main idea in the following
Main Idea
paragraph:

1
One common belief is that damp weather or a "chill" causes people to
catch a cold. 2The truth is that exposure to a cold virus - not weather - is what
causes the sickness. 3A related idea is that vitamin C can help prevent the
common cold. 4While vitamin C can help with other conditions, there is no
555 evidence that it stops or relieves colds. 5Another medical myth is that chocolate
causes acne. 6Researchers who have studied this skin condition have not been
able to connect acne to a diet rich in chocolate. 7Finally, many people believe
they should drink eight glasses of water a day for good health. 8But the only
result you can expect from this much water is a need to visit the bathroom.
560 9
Many popular ideas about health are simply false.

Explanation:
Here the supporting details (beliefs and ideas about health) appear first, and
the point of the supporting details-that many popular ideas about health are
565 false appears at the end.

570 The main idea may appear at any place within each of the four
paragraphs that follow.

16
 Write the number of each main idea sentence in the space provided.
575
_____ 1What you consider a "normal" diet depends upon where you live. 2For
example, horse meat is on the menu in many French restaurants. 3In Korea,
dogs are raised to be eaten. 4Rabbits are popular food in Italy. 5Fried
grasshoppers are eaten in rural Mexico. 6In much of Asia, giant waterbugs are
580 roasted and eaten whole. 7Sheep's head is popular in Norway, lizards are eaten
in South America, and whale blubber is consumed in the Arctic. 8While we may
think these foods are unusual or even disgusting, remember that people of the
Hindu religion think it is disgusting that we eat beef.

585

_____ 1If you are like 70 million Americans, you don't get enough sleep. 2Lack of
sleep affects people in a number of harmful ways. 3For one thing, too little
sleep affects our concentration and judgment. 4We are more likely to make
590 mistakes, whether taking a test or driving a car. 5Also, lack of sleep harms our
body. 6Our level of stress increases and our immune system weakens, leaving
us at risk for illness. 7Last, lack of sleep has negative psychological effects,
such as irritability, impatience, and an increased risk of depression. 8The good
news: these effects can be erased-with about eight hours of sleep a night.
595

_____ 1Shooting deaths are all too common on our city streets. 2And after the
shooting, bystanders often say, "I didn't see anything." 3The sad truth is that
600 witnesses to a crime are often afraid to speak up, even if they know who did
the shooting. 4Some feel that what happens in the neighborhood is nobody
else's business. 5Others stay silent because they don't want to be seen as
"snitches," helping the police or other authorities. 6A few even fear that if they
do say something, they will become the next victim. 7And so their
605 neighborhood continues to be a hopeless and dangerous place, where killers
are allowed to walk freely.

610 _____ 1Robotic surgeons are becoming a reality. 2One of the most promising
surgical robots is called the Da Vinci. 3lt is a 1,200-pound, $1.5 million gadget
that already sits in some operating rooms. 4A human surgeon works at a
nearby control board to guide Da Vinci's multiple arms. 5Those arms are so

17
 long, slender, and flexible that they can reach deep into a patient's body,
615 perform difficult tasks, and withdraw, leaving only a tiny scar. 6Surgical robots
that are even "smarter" than the Da Vinci are being developed.

620

625
_____ 1In the deep South, where it is often very hot, people tend to speak
slowly. 2They draw out their words, making a one-syllable word like "down"
sound as if it has two syllables. 3On the other hand, people living in the New
England states, where it gets very cold, often speak quickly. 4Sometimes they
630 clip their words as though they are in a hurry to get out of an icy wind blowing
around them. 5Meanwhile, people living in parts of the country that don't
usually have extreme temperatures, such as the West Coast and the Midwest,
are often said to have no accent at all. 6They just talk "regular." 7It seems
possible that the climate in an area actually influences how the local residents
635 speak.

_____ 1America should put an end to the death penalty. 2There is no evidence
that the death penalty stops people from committing crimes. 3A person about
640 to murder another person does not stop to think, "No, I might be killed for this."
4
Also, the death penalty is unfairly applied. 5Poor or minority people are put to
death far more often than wealthier white people. 6Richer people can pay for
better lawyers and therefore escape the death penalty. 7Last, the death penalty
is immoral. 8The Bible says "Thou shalt not kill," and our society should honor
645 that commandment.

_____ 1There is much that people can do for their pets.

650 2
But the opposite is also true - numerous studies
have shown that owning a pet can improve a person's
mental and physical well-being. 3A pet that a person
feels attached to improves the owner's mood. 4In
addition, a pet gives a feeling of being needed to the

18
655 person who takes care of it. 5Pets also give an unconditional love that makes
coming home after a terrible day more acceptable. 6Even being in the same
room as a pet can lower one's blood pressure and heart rate.

660
_____ 1Several kinds of changes can warn that a teenager is considering suicide.
2
Some changes are physical. 3The youngster may have no energy or may show
a sudden gain or loss in weight. 4Other changes are emotional. 5There can be
unexpected outbursts, usually for no obvious reason. 6Also, the youngster may
665 stop communicating with family or may even withdraw from people in general.
7
The most dramatic signs of suicide are changes in old habits and interests.
8
These signs often include new sleeping patterns and giving away favorite
possessions.

670

19
 Underline the main idea/topic sentence in each paragraph. Circle any list words in the topic
sentences.

675 1. In African cultures, music is a very important part of life, with many functions. Music is used
for entertainment, for dancing, in plays, and in ceremonies. It also marks specific life events
such a birth, coming of age, marriage, and death. Music often accompanies work, with special
songs for, say, chopping wood, rowing a boat, and harvesting crops. There are even special
songs for when people are suing each other in a law court. Moreover, music is a way of
680 communicating – songs are used to pass on a group’s history and to report and comment on
current news.

2. Why do people go to the theater? Of course, there are all sorts of

685 individual answers to this question. In general, though, theatergoers seem
to have three main motives. Entertainment is probably the most typical
reason: most people go to a play to relax and have a good time. Sharing
an experience is another motivation. At a live performance, people come
together and form a group, almost a little community. The third factor is
690 important to many audience members: for them, theater is a way of
enriching the mind and learning something – a source of personal growth.

3. The female black widow spider is not as terrible a killer as is generally believed.
695 While the creature is certainly poisonous, she is also very shy and will bite humans
only when she feels cornered. Also, the idea that the black widow always kills the
male after mating is untrue. The male is often spared - if he remembers to tap out a
special signal as he ventures onto his mate's web. The vibrations on the web let her
know he is one of her own kind, not an insect to be rushed at and killed.
700

4. Some wedding customs of other times and cultures were notably dramatic. For example, in
ancient Rome, grooms carried their brides over the threshold. Before they did, however, they
smeared the doorposts with fat and wrapped them in wool to banish evil spirits. In old Mexico,
705 bridal couples shaved their heads to show that they had set aside childish ideas and welcomed
the responsibilities of marriage. Finally, in eighteenth-century England, the groom’s mother
broke a loaf of bread over the bride’s head as the bride entered her new home. This, people
believed, ensured future happiness for the married couple.

710
5. The term “small talk” refers to casual conversation. Small talk serves a number of purposes. It
is a useful way to find out what interests we share with another person. It also provides a way to
“audition” the other person – to help us decide whether a relationship is worth pursuing. Small
talk is a safe way to ease into a relationship. Finally, small talk provides some kind of link,
715 although superficial, to others, which is often better than being alone.

20
720 6. Five years after his earthquake experience, one man claims that even the rocking of a boat is
fearful for him. A young woman who survived an earthquake several years ago says that every
loud noise she hears now makes her dive for cover. Another person who experienced an
earthquake tells how he always plans an escape route every time he enters a building.
Apparently, experiencing an earthquake can affect a person’s sense of security for a long time.
725

7. Potato chips got their start because of a hard-to-please restaurant customer in 1853. In that year,
George Crum was working as a chef at an elegant resort in Saratoga Springs, New York. He
prepared thick-cut French-fried potatoes for diners there. But one diner kept sending his
730 potatoes back to the kitchen, complaining that they were too thick for his taste. Crum cut the
potatoes thinner and thinner and finally, very annoyed, made a serving of potatoes too thin and
crisp to eat with a fork. To his surprise, the guest loved them. Other guests demanded a taste.
Soon "Saratoga Chips" were the most popular item on the menu.

735
8. People have always loved bike riding. Biking, however,
can be a dangerous activity. One danger is getting "doored"
- having a car driver open his or her door directly into the
path of an oncoming bike. Another risk is aggressive
740 drivers who feel they have more right to the roads than
bikes do. Such drivers will scream, honk, or gesture wildly.
They may block off bikers without a signal or a look, giving
the biker no time to avoid running off the road or into a car.
An added source of danger for bikers is poor road design,
745 which in many cases allows just enough room for a car on
either side of the road but no extra room for a biker to be on the same road. Recently, the U.S.
Department of Transportation noted that bicycling is now more dangerous than flying in planes
or riding in buses, boats, or trains.

750
9. Poor grades in school can have various causes. For one thing, students may have financial
problems. If they need to work long hours to make money, they will have little study time.
Another cause of poor grades may be trouble with relationships. A student may be unhappy
over family problems or a lack of friends. That unhappiness can harm schoolwork. A final
755 cause of poor grades may be bad study habits. Some students have never learned how to take
good notes in class, how to manage their time effectively, or how to study a textbook. Without
such study skills, their grades are likely to suffer.

760 10. Up until the mid-1900s or so, the dangers of smoking were unknown. Now
we know that smoking is dangerous to people’s health, yet many continue to
smoke for various reasons. For young people, smoking often represents
maturity and individuality. Many people smoke as a way to reduce tension.
In addition, the regular smoker becomes addicted psychologically and
765 physically to the nicotine in cigarettes.

21
 Outlining and Mapping
770 OUTLINING
Preparing an outline of a passage will help you see clearly the relationship between a
main idea and its supporting details.

Below is an outline of the paragraph on basic fears. This

775 Outlines begin with outline shows both major and minor details:
a main idea,
followed by 1
Certain basic fears are part of our lives. 2For one thing,
supporting details. we fear being disrespected. 3Bullies use this fear. 4They cruelly
There are often two tease their victims and take away their self-respect. 5Also. we
levels of supporting
780 feel hurt and disrespected when someone doesn't return our
details – major and
phone calls or walks past us without saying hello. 6Another of
minor. The major
details explain and
our deepest fears is being alone. 7No matter how tough we act,
develop the main we know that the poet who wrote "No man is an island" was
idea. In turn, the telling the truth. 8We need each other. 9Not having other people
785 minor details in our lives makes us feel empty inside. 10A third basic fear is
make the major of growing old. 11Every year, Americans use plastic surgery to
details stronger and try to turn back the clock. 12And our magazines and TV shows
more clear. and movies are full of beautiful young people. 13We do not
want to be reminded that the clock keeps ticking.
790
Main idea: Certain basic fears are part of our lives.
Major detail: 1. Being disrespected.
Minor details: a. Bullies tease us.
b. Calls are not returned
795 c. People don't say hello.
Major detail: 2. Being alone.
Minor details: a. "No man is an island."
b. Feel empty inside. A bully
Major detail: 3. Growing old.
800 Minor details: a. Plastic surgery.
b. Magazines, TV, movies full of beautiful young people.

22
 See if you can fill in the missing major and minor supporting details in the
outline of the following paragraph.

Clapping and applause serve a number of purposes. 2First of

1

805 all, sometimes people clap to show encouragement. 3For example,

think of a child nervously walking onto a stage to perform a magic
trick for an audience. 4Often, audience members will clap in support
even before the child begins to perform. 5A second reason people
clap is out of joy or excitement. 6This can be seen, for instance, at
810 concerts when people begin to suddenly clap in time with the
music. 7Another reason for applause is as a sign of respect. 8Famous
and admired people usually receive big rounds of applause simply
for being introduced. 9Last of all, people clap to show appreciation.
10
After a speaker has delivered a talk or a performer has sung or
815 played, people will applaud to show their gratitude.

Main idea: Clapping and applause serve a number of

purposes.
1.

820 a. Example –

2.

b. Example –

3.

c. Example –

825 4.

d. Example –

Explanation:
You should have added three major details: (2) out of joy or excitement; (3) as a sign of
respect; (4) to show appreciation. And for the third and fourth major supporting details,
830 you should have added minor details in the form of examples. (c)As a sign of respect,
people applaud when famous or admired people are introduced. (d) To show
appreciation, people applaud after a talk or performance.

Notice that just as 23

the main idea is
more general than
its supporting
835

OUTLINING TIPS

Tip 1 Look for words in the main idea that tell you a list of
details is coming. Here are some common list words:
840
LIST WORDS

several kinds of various causes a few reasons

a number of a series of three factors
four steps some of the results several advantages

845 Tip 2 Look for words that signal major details. These words are
called addition words; they tell us writers are adding to their ideas.
Here are some common addition words:

one to begin with in addition last

first another next last of all
first of all second moreover final
for one thing also furthermore finally

850

Read the paragraph below, and answer the questions that follow:

1
Clapping and applause serve a number of purposes. 2First of all,
855 sometimes people clap to show encouragement. 3For example, think of a
child nervously walking onto a stage to perform a magic trick for an
audience. 4Often, audience members will clap in support even before the
child begins to perform. 5A second reason people clap is out of joy or
excitement. 6This can be seen, for instance, at concerts when people
860 begin to suddenly clap in time with the music. 7Another reason for
applause is as a sign of respect. 8Famous and admired people usually
receive big rounds of applause simply for being introduced. 9Last of all,

24
 people clap to show appreciation. 10After a speaker has delivered a talk or
a performer has sung or played, people will applaud to show their
865 gratitude.

1. Circle the listing words in the main idea.

2. Which words signal the first major detail?

3. Which word signals the second major detail?

870 4. Which word signals the third major detail?

5. Which words signal the fourth major detail?

Read each passage. Then complete the outline that follows

by filling in the missing major and minor details. Finally,
875 answer the questions that follow each outline.

Passage 1

There are different ways to handle embarrassing moments.

1

2
One way is not to make a big deal of your mistake. 3For instance, if
880 you spill your coffee, just casually clean it up and continue your
conversation. 4Another way is to respond with humor. 5After spilling
the coffee, say something like, "And for my next trick, I'll knock over
a water glass!" 6And a third way to handle an embarrassing moment
is to get help, without making a big fuss. 7For example, if you spill a
885 cup of coffee at a restaurant, don't crawl under the table to clean it
up yourself. 8Just politely tell the waiter, "Sorry; I need some help
cleaning up here."

890 Main idea: There are different ways to handle embarrassing moments.

1. Don’t make a big deal.

Ex. – If you spill coffee, clean it up and keep talking.

895 2. Respond with humor.

25
 Ex. – Say "And for my next trick, I'll knock over a water glass!"

3. Get help without making a big fuss.

900

Ex. “Sorry, I need some help cleaning up here”–

Questions about the passage:

• Which words in the main idea tell you that a list is coming?

905

• Which word signals the first major detail?

• Which word signals the second major detail?

• Which word signals the last major detail?

910

915

Passage 2
1
In high school, almost every student belongs to one of three
subcultures, or social groups, within the student body. 2The first
920 subculture is the delinquent group, the least popular of the subcultures.
3
Members of this group dislike authority figures and hate school in
general. 4The next step up the ladder of popularity is the academic
subculture. 5These students are known for their high regard for education.
6
They also have the reputation of being hard-working students. 7Last of all,
925 the most popular group is the fun subculture. 8Members of this group are
interested in their social status at the school. 9They also focus on material
things like clothes and cars.

26
930

Main idea: In high school, almost every student belongs to one of three
subcultures.
935
1. Delinquent group

a. Dislike authority figures

b. Hate school

940 2. Academic group

a. High regard for education

b. Hard working

3. Fun

945 a. interested in social status

b. Materials

Questions about the passage:

950  Which words in the main idea tell you that a list of details is coming?

 Which word signals the first major detail?

 Which word signals the second major detail?

 Which words signal the third major detail?

955 PREPARING MAPS

Some students find it helpful to use maps rather than outlines.

Maps, or
diagrams, are 27
visual outlines in
which circles,
boxes, or other
960

965

970

975

Look at the example map of the paragraph below.

980
1
In our busy lives, there are different steps we take to save time. 2First, we use
modern inventions to help us do more in less time. 3For instance, we use a microwave
oven to cook a baked potato instead of baking it in the oven. 4Or we use the self-
checkout option at the grocery store rather than waiting for a cashier. 5We also save
985 time by doing more than one thing at a time. 6For example, a student may finish
writing a paper while eating breakfast. 7Or we may take a shower and brush our teeth
at the same time. 8Finally, of course, we may simply rush. 9We may save time simply
by gulping a meal or running to catch to a bus.

In our busy lives, there are different steps we take to save

time.

Do more than
Use modern one thing at a Rush
inventions time

28

Finish
Shower Run to
Self- paper Gulp a
990 Read each passage. Then complete the map that follows by filling in the missing major and minor
details. Finally, answer the questions that follow each map.

Passage 1

1
995 A recent poll identified Americans' four most popular hobbies. 2The number one
hobby enjoyed by Americans is reading. 3Fiction is the favorite category, especially the
kind of thrillers written by John Grisham and Mary Higgins Clark. 4Biographies of
famous people are next in line. 5The second favorite hobby is photography. 6Especially
with digital cameras and camcorders becoming less expensive, Americans love
1000 documenting their lives in photographs. 7The next most popular category is gardening.
8
From growing roses to raising their own tomatoes, Americans like playing in the dirt.
9
The final category is collecting things. 10And what do Americans collect most? 11Stamps
and beer cans.

1005
A recent poll identified Americans’ four most popular hobbies

1010

Photography

1015

1020
Fiction Tomatoes

1025
Questions about the passage:
Which words in the main idea tell you that a list of details is corning?

Which word signals the first major detail?

1030 ______________________________
Which word signals the second major detail? _
Which word signals the third major detail? _
Which word signals the fourth major detail? _

29
 Passage 2

1035 Here are several suggestions to help you do better on tests. 2To
1

begin with, go to class and take a lot of notes. 3Teachers tend to base
their exams on the material they present in class. 4You must be there
and write down that material. 5Another key suggestion is to study
regularly. 6Learn new material on a daily basis. 7At the same time,
1040 review everything often. 8Finally, use test-taking strategies. 9Answer
the easier questions on an exam first; then go back and tackle the hard
ones. 10Also, for an essay question, make a brief outline before
beginning to write.

1045

Here are several suggestions to help you do better on tests.

1050

1055

1060 Teachers
base Outline an
exams on Review essay
what they often answer.
present in
class
1065

Questions about the passage:

1070 Which words in the main idea tell you that a list of details is corning?

Which word signals the first major detail? _

Which word signals the second major detail? _
Which word signals the third major detail? _
1075

Outline Practice

30
 To motivate workers, managers should practice several methods of
1080 building self-esteem. One way to build self-esteem is to show a genuine
interest in what workers have to say. Ask for their opinions and really listen
to their response. A second method of improving self-esteem is to practice
good conversational habits. Do so in three ways: by looking a worker in the
eye, by smiling frequently, and by calling workers by their first name – the
1085 most important word in the language to every person. Last of all, managers
can build esteem by admitting mistakes. Doing so, they show that it is
simply human to do the wrong thing at times.

Main Idea:
1090 _____________________________________________________________
Supporting Detail:
__________________________________________________
Example:
__________________________________________________
1095 Example:
__________________________________________________
Supporting Detail:
__________________________________________________
Example:
1100 __________________________________________________
Example:
__________________________________________________
Example:
__________________________________________________
1105 Supporting Detail:
__________________________________________________

31
 Outline the following paragraphs on a separate piece of paper. Include: the main
idea/topic sentence, and the supporting details/examples.
1110
1. When you die, what will happen to your body? Most people end up underground
in a metal coffin. But a traditional burial is expensive and takes up valuable land.
Fortunately, there are less costly ways than a traditional burial to dispose of your
remains. One popular option is cremation. This low-priced option involves burning
1115 your body until it is reduced to a pile of ash. Your ashes can be kept by loved ones or
sprinkled in a special spot. Another option is natural burial. In this case, your body is
buried in a cardboard box or cloth blanket that decays rapidly in soil, leaving no
metals or chemicals in the ground. A final option is to donate your body to science.
This option is free and allows you to contribute to medical science and to the welfare
1120 of humankind long after your death.

2. Every week, guns kill several hundred Americans. To cut down on these deaths,
some say we should stop the sale of guns, or at least of the worst kinds of guns.
1125 Some guns, such as assault rifles that can shoot hundreds of bullets in a short time,
are more suitable for the army than your neighbor. Since so many people already
own guns, others suggest we require a permit to carry one outside the home. Many
gun owners call for yet another solution: tough penalties for those who use guns in
crimes. These kinds of penalties may cause criminals to leave their guns at home.
1130 These are just several of many ideas on how to reduce the dangers of guns in
America.

3. Before technology became as developed as it is today, a person would interact

with many others during the course of their day. However, today people have fewer
1135 human contacts as they go about their personal business. To buy gas, you can pull up
alongside a gas pump, insert a credit card, and fill the tank without the help of an
attendant. Similarly, if you want to make a deposit or withdraw some money from
the bank, you can drive up to an ATM to complete your business without talking to a
teller. Moreover, even selecting a movie to watch on Saturday night has become a
1140 solitary activity. Instead of browsing at the movie store and discussing the merits of
different films with other customers, you can watch a movie alone on your computer
or your phone. Although automation has brought convenience, it has also diminished
an important element of life – contact with other people.

32
 Identify the sentence that is the main idea in each set of sentences.
1145 Then, outline or make a map for each set of sentences.

_____ The Gila Monster is a venomous lizard that lives in the southwest US and
Mexico.

1150 _____ North America has two kinds of venomous (poisonous) lizards.

_____ The Gila Monster can be up to 60 cm long.

_____ Along the Pacific coast of Mexico lives the Mexican Beaded Lizard, which has
1155 poison in its bite.

1160

1165

1170 _____ The most nutritious fruit is the lemon, which has a lot of vitamin C.

_____ The most nutritious berry is the strawberry.

_____ Many fruits and berries are very nutritious.

1175
_____ Blackberries are very good for you.

1180

1185

33
 _____ The Rolls-Royce Sweptail costs $13 million!
1190
_____ The famous Italian car, the Ferrari Pininfarina Sergio, costs about $3 million.

_____ Lamborghini also makes several very expensive cars, such as the Roadster
($2.2 million).
1195
_____ Some kinds of cars cost more than one million dollars.

1200

1205

1210 _____ Christmas and Halloween are famous American holidays, but other holidays are
celebrated only in some states.

_____ The state of Nevada celebrates Nevada Day in late October.

1215 _____ On June 11 Hawaii has Kamehameha Day to honor the first king of Hawaii before
it became a state.

_____ Kamehameha became the king of united Hawaiian Islands in 1810.

1220 _____ A woman who fought for woman’s rights is celebrated every Feb. 15 on Susan B.
Anthony Day in California.

1225

1230

34
1235 _____ In California, if you have a frog in a frog-jumping contest, you may not eat the
frog if it dies.

_____ There are some very strange laws in some parts of the United States.

1240 _____ It’s against the law to fall asleep in a cheese shop in Illinois.

_____ There is a law in Pennsylvania that says you cannot catch a fish with your mouth.

1245

1250

1255

_____ The real name of Bangkok, in Thailand, is Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon
Rattanakosin Mahinthara Yuthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani
Burirom Udomratchaniwet Mahasathan Amon Piman Awatan Sathit
1260 Sakkathattiya Witsanukam Prasit.

_____ Another long name is Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllanty-

siliogogogoch, a town in Wales, in Britain.

1265 _____ Some towns and cities in countries around the world have very long names.

_____ The original name of the city of Los Angeles was El Pueblo de la Reina
de los Ángeles.

1270

1275

1280

35
 _____ The holiday of Thanksgiving has a long history.

_____ The first Thanksgiving, in 1621, was a meal shared by 90 Native Americans and
53 European immigrants.
1285
_____ George Washington called for a day of Thanksgiving in 1789.

_____ Foods at the first Thanksgiving included lobsters and pumpkins.

1290 _____ In 1863, President Lincoln called for Thanksgiving to be made a yearly holiday.

_____ Lincoln got the idea from Sarah Josepha Hale, a magazine editor.

1295

1300

1305
_____ In Washington, Oregon, California, Colorado, and some other states it is legal for
adults to use marijuana for medicine or recreation.

_____ In many states, such as Alabama, Kansas, and Idaho, marijuana cannot be used
1310 for any purpose.

_____ Different states have different laws about marijuana.

_____ In some states, like Montana, Ohio, and Utah, it is legal to use marijuana only for
1315 medicine.

1320

36
 Signal Words
To help make their ideas clear, writers use signal words, also known as
transitions.

Writers use signal words to make the connections between their ideas
clear.

There are five common kinds of signal words:

 Addition words to show listing

 Time words to show a sequence
 Example words usually to give a definition/example
 Contrast words to show comparing and contrasting
 Cause and effect words to show a cause and effect relationship

1325 These words help carry the reader from one idea to the next.

ADDITION WORDS
1330 Addition words tell us that writers are adding more ideas to their first idea.
They help writers organize their information and present it clearly to readers.

Here are some common addition words:

1335
one to begin with in addition last
first another next last of all
first of all second moreover final
for one thing also furthermore
finally

Examples:

 A good dinner and a glass of wine at the end of the day relax me. In
addition, they make my problems seem smaller.

 Americans spend the biggest portion of their money on medical and

1340 dental care. The next biggest area of spending is on groceries.

37
  In 1870, the Constitution was amended to guarantee men of any race
the right to vote. Another amendment in 1920 granted women the
right to vote.
Complete each sentence with a logical addition word from the box below. Try
1345 to use each transition once. Then, in the space provided, write the letter of
the transition you have chosen.

A. also B. another C. finally

D. in addition E. second
1350

Hint: Make sure that each addition word or

phrase that you choose fits smoothly into the
flow of the sentence. Test each choice by
1355 reading the sentence aloud.

_____ 1. There are three reasons why top athletes make so much money.
For one thing, they receive big salaries just for playing their
1360 sport. Second, they earn huge fees for personal appearances.
___________________, they make even more money by endorsing
products.

_____ 2. Desert plants such as cactus store up water so they can survive
long periods without rain. Desert animals __________________ find
1365 a way to survive with little water.

_____ 3. Paper and plastics are two products that many communities ask
people to recycle. ____________________ is used motor oil.

_____ 4. Bats are gentle creatures that will bite another animal only in
self-defense. ___________________, a single bat can eat more than
1370 1,200 mosquitoes an hour.

_____ 5. Many couples today are busier than ever. First of all, they must
raise their own children. Their __________________ responsibility is
to care for aging parents.

1375 First, underline the addition words. Then complete the outline of the
paragraph.

38
 1
A. A recent study suggested that parents should be on the lookout for stress
in their children. 2There are several signs of stress in young people. 3Unusual
1380 tiredness in a child is one sign. 4Another is temper tantrums. 5And a third is
the child forgetting known facts, which may result from mental exhaustion.

Main idea: There are several signs of stress in young people.

1.

1385 ________________________________________________________________________

2.

________________________________________________________________________

3.

________________________________________________________________________

1390
1
B. Most people think of pizza as junk food, but pizza contains healthful
ingredients. 2First of all, the crust is rich in B vitamins, which keep the
nervous system work smoothly. 3Also, the tomato sauce is an excellent
source of vitamin A, which is essential for good vision, among other things.
4
1395 And finally, the mozzarella cheese contains protein and calcium, each of
which supports good health in many ways, including keeping bones strong.

Main idea: Pizza contains healthful ingredients.

1. _____________________________________________________________________

1400 2. ________________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________________

1
C. Walking can be a rewarding experience. 2To begin with, walking lets you
chat with your neighbors and see for yourself what's going on in your
neighborhood. 3In addition, a brisk walk is an excellent and inexpensive form
1405 of exercise. 4Moreover, physical exercise such as walking acts as a natural
anti-depressant.

Main idea: Walking can be a rewarding experience.

1.

39
1410 ________________________________________________________________________

2.
________________________________________________________________________

3.
________________________________________________________________________

1415 TIME WORDS

Time words tell us when something happened in relation to when something
else happened.

1420 I let the cooked turkey sit for thirty minutes. THEN I carved it.

Time words help writers organize and make clear

 the order of events

1425  the stages of a change

 the steps in a process.

Here are some common time words:

1430 before third as until after

previously next when now eventually
first soon while then finally
second often during later last

1435 Note: Additional ways of showing time are dates ("In 1850... "; "Throughout
the 20th century... "; "By 2010... ") and other time references ("Within a
week... "; "by the end of the month... "; "in two years... "; “at three
o’clock…”).

1440 Examples:
The following items contain time words. Notice how these words show us
when
something takes place.

 I quickly shut the back door after the mouse ran out.

40
1445  Before their baby daughter was born, my sister and her husband
were sure it was a boy.

 Some teenagers giggled loudly during the movie's love scenes.

Then an usher asked them to leave.

A. Complete each sentence with a suitable time word from the box. Try to
1450 use each transition once. Then, in the space provided, write the letter of
the transition you have chosen.

1455 A. after B. before C. then D. until E. when

_____ 1. __________________ John Kennedy served as a United States

Senator from Massachusetts, he was elected president.

_____ 2. Here is a good way to prepare for a test: Study hard for an hour or
1460 so, and _________________ take a ten-minute break.

_____ 3. James had difficulty learning to swim ____________________ he

learned how to float.

_____ 4. __________________ Washington, D.C. was chosen, the capital of the

United States was Philadelphia.

1465 _____ 5. __________________ she runs out of any grocery item, Gail writes it
on her shopping list.

1470 B. Below is a paragraph that is organized with the help of time words.
Underline the three time words.

1
A psychologist placed a banana just outside the cage of a

1475 chimpanzee and a stick inside the cage. 2Soon, the chimp grabbed the
3
stick and poked it through the bars of the cage. Next, the chimp

dragged the banana within reach. 4Finally, the chimp took the banana

41
 and ate it.

1480

C. Below is another paragraph that is organized with the help of time words.
Underline the three time words. Then complete the outline of the
paragraph.
1485
1
Take the following steps to find the right boyfriend or girlfriend.
2
First, trust your own instincts. 3Don' t be distracted by what your best
friend thinks you should be looking for in a partner. 4Your tastes are what
matters here. 5The next step is to widen your social circle. 6Use e-mail, the
1490 phone, parties, clubs, church, and volunteer activities to be in touch with as
many people as possible. 7You're not going to run into the right person by
sitting at home watching TV. 8And last, don't settle for just anyone who is
willing to date you. 9If you are hanging onto a so-so relationship just so you
aren't alone, you won't be ready if someone really special comes along.
1495

Main idea: Use the following tips to find the right boyfriend or girlfriend.
Include only Major Details.

1500 1. _____________________________________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________________________________

3. _____________________________________________________________________

1505

1510

42
1515

D. Underline the five time words. Then complete the outline of the
paragraph.
1520
1
Do you have a noticeable stain or burn in your carpeting? 2It's a
problem you can correct. 3First, use a sharp utility knife to cut out the
damaged area (but not the padding underneath). 4Second, cut a patch
the same size and shape from a leftover piece of carpet or a spot of
1525 carpeting that's not noticeable, such as under a sofa. 5Next, cut a piece
of cardboard a little larger than the patch. 6Then place the cardboard
where you cut out the damaged piece of carpet. 7Last, glue the carpet patch
to the cardboard.

1530 Main idea: A noticeable stain or burn in a carpet can be corrected.

1.

2.

1535 3.

4.

5.

1540

43
1545

DEFINITION/EXAMPLE WORDS
Definition/Example words tell us that a writer will provide one or more
examples to make a given idea clear, and/or give us the meaning of a new
1550 word or phrase.

Notice the difference between these two ideas:

1. Buyers may find some common problems when buying an old house.
1555 The plumbing, wiring, and roof may need to be replaced.

2. When buying an old house, buyers may find some common problems
such as the plumbing, wiring and roof.

1560 Number two is easier to understand. The words such as is used to present a
list of the problems: plumbing, wiring and roof. Using signal (transition) words
like this helps keep the reader focused on the important ideas by making the
reading easier to understand.

1565 Here are some common example words:

(for) example (for) instance to illustrate

Including is means
1570 such as once

Examples:

The following sentences contain example words. Notice how these words
signal that one or more examples will follow.

1575  At least nine states get their names from rivers that flow through

them. For example, Minnesota is named after the Minnesota River.

 Some English phrases don't make much sense to people just learning

the language. For instance, if you tell a non-native speaker to "keep

an eye out" for somebody, he probably won't know what you're talking

44
1580 about.

 President John F. Kennedy was famous for his sense of humor. Once,
during a lecture he was asked how he had become a hero during World
War II. He answered that he had no choice: "They sank my boat."

1585 Complete each item with a logical example word or phrase from the box
below. Try to use each transition once. Then, in the space provided, write the
letter of the transition you have chosen.

1590 A. for example

B. for
instance C.
including Hint:
1595 D. once Make
E. such as sure
that
each
example word you choose fits smoothly into the
1600 flow of the sentence. Test each choice by reading
the sentence aloud.

_____ 1. Many health claims are made for certain foods. _______________
olive oil is said to reduce heart disease.
1605
_____ 2. Nita's parents speak Spanish when they don't want their
children to understand them, _______________ when they are
planning a birthday party.

1610 _____ 3. Governments own some businesses. _______________, local

governments often own parking areas and water systems.

_____ 4. Certain months of the year, _______________ January, March, and

June are named for Roman gods.
1615
_____ 5. President Abraham Lincoln was famous for his honesty.
______________ , when he worked at a store, he walked several miles

45
 to return change to a customer.

1620

Very often textbook authors will define terms the reader may not know.
Then, to make sure a definition is clear, an author may give one or more
examples. Below are some paragraphs from textbooks. Read each and
1625 answer the questions that follow.

1
A. A phobia is an irrational and extreme fear of some object or situation. 2One
example is a fear of heights that is so extreme that one cannot drive over bridges
1630 without trembling. 3Other common phobias include fears of snakes, water, and
enclosed places.

I. Which sentence gives a definition? __________

1635 2. Which sentence or sentences provides an example? __________

1640

1645

1
B. Functional illiteracy is the inability to read and write at a level required for
1650 success in daily life. 2The problem is wide-ranging. 3For instance, it is estimated
that one in five adults is unable to read warning labels on containers of harmful
substances. 4Other examples are the many adults that cannot read the headlines in
a newspaper or fill out a job application. 5Yet another illustration of this problem
is the half of the adult population in this country that is unable to read a book
1655 written at an eighth-grade level.

46
 I. Which sentence gives a definition? _______________

2. Which sentence provides an example? _______________

C. The following paragraph has a definition-example pattern. Complete the map of the
1660 paragraph. First, write the definition in the heading. Then fill in the two missing
supporting details-examples of the term that is defined.

1
Regeneration is the ability some animals have to renew lost body parts. 2This
ability can come in very handy when a limb is lost in an accident or in a fight. 3For
1665 instance, an octopus can regrow lost tentacles. 4The sea star is another example of an
animal that can regenerate. 5Even one leg of a sea star that includes part of the center of
the body can regenerate a whole new body. 6Also, some lizards can regrow their tails.
7
When such a lizard is caught by its tail, it releases the tail and runs away. 8A new tail is
then grown.
1670

Regeneration: ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

1675

A lizard can
1680 grow a new tail.

1685

47
1690

CONTRAST WORDS
Contrast words signal that a writer is pointing out differences between subjects.
1695  A contrast word shows that two things differ in one or more ways.
 Contrast words also inform us that something is going to differ from what we
might expect.

Notice the difference between these two ideas.

1700 1. The dog next door is lovable. She barks a lot at night.

2. The dog next door is lovable although she barks a lot at night.

The first one suggests that one of the lovable things about the dog is she barks at night.

The second one uses the word although to show a contrast:

- The dog is lovable even though she barks so much at night.

1705 Here are some common words that show contrast:

but instead still difference

yet in contrast as opposed to different(ly)
however on the other hand in spite of differs from
although on the contrary despite unlike
nevertheless even though rather than while
-er words less more

Examples:
The following items contain contrast words. Notice how these words signal that one idea
1710 is different from another idea.
 Alberto was angry when he didn't get a raise. His wife, however,
took the news calmly.
 Tarantulas are scary-looking, but they are actually quite harmless.

48
  A cup of coffee can give you a quick energy boost. On the other
1715 hand, coffee can also make yon irritable and unable to sleep at night.
A. Complete each sentence with a suitable contrast word or phrase from the
box. Try to use each transition once. Then, in the space provided, write the
letter of the transition you have chosen.

A. even though B. however C. in contrast D. in spite of E. rather than

_____ 1. _______________ the day started with sunshine, it rained in the

evening.

_____ 2. Dennis always votes Democratic, _______________ to the other

1725 members of his family.

_____ 3. _______________ the long winters in Alaska, many people enjoy living
there.

_____ 4. _______________ buying curtains from a store, Elena made her

bedroom curtains out of pretty sheets.

1730 _____ 5. Some cats will wait patiently to be fed. Others, _______________, will
follow their owner around the house meowing when they are
hungry.

B. Below is a paragraph that is organized with the help of contrast words.

1735 Underline two contrast words. Then complete the outline of the paragraph.

1
There are two different views of the value of computers in the classroom.
2
Some people feel that computers will soon take over many of the teachers' duties.
3
One writer states, "Computers make do-it-yourself education downright efficient.
4
1740 Your child can probably learn spelling or arithmetic or a foreign language faster on
a computer" than from a teacher in a crowded classroom. 5But others warn that too
much technology may harm children. 6One psychologist says that computers, as
well as video games and TV, may weaken children's language skills.

1745 Main idea: There are two different views of the value of computers in the
classroom.

49
 1. Positive view:
_________________________________________________________
1750
2. Negative view:
_________________________________________________________

1755 C. Underline two contrast words. Then complete the outline of the
paragraph.

1
Doctors and scientists do not agree about when a person is truly dead.
2
Some of them think that a person should be declared legally dead when blood
1760 circulation and breathing have stopped. 3Then organs that are still in good
working order can be removed and donated to critically ill patients in need of a
new liver, heart, or kidney. 4However, there are those who say that death does
not occur until the entire brain stops functioning. 5These people admit that
waiting for brain death means organs may stop working and not be in condition
1765 to be donated. 6But they point out that some individuals have awakened months
after going into a state that seems like death.

Main idea: Doctors and scientists do not agree about when a person is truly

dead.

1770

1. _______________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________________

1775

1780

50
1785

D. Underline the contrast words. Then complete the outline of the paragraph.
1790
1
Do you like to gamble? 2If so, you have plenty of company. 3Whether it's
making a friendly bet on a football game or visiting the Las Vegas casinos, many
people like to gamble. 4For most people, gambling is a bit of harmless fun. 5They
win or lose a few dollars at the card table or slot machine, and they enjoy the
1795 process. 6Yet for others, gambling is a serious addiction. 7Unlike most of us, they
bet money they cannot afford to lose. 8Even if they win, they cannot stop; they
then bet their winnings. 9Eventually they suffer a big loss and have to beg,
borrow, or steal money to try to win it back. 10That sort of gambling has ruined
many people's lives.
1800
Main idea: There are two kinds of gamblers.

1. _______________________________________________________________________
1805

2.
________________________________________________________________________

1810

1815

51
1820

CAUSE AND EFFECT WORDS

1825 Cause and effect words show that the writer is discussing one or more
reasons or results.

Compare the two groups of sentences below.

1. The baby refused to eat her breakfast. I was in a bad mood all morning.

1830 2. The baby refused to eat her breakfast. As a result, I was in a bad mood
all morning.

In the first one, we are not sure of the relationship between the two ideas.
Were there two problems: the baby refusing to eat and the bad mood? Or did

1835 the first problem cause the second one? The phrase as a result makes
clear that the baby's behavior caused the bad mood.

Here are some common cause and effect words:

therefore so because (of) thus

(as a) result effect (as a) consequence results in
cause explanation consequently leads to
affect due to since reason

1840 Examples:

The following examples contain cause and effect words. Notice how these
words introduce a reason for something or the result of something.

1845  Students who work full-time sometimes nap before classes because
they are tired after work.

 One reason for our lower electric bills is that we use less air
conditioning.

52
  The lifeguard thought she saw a shark. As a result, the beach was
1850 closed for the rest of the day.

A. Complete each sentence with a suitable cause and effect word or phrase
from the box. Try to use each transition once. Then, in the space provided,
write the letter of the transition you have chosen.

1855
A. because B. effect C. result D. so E. therefore

_____ 1. Drinking large amounts of carrot juice can _______________ in a person's

skin turning orange.
_____ 2. The contract offer made by management did not satisfy union members.
1860 _______________, they decided to go on strike.
_____ 3. Scientists in the Antarctic no longer wear fur _______________ they have
discovered that quilted, layered clothing keeps them warmer.
_____ 4. Most baseball stadiums have lights _______________ if a daytime game
goes late they can continue to play.
1865 _____ 5. American-style fast food has become popular all over the world. The
_______________ is that people around the world are developing
American-style problems like diabetes, high blood pressure, and obesity.

1870 B. Below is a paragraph that is organized with the help of cause and
effect words. Underline three cause and effect words. Then complete the
outline of the paragraph.

Researchers have learned that laughing can be good for

1

1875 you. Laughing relaxes the facial muscles, causing you to look
2

and feel less tense. 3lt also increases the oxygen in the brain,
resulting in a light-headed sense of well-being. 41n addition,
laughing is a proven stress-reducer; it therefore decreases your
chances of getting stress-related illnesses.
1880
Main idea: Laughing can be good for you.

1. ___________________________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________________________

53
1885
C. Underline two cause and effect words. Then complete the outline.

Changes at the end of the l800s created more work for

1

women. 2In both the home and the workplace, there was a
1890 greater emphasis on being clean. 3As a result, women spent
more time washing, dusting, and scrubbing. 4Another change in
the late 1800s was the availability of a greater variety of foods.
5
Consequently, women spent more time on such food
preparation as plucking feathers from chickens, roasting coffee
1895 beans, grinding whole spices and sugar, and cooking meals. 6By
1900, the typical housewife worked six hours a day on just two
tasks: cleaning and meal preparation.

1900 Main idea: Changes at the end of the 1800s created more work for women.

1.
_______________________________________________________________________

1905
2. _______________________________________________________________________

1910

1915

1920

1925
D. The following passage uses the cause-effect pattern. Complete the map of
the paragraph below.

54
 Being unemployed can have harmful effects on health.
1

1930 2
In poor countries especially, unemployment may result in little
or no medical care. 3The experience of unemployment itself can
affect one's health. 4Studies have shown anxiety and
depression can result from the loss of a job. 5Alcohol and
tranquilizer abuse is another effect of unemployment. 6And
1935 being without work can also lead to high blood pressure and a
rise in heart disease.

____________________
1940
____________________
can have harmful
health effects.

Poor
countries: Anxiety and
little or no depression
medical care

1945

1950

High-Intermediate Reading/Writing
Patterns of Organization

1955 Directions: Based on the topic sentence, predict what kind of organization
the paragraph would have: Listing (L), Sequence/Time (S/T), Cause/Effect

55
 (C/E), Compare/Contrast (C/C), or Definition/Example (D/E). Asked students to
write one more sentence using the appropriate signal word.

1960 1. _S/T_April 12, 1861 marked the beginning of the four years of bloodshed
and bitterness called the Civil War. After that day, the northern states
fought the southern states.

2. _L_America’s highways would be safer if drivers followed three simple

1965 rules. To begin, drivers shouldn’t drink before driving.

3. _C/E_Strong emotions tend to affect the flow of digestive juices and upset
digestion. Therefore, you should calm down so that you don’t ruin your
stomach.
1970
4. ____Children pass through various stages on their way to becoming adults.

5. ____To create a mummy, ancient Egyptians followed a sequence of

unusual steps.
1975
6. ____People often form strong first impressions of others for unusual
reasons.

7. ____Therapists use a broad variety of methods to help individuals cope

1980 with their lives.

8. ____Income taxes have been part of society throughout history, from the
time of the Bible to the present day.

1985 9. ____The widespread use of fluoride in drinking water has resulted in a

significant decrease in childhood dental problems.

10.____A series of important world events led to the creation of the United
Nations in 1945.
1990
11.____The eyes of newborns are both similar to and different from those of
adults.

12. _____Parents tend to treat the oldest child differently from his or her siblings.
1995
13. _____ Artificial intelligence (AI) is a term that describes computer programs that solve
problems by “thinking” the way people do.

14. _____ The high cost of college today creates several problems for many students in more
2000 ways than one.

56
 15. __C/C_ Identical twins, even when raised separately, have remarkably similar mannerisms.

16. __L__ There are a number of symptoms of drug abuse.

2005
17. __L_ There are three reasons why the Titanic sank.

18. _D/E_ Usury is the practice of lending money and charging too much for interest.

2010 19. _C/C_ Sandy and muddy shores appear empty of life at low tide, unlike the abundant life
found on rocky shores.

20. _L__ People develop poor listening skills for several reasons.

2015 21. _D/E__ Symmetry is the balanced arrangement of body parts around a center point.

22. _C/E_ A family’s image of itself affects the way it works.

23. _S/T_ Throughout his life, William Bradford was a humble man.
2020
24. _L_ Three broad categories of leadership have been identified.

25. _L__ Managers know that there are two common work styles for employees.

2025 26. _D/E_ The coral reefs are in danger.

27. _C/E__ Too little sleep can lead to reduced performance on the job or in school

28. _L_ There are three stages of male adolescence.

2030
29. _L_ Studies show that intelligence can be broken down into many categories.

30. _C/C_ When life brings setbacks and tragedies to optimists, they weather those storms
better than pessimists do.
2035
31. _C/C_ In recent years, drivers have fallen in love with a new form of automobile – the SUV.
These truck-like vehicles, however, are not necessarily an improvement over the traditional
car.

2040 32. _L_ There are some common reasons that small businesses fail.

57
 Directions: Name the pattern of organization for each paragraph. Underline
the main idea/topic sentence. Circle ONLY the signal words that help you
understand the pattern of organization. Tell how many major details each
paragraph has.
2045
1. As news sources, websites have several advantages over newspapers.
Online news sources can publish a story within minutes of an event
happening, or continually update an existing story. On the other hand, a
daily newspaper is published just once a day. Websites are more friendly to
2050 the environment; they require no raw material, while newspapers mean the
destruction of many trees. Moreover, the search feature on most news
websites lets readers find the story they want quickly, as opposed to wading
through many pages looking for it.

2055 Pattern: ____________________________ Number of Major Details:

___________

2. Various experiments reveal there are several reasons why people will
or will not help others. One reason is how deserving the victim is thought to
2060 be. This was shown in an experiment in which people pretended to be in
need of help. If they carried a cane, they were helped more promptly than if
they carried a liquor bottle. . .

Pattern: ____________________________ Number of Major Details:

2065 ___________

3. Homeless people may resist being taken to city shelters, where they
could get a hot meal and a bed for the night. For one thing, they may feel
safer on their own than crowded together with others. There is also the
2070 matter of simple pride. Many do not want to admit to others that they need a
place to stay.

Pattern: ____________________________ Number of Major Details:

___________
2075
4. Flathead River and Lake in Montana have been changed by the
introduction of opossum shrimp. Between 1968 and 1975, the tiny shrimp
were added to the Flathead waters. The shrimp ate many of the small
creatures at the bottom of the system’s food chain, causing major reductions
2080 in the numbers of those creatures. For example, plankton decreased more
than 30 percent between 1970 and 1980. At the same time, mineral
nutrients were changing because of the presence of the shrimp. As a result,
populations of algae began to increase.

2085 Pattern: ____________________________ Number of Major Details:

___________

5. Positive and negative moods affect our behavior more similarly than
you might expect. When we are in a good mood, we tend to be more
2090 sociable and more giving in our behavior. For example, we spend more time

58
 with others, and we help others more. What happens when we’re in a bad
mood? You might think that people in a bad mood would be more withdrawn
and help other people less, and sometimes this is true. But often, people
who are in a bad mood want to escape that mood. Instead of acting in a way
2095 that is consistent with their bad mood, they try to work themselves out of it
by being sociable, by helping others, or by engaging in other positive actions.

Pattern: ____________________________ Number of Major Details:

___________
2100
6. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a simple technique involving
just a few steps. First, open the victim’s mouth and be certain that the
mouth, nose and throat are free of any obstructions. Then begin artificial
breathing by blowing into the victim’s mouth while keeping the nostrils
2105 closed with your fingers. Next, check to see if there is a pulse. Finally, if
there is no pulse, begin a rhythmic pumping action on the chest over the
heart to restore circulation.

Pattern: ____________________________ Number of Major Details:

2110 ___________

7. All of us have certain fears at different points in our lives. When we

are young children, we worry that something bad will happen to our parents.
We are afraid of being alone if our parents die or go away. Then, as
2115 teenagers, we fear that we will be socially rejected or seen as “uncool”
nobodies. We often act against our better instincts in order to be accepted
as one of the crowd. Later, if we become parents, our greatest fear is that
someone or something will harm our children. Our sense of love and
responsibility for our kids makes the thought of our children being hurt our
2120 greatest nightmare. Last, when elderly, we fear poor health and death. We
worry about losing our independence, being a burden to other people, and
the end of our lives.

Pattern: ____________________________ Number of Major Details:

2125 ___________

59
 COMPARE/CONTRAST
My life now and my life five years ago are similar but there are also some major
differences. Five years ago, I was living in Havre and going to high school. I didn’t have to work
2130 because my parents supported me. I went to school every day and spent time with my friends. I
babysat my nieces every day after school because both of my parents were working at the time. I
had the responsibility of feeding them and making sure nothing happened to them while I was
watching them. I didn’t really have any major goals five years ago. I wasn’t really thinking about
my future quite yet. On the other hand, now I live in Great Falls and I’m not in high school
2135 anymore. I have to work now in order to support myself. I only work twenty hours a week
because I’m in school right now. I have a lot more responsibility now than I did five years ago. I
have to take responsibility for myself now and everything that I do. I have a lot of major goals
now. For instance, I want to graduate and get my two year degree. I want to come back and get a
bachelor’s degree. I have a lot of things that I want to accomplish now. Five years ago, I really
2140 wasn’t going anywhere with my life, but now I’m starting to get my life in order and deciding
what I want to do. In addition, I am still living at home with my parents and I still go to school. I
still baby sit my nieces every once in a while. I find time to spend with my family and friends. I
still have some of the same responsibilities. I help my mom take care of my oldest niece. She has
always lived with us, so I’ve always helped take care of her ever since she was a baby. Even

60
2145 though she is not a baby anymore, I still have to baby sit her when my parents are gone because
she is not quite old enough to stay by herself yet. I still have to depend on my parents for
transportation because I don’t have a vehicle right now. My life now has changed a lot in only
five years.
DIFFERENT DIFFERENT
2150

SAME

61
 Cause/Effect Paragraph Practice
2155
Read the paragraphs below and fill out the cause / effect charts.

Experts point out four reasons why the divorce rate has increased in the United States. One
explanation is a lack of time for many couples to work at their marriage. With husband and wife often
2160 holding down jobs outside the home, there may be little energy for everything else that goes into a
partnership. Another cause is the “me-first” attitude in today’s society. Some people put their own
personal happiness ahead of the well-being of a spouse and family. In addition, women now have more
freedom of choice. Their ability to support themselves means that they can more easily leave an
unhappy marriage. Finally, because divorce is so much more common, it has also become more socially
2165 acceptable. People are no longer embarrassed by a parting of the ways.

Effect:

2170

Cause: Cause: Cause: Cause:

2175

2180 Increases in the numbers of elderly people will have a major impact in Europe, Canada,
and the United States. One effect of the aging of these populations is that the number of
working-age people will go sharply down, leaving fewer people available to fill jobs. Also, as the
number of retired people increases, there will be a bigger demand on the countries’ pension
systems. A third effect will be an immense strain on national medical services. Elderly people
2185 draw upon far more of a society’s health-care services than do young people.

Cause:

2190

Effect: Effect: Effect:

2195

2200

62
 Cause/Effect Paragraph Practice

Read the paragraph below and fill out the cause / effect charts.

2205
Events leading to alcohol abuse in the United States took place in the eighteenth century. At that
time, developments in agriculture had caused a surplus of grain. Farmers in the Midwest wanted to sell
their surplus grain on the East Coast, which was more heavily populated. The most profitable way to do
this was to convert the extra grain into something Easterners would buy: whiskey. As a result, whiskey
2210 production rose. And the increase in whiskey led to an increase in its use. Before long, alcohol
consumption in the country rose to alarming proportions.

2215
   

2220

What kind of organizational pattern does each paragraph use? Underline

the main idea/topic sentence. Circle ONLY the signal words that help you
2225 understand the pattern of organization.

1. ________ It’s easy to have a successful garage sale if you prepare for it ahead of time.
First, collect used items in good condition. These items can be clothes, toys, books, dishes,
lamps, furniture, or sporting goods. Then, clean everything well and store it in your garage until
2230 the day of the sale. The next thing you should do is decide on a day and time for the sale. After
that, decide on the prices and mark a price on each item. If you are not sure how much to charge,
check the prices at other garage sales in your community. Fifth, make signs advertising the date,
time and address of your sale and put them up around your neighborhood. The day before the
sale you should get some change from the bank. Get at least twenty dollars in one-dollar bills, a
2235 roll of quarters, and a roll of dimes. Next, get up early on the morning of the sale and arrange the
items on tables in your driveway and in your garage. Finally, sit back and wait for your
customers to arrive. Be prepared to bargain! That’s part of the fun of having a garage sale.

63
 2. ________ Plea bargaining is the process by which defendants bargain away their right to a
2240 trial. The defendants plead guilty to a lesser charge. In return, they receive a lesser punishment
than if they were found guilty of the original charge. For example, a person accused of first-
degree murder may plead guilty to second-degree murder.

2245 3. ________ The famous Leaning Tower of Pisa has been tilting for over 800 years, and recent
improvements should allow it to continue tilting for another 300 more. On August 9, 1173,
construction began on this well known Italian bell tower. Almost immediately, it began leaning
because it was being erected on the soft silt of a buried riverbed. Between 1178 and 1360, work
stopped and started two more times as workers tried to continue the project and figure out how to
2250 compensate for the tilt. Over the next six centuries, the tower’s lean continued to increase,
although tourists were still allowed to visit. Then, in 1990, Italy’s prime minister feared the tower
would collapse and closed it to the public. From 1999 to 2001, engineers excavated soil from
beneath the tower. Now, the tower still leans out about 15 feet beyond its base, but it should
remain stable for several more centuries.
2255

4. ________ Acrophobia is an intense, unreasonable fear of high places. People with

acrophobia exhibit emotional and physical symptoms in response to being at great heights. For
instance, one sufferer of extreme acrophobia, Andrea Copeland, is unable to go above the third
2260 floor of any building without feeling enormous anxiety. Her acrophobia began one evening when
she was working alone in her office on the eighth floor of a large building. Suddenly she was
struck with terror. She gathered her things and left the building, Yet, she still has no rational
explanation for her fear, which is also typical of this type of phobia.

2265 6. ________ An altruistic person is someone who will help others even when he or she expects
no benefits in return. Consider the example of one of the passengers on a plane that crashed into
the Potomac River one cold January day in 1982. Most of the passengers died under the ice, but
six passengers escaped into the icy waters. Every time a life preserver was lowered by a
helicopter, one man passed it on to one of the other five. When the helicopter had lifted out all
2270 five, it returned to pick up that last survivor, but he had disappeared under the ice.

64
 7. ________ Although caffeine is the world’s most widely consumed drug, few of its users
realize how powerful it is. Caffeine is a drug that acts fast. In less than five minutes after you’ve
2275 drunk a cup of coffee, caffeine is racing to every part of your body. Its effects are many,
including increasing the flow of urine and stomach acid, relaxing involuntary muscles, and
stepping up the intake of oxygen. Caffeine also boosts the pumping strength of the heart, and too
much caffeine can cause an irregular heartbeat. A small dose of caffeine can improve your
performance as you type or drive, but the effect of too much caffeine will make you shaky and
2280 unsteady.

8. ________ Unlike schools in other countries, the educational system in the United States can
be seen as placing limits on teachers. Our teachers often cannot choose their own textbooks but
must use whatever books are chosen by a local school board or district office. On the other hand,
2285 teachers in France are free to do their job in almost any way they want. Teachers are permitted to
pick the books for their classes or to not even use any books.

9. ________ The history of books is marked by many important milestones. Among the
earliest of these would have to be the establishment of the first public library. This event took
2290 place in Athens, Greece, in 540 B.C. Books then had to be copied by hand until 1456, when
another important milestone was reached. The German inventor Johann Gutenberg built a
printing press capable of producing multiple copies of one book. After printing presses were
established, books spread everywhere. By the 1800s, American publishing houses were pumping
out works to satisfy a reading-hungry public. An example of a best-selling book was Uncle
2295 Tom’s Cabin, which was published in 1852 and sold seven million copies. The next chapter in
the history of books began in the 1980s, with the publishing of books on audiotape. Today, we
even have electronic books that can be downloaded from the Internet.

11. ________ Streetcars had a dramatic impact on the character of city life. Before their
2300 introduction, cities were limited in size by the distances people could conveniently walk to work.
The “walking city” could not easily extend more than two and a half miles from its center.
Streetcars increased this radius to six miles or more. Consequently, the area of a city expanded
enormously. This led to wealthier people moving away from the center of the city in search of
air and space, leaving the jam-packed older neighborhoods to the poor. This flight of middle-
2305 class people from urban centers resulted in the growth of inner city ghettos.

65
 10. ________ There’s no foolproof way to keep a burglar out, but there are precautions you can
take. First of all, the best defense against a break-in is lights. Keep an inside and an outside light
on at night. Second, if you are going to be home late or away, use timers to turn the lights, radio,
2310 and television on and off to give the appearance that someone is home. You should also think of
your house as a fort. In many burglaries, thieves simply breeze in through unlocked doors or
windows. Keep doors locked even when you are home. Depriving burglars of what they need is
a final step you can take. Keep bushes and trees trimmed away from windows and doors to
eliminate places for burglars to lurk. Put away ladders, rakes, brooms, and other equipment that
2315 thieves might use to help them break in. These steps won’t guarantee that your house will be
safe, but they will help minimize the risk.

66
2320 Inferencing
Inferences are ideas that are not stated directly.

2325 They are conclusions that we come to using the information presented, our
own experience, and common sense.

Making inferences is a skill we practice all the time with much of what we
see and read.
2330

You make
2335 inferences when
you guess the In our everyday reading, we often "read between
meaning of a word the lines" and pick up ideas that are not directly
in a sentence using stated in print.
the context. Look at
2340 the following
sentence: You use this skill in your own language
without even knowing it!

Assets
such as
good
To make inferences, we use clues provided by the writer,
health,
a and we also apply our own knowledge, logic, and facts.
loving
family,
and an
enjoya
ble job
make
life
worth
living.

2350
The sentence does
not tell us exactly
what assets means.
However, it does
suggest that assets
are valuable things
such as good health,
a loving family, and 2. Why is the boy asking how to use a book?
an enjoyable job.
We can then infer 67
that assets means
"things of value."
2355 1. What happened to the cat?
Why?

2360

3. Why does the man sitting down think the

news article is unbelievable? (It says, 4. Do you think she is a good teacher?
“Americans Throw Away 40% of Food”) Why or why not?

2365

2370

5. Why are the boss and employee lying?

2375

6. Why do the pigs think the wolf has played 68

too many video games??
7. Why is the snowman unhappy?
2380

2385

2390

69
 11. Why is the boy impatient for summer to come?

2395

70
 Inferences with Cartoons

Directions: Put a check by the two inferences that are most logically based on the
2400 information given in the following cartoon.

____ 1. The boy doesn’t like monkeys

2405 ____ 2. The boy has probably never
seen animals in a zoo.
____ 3. The father is angry with the boy.
____ 4. The boy thinks the monkey is being
punished.
2410 ____ 5. The boy and his father go to the
zoo often.

2415

2420 “He didn’t do anything, Gregory. This

is a zoo.”

2425

____ 1. The dog is afraid of the man.

____ 2. The dog wants to go for a walk.
____ 3. The man doesn’t mind leaving his
2430 television set.
____ 4. The man has been ignoring the dog.
____ 5. The television set is brand new.

2435

71
2440 When we make an inference, it must be a reasonable idea. It must also be
the MOST reasonable idea; if there are one or more other equally possible
explanations, then we cannot infer one of them more than the others.

2445 A book is open on a desk in the city library, but no one is sitting there.
a) Someone has been reading.
b) The book fell from a shelf and landed open.
c) A student has been studying.
d) The book does not close.
2450

The key you are using does not open the door of your house.
a) The lock was changed.
b) You are at the wrong house.
2455 c) It’s the wrong key.

Joan’s students notice that Joan, who does not usually wear hats, is wearing a hat to class today.
a) Joan got a really ugly haircut yesterday.
2460 b) Joan wants to try out a new fashion style.
c) Joan is a teacher.
d) The air conditioner is located above Joan’s desk, and she doesn’t like to feel cold.

2465 Mark took his umbrella when he left for work today.
a) It was raining when Mark left for work.
b) Mark's umbrella was broken and he planned to take it to the repair shop.
c) The weather forecast called for rain later in the day.
d) Mark doesn't like to get wet when it rains.
2470

Bert and Ernie were flopping around on the kitchen floor in a puddle of water. Broken glass
was all around them.

2475 What does “flop” mean?

What kinds of things made of glass might break and leave a puddle of water behind?
Inference: Who are Bert and Ernie?

2480 I found it in the middle of the sidewalk on my way home from school one spring morning. It
was very tiny and it was hardly breathing when I picked it up. I fed it raw meat and other
treats for several weeks. Soon, it became strong and started to hop around. One day, someone
left a window open. When I came home from work, I discovered that it had disappeared.

2485 Inference: What is “it”?

The real heroes of the fight against drugs are the teenagers who resist the ghetto’s fast track
– those who live at home, stay in school, and juggle their studies and low-paying jobs. The

72
 wonder is that there are so many of them. “Most of our youngsters are not involved in crack,”
says the chief judge of one juvenile court in Michigan. “Most are not running around with guns.
2490 Most are not killing people. Most are doing very well – against great odds.” They are the
youngsters who fit these words of Jesse Jackson: “You were born in the slum, but the slum
wasn’t born in you.”

Choose the answer for each question that is the most logical inference based on the
2495 information in the paragraph above.

1. We can conclude that the author’s attitude toward ghetto teenagers who live at home,
stay in school, and work is
a. disapproving
2500 b. admiring
c. neutral

2. We can infer that the author believes resisting crime in the ghetto
a. is a challenge
2505 b. requires no effort
c. is impossible

3. When Jackson says, “ . . . but the slum wasn’t born in you,” he implies that
a. being born in the slums is good
2510 b. people can rise above their slum environment
c. being born in the slums means a person will become a criminal
_____________________________________________________________________________

When I look back at myself in high school, I am amazed by two things: how smart I
2515 thought I was, and how much I didn’t know. It seems to me now that I learned few, if any,
important lessons in high school. For example, I learned a good deal about “romance.” That is, I
learned about fighting, jealousy, spreading rumors, breaking up, gossip, and using other people.
I don’t think I learned anything about genuine love and concern for a partner. I learned about
“fun.” That meant partying, drinking, smoking, putting off work, and lying to my parents. I
2520 learned very little about the satisfaction of a job well done or the rewards of discipline. Finally, I
learned all about fitting in and going along with the crowd and being one of the cool people. I
didn’t learn anything about standing up for what I believed, or even figuring out what that was.
I learned almost nothing about being me.

2525 Choose the two inferences that are most logically based on the information given in the
paragraph above.

1. The author had low self-esteem in high school.

2. The author was not popular in high school.
2530 3. Schoolwork was not a priority for the author during high school.
4. The author is proud of his or her behavior in high school.
5. If the author could go to high school again, he or she would do things differently.

73
 Rap music has become popular with young people around the world. However,
2535 some experts believe that Rap music may also have some negative effects on young
listeners. For example, many Rap songs, such as “Gangsta Rap”, promote the use of
violence, and some teenagers may try to copy this behavior. There are also many
references to drug use in some Rap songs. Often the rapper talks about life on the street
corners selling drugs to make money. Another common theme in Rap music is the
2540 disrespectful treatment of women which are often seen as mere sex-objects. Troubled
teens often identify with this type of music.

1. Teens who listen to rap music will become criminals.

2. Rap music causes people to become drug addicts.
2545 3. Rap music is the cause of the increasing crime rates all over the world.
4. Some teenagers may be influenced by the lyrics of rap songs.

Can you infer the main idea of these paragraphs?

Cutting down on your responsibilities is one way to minimize stress in your life. You can also
2550 relax yourself by breathing deeply, rather than taking light, shallow breaths. Peaceful music is
also soothing if you focus your attention on it and consciously disregard distracting thoughts.
Another good way to release tension is to exercise regularly, which, rather than tiring you out,
builds energy and endurance.

A. Cutting down on responsibilities lessens stress.

2555 B. You can relax by breathing deeply.
C. Stress has several harmful effects.
D. There are several ways you can reduce stress in your life.

Fifty years ago, Americans were sleeping an average of eight to twelve hours a night, but
2560 by 1990 they were down to only seven hours a night. Now many Americans average only about
six hours of sleep a night. Extensive research shows that losing an hour or two of sleep every
night, week after week, month after month, makes it more difficult for people to pay attention
and to remember
things. Reaction time slows down, behavior becomes unpredictable, logical reasoning is
2565 impaired, and accidents and errors in judgment increase, while productivity and the ability to
make decisions decline. Students fall asleep in class and fail to learn all that they should.
Marriages become more stressful as sleep-exhausted parents try to cope with their children and
each other. Truck and auto drivers fall asleep at the wheel, and experts estimate that accidents
result in over 1,500 deaths in this country a year. Workers perform less efficiently, and those in
2570 high-risk positions can endanger us all. For example, sleep deprivation led to the accident at the
nuclear power plant at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania.

A. The loss of sleep in America has led to serious problems.

B. Americans have lost sleep steadily over the last fifty years.
2575 C. Sleep loss affects the performance of students and parents.
D. Sleep loss affects the performance of drivers and workers.

74
 Just as I’m about to be kissed by the most gorgeous man I ever laid eyes upon, I am
jolted by a “beep…beep.” Another great dream moment ruined by that alarm-clock buzzer! I
drag myself out of the warm bed and grope around until I find the bathroom, where the tile
2580 floor is so cold it numbs my bare feet. Then I’m somehow expected to pick out something neat
and clean to wear—a bit of a challenge considering I haven’t done any laundry for six weeks
now. Once I’m in the kitchen to get my caffeine fix, I must make a special effort not to bite the
heads off of the people I live with. This is not easy, since they are so pleasant and energetic in
the mornings.

2585 A. An alarm-clock buzzer is a terrible noise to hear in the morning.

B. Mornings are not my favorite time of day.
C. I have trouble finding time to do my laundry.
D. There ought to be a law against being pleasant in the mornings.

2590 Researchers who study the “science” of shopping note that men always move faster
than women through a store’s aisle. Men spend less time looking, too. They usually don’t like
asking where things are, or any other questions. When a man takes clothing into a dressing
room, the only thing that stops him from buying it is if it doesn’t fit. Women, on the other hand,
try things on as only part of the consideration process, and garments that fit just fine may still
2595 be rejected on other grounds. Here’s another contrast: 86 percent of women look at price tags
when they shop. Only 72 percent of men do. For a man, ignoring the price tag is almost a
measure of his masculinity. As a result, men are far more easily encouraged to buy more
expensive versions of the same product than are women shoppers. They are also far more
suggestible than women—men seem so anxious to get out of the store that they’ll say yes to
2600 almost anything.

A. Men always move faster than women when shopping.

B. Women look at price tags more than men.
C. Men and women behave differently when shopping.
2605 D. Men make more expensive choices when shopping.

Lack of gravity changes how astronauts look during their first few days in space. Body
fluids at first flow more towards the head, puffing up the face. And no matter how often
astronauts brush their hair, it still tends to float loosely around their heads. In addition,
2610 because in the absence of gravity open water floats in the air, astronauts are limited in how they
clean themselves in space. For example, they have to swallow their toothpaste rather than rinse
their mouths out after brushing.

A. Astronauts’ faces puff up in space at first.

2615 B. The absence of gravity in space influences astronauts’ looks and grooming
habits.
C. When astronauts are in space, their hair tends to float loosely about their heads
because of the absence of gravity.
D. Being in space is very challenging in numerous ways.

2620

75
 Radios have been stolen from four cars in our parking garage this month. Each time, the
thieves have managed to get by the parking garage security with radios in hand, even though
they do not have a parking garage identification card, which people must show as they enter
2625 and exit the garage. Yet each time, the security officers say they have seen nothing unusual.

A. There are too many thefts in the garage.

B. There are not enough security guards.
C. There is something wrong with the security in the parking garage.
2630
Read the next four passages and put an "X" next to any statement that can be
reasonably inferred.

Sitting alone in a dining room where bank officers had lunch, a researcher listened to
2635 what they were talking about at nearby tables. When no woman was present, the men talked
mostly about business. They rarely spoke about people. The next most popular topics were
food, sports, and recreation. When women talked alone, their most frequent topic was people,
especially friends, children, and partners in personal relationships. Business was next, and then
health, including weight control. Together, women and men tended to avoid the topic that each
2640 group liked best. Instead, they settled on topics of interest to both, but they followed the style
of the men-only conversations. They talked about food the way men did, focusing on the food
and restaurant rather than diet and health. They talked about recreation the way men did,
concentrating on sports figures and athletic events rather than on exercising for weight control.
And they talked about housing the way men did, dealing mostly with location, property values,
2645 and commuting time. They did not talk about whether a house is suitable for the family, how
safe the neighborhood is, or what kinds of people live next door.

_____ 1. Men and women prefer different topics and styles of conversation.
_____ 2. Women never change their style of conversation.
2650 _____ 3. Men have fewer personal relationships than women do.
_____ 4. Men tend not to talk about their personal relationships.
_____ 5. Women care more about food than men do.
_____ 6. Women speak differently when speaking to each other than they do when speaking
with men.
2655 _____ 7. Women are more interested in dieting than men are.
_____ 8. There's really very little difference between men's and women's conversations.

A sociology professor wrote on the board, “A woman without her man is nothing” and,
with a smile, asked students to punctuate the sentence correctly. The men all wrote, “A woman,
2660 without her man, is nothing.” However, the women wrote, “A woman: Without her, man is
nothing.”

_____ 1. The professor was definitely a man.

_____ 2. The professor did not believe students could punctuate the words correctly.
2665 _____ 3. The professor knew there was more than one way to punctuate the words correctly.
_____ 4. The professor is not a good teacher.
_____ 5. Gender differences caused students to read and punctuate the professor’s words
differently.

76
 In America during the 1700s, the typical woman gave birth to her children at home.
2670 Female relatives and neighbors would gather at her bedside to offer support and
encouragement. Records show that the daughter of a Puritan official gave birth to her first child
on the last day of January 1701. At least eight other women were present at her bedside,
including her mother and four or more other neighbors. Most women were assisted in
childbirth not by a doctor, but by a midwife. Skilled midwifes were highly valued. Communities
2675 tried to attract experienced midwives by offering a salary or a house rent-free. In addition to
assisting in childbirth, midwives helped farm animals give birth and attended the baptisms and
burials of infants. During labor, midwives gave no painkillers except alcohol. Pain in childbirth
was considered God's punishment for Eve's sin of eating the forbidden fruit in the Garden of
Eden. After delivery, new mothers were often treated to a banquet. Women from well-to-do
2680 families were then expected to spend three to four weeks in bed recovering. Women from
poorer families were generally back at work in one or two days.

_____ 1. In colonial America, there were no doctors.

_____ 2. Giving birth in colonial America was typically a lonely experience.
2685 _____ 3. In colonial America, midwives filled several community roles.
_____ 4. Society's view of pain in childbirth has changed since the 1700s.
_____ 5. Poor women recovered faster from childbirth than rich women.

2690
I remember the day when I arrived in America. I was overwhelmed by all the things
that I saw around me because they were so different from my country. One thing that I
noticed immediately was the number of obese Americans. When I got off the plane and
walked around the airport, I noticed some people that were 250 or even 300 pounds. I
2695 have rarely seen people that overweight in my country. I assumed that this was caused
by the unhealthy food that so many Americans eat every day.

_____ 1. Americans are fat.

_____ 2. Many Americans don’t exercise enough.
2700 _____ 3. Americans eat too much junk food.
_____ 4. Obesity is a bigger problem in America than in my country.

When Oprah Winfrey was a child, she lived with her mother and two younger half-siblings in
2705 a Milwaukee apartment without electricity or running water. One Christmas Eve, her mother
told her there would be no celebration that year. There was no money to buy presents. “But
what about Santa Claus?” Oprah asked. Her mother answered that there wasn’t enough money
to pay Santa to come. As she went to bed that night, Oprah dreaded the following day. She
knew the neighbor children would be outside playing with their toys and comparing presents.
2710 She tried to think of a story she could tell the other kids to explain why she had nothing. Then
she heard the doorbell ring. Three nuns had come to the apartment. They brought a turkey, a
fruit basket, and toys for the children. “I’ve never had a stronger feeling of someone lifting me
up,” she says today. “Their kindness made me feel so much better about myself.” Oprah
remembers that Christmas as the best she ever had.
2715

77
 1. We can infer that before the nuns came, Oprah dreaded the next day because she
________________________________________________________________________

2. We can conclude this was Oprah’s best Christmas because

2720 _______________________________________________________________________

3. What can we infer Oprah would most likely have done the next day if the nuns had not
come?
_______________________________________________________________________
2725

1 The British prime minister Winston Churchill was a master of the elegant put-down. At
one fancy dinner party, he was seated next to a favorite target – a woman whose political views
2730 were opposed to his own. The two argued more or less continually throughout the meal.
Totally annoyed, the lady said, “Sir Winston, if you were my husband, I’d put poison in your
coffee!” “Madam,” replied Churchill, “if you were my wife, I’d drink it.”

Put an "X" next to any statement that is a valid inference based on

2735 the passage above.

We can conclude that Churchill

_____ a) constantly put people down
_____ b) liked to put down his political opponents
2740 _____ c) was rarely invited to political dinner parties
When Churchill said, “If you were my wife, I’d drink it,” he meant to imply that
_____ d) he admired the woman so much he would do whatever she said
_____ e) the woman makes delicious coffee
_____ f) he would rather die than be married to her
2745 We can conclude that the author of the passage admires
_____ g) Churchill’s wit
_____ h) Churchill’s political views
_____ i) the woman’s political views

2750
2 At a White House dinner during the Civil War, an elderly guest waved his hat and cried
out, “Mr. President, I’m from New York State, where we believe that God and Abraham Lincoln
will save this country.” Lincoln – a modest and religious man, smiled and nodded. “My friend,”
he said, “you’re half right.”
2755
Put an "X" next to any statement that is a valid inference based on
the passage above.

78
 _____ a) Lincoln believed the guest was right in saying that he, Lincoln, would save the country.
2760 _____ b) The elderly guest believed that the U.S. needed help.
_____ c) Lincoln believed the guest was right in saying that God would save the country.
_____ d) The elderly guest was not a religious man.
_____ e) Lincoln believed the guest was right in saying that God and Lincoln would save the
country.
2765
Read the following passage and then check the two inferences that are most
firmly based on the given information.
1
My wife is a murderer. 2I got her a plant as a surprise one-month anniversary gift,
2770 and she proceeded to kill it. 3She wasn't trying to kill it, but she doesn't exactly have a
green thumb. 4In the belief that all living things require water, she began flooding the
plant on a daily basis. 5"Be careful not to overwater it," I warned. 6"Plants need air as
well as water." 7"Okay," she replied, and then dumped on another gallon of water. 8The
sicker the plant got, the more she watered it. 9Finally, it melted away into an oozing heap.
10
2775 One day I returned home to see that the plant and its pot had simply disappeared. 11We
had not been married that long yet, but I figured the safest thing to do was to say nothing.

_____ 1. The woman did not believe the man's advice.

_____ 2. The women wanted to kill the plant.

2780 _____ 3. The man knows more about plants than his wife does.

_____ 4. The man is very angry at his wife.

_____ 5. The man was surprised that the plant died.

Explanation:

1. The woman continues to water the plant heavily after her husband's warning; she obviously did not
2785 believe his advice. You should have checked this item.

2. The man says that his wife wasn't trying to kill the plant, but that she simply lacks a green thumb. We
can infer that she accidentally, not intentionally, killed the plant. The man states that his wife is a
"murderer" for comic effect. People cannot "murder" plants.
2790
3. Since the man knows that overwatering is not good for plants, he must know more about plants than his
wife does. You should have checked this item.

4. The man says that "the safest thing to do was to say nothing." His words suggest that he fears her
2795 reaction if he says something about the dead plant. If he had been very angry at her, he probably would
have said something.

4. The wife's continued overwatering of the plant, which the man notices and comments upon, suggests

79
 that he is not surprised that the plant died.
2800 Can you guess the meaning of have a green thumb? (Hint: the wife doesn’t have a green
thumb. The wife doesn’t take good care of plants.) So to have a green thumb means
________________.

2805 Read each passage and check the two inferences you can make using the
given information.

1
A. In the 1600s, the word spinster referred to any
2810 female. 2Spinning thread or yarn for cloth was something
every woman did at home. 3By 1700, spinster had become
a legal term for an unmarried woman. 4Such women had to
work to survive, and spinning was their most common job.
5
Before long, however, spinning was done in factories.
6
2815 Spinster then suggested someone who was "left over" or
"dried up," just as the job of home spinning had dried up
for women. 7Today, with so many women working and
marrying later and later, most single women consider the
word spinster an insult.
2820
_____ 1. Women who could spin were thought to make especially good wives.
_____ 2. The word spinster was not originally an insulting term.
_____ 3. Today's single women should be proud to be called spinsters.
_____ 4. At one time in history, unmarried women were looked down upon.
2825 _____ 5. Today, single women are no longer called spinsters.

1
B. Sentenced to execution, some condemned American criminals have used their
last moments to share a witty last word with observers. 2George Appel was electrocuted
in 1928. 3Just before the switch was pulled, he joked with the onlookers: "Well, folks,
2830 soon you'll see a baked Appel." 4James W. Rodgers was shot by firing squad in 1960.
5
When asked if he had a last request, he replied, "Why, yes-a bullet-proof vest." 6James
French was sent to the electric chair in 1966. 7On the way to his execution, he caught the
attention of a nearby reporter. 8"I have a terrific headline for you in the morning," he said;
"French Fries." 9Jesse Bishop was sentenced to die by gas chamber in 1979. 10His last
2835 words were: "I've always wanted to try everything once …Let's go!"

_____ 1. Different methods of execution are used in the United States.

_____ 2. Appel, Rodgers, and Bishop were innocent of the crimes they
Were accused of.
2840 _____ 3. Appel, Rodgers, and Bishop all wanted to die.

80
 _____ 4. There are generally witnesses watching an execution.
_____ 5. People watching the executions were shocked by the convicted men's remarks.
1
C. In 1857, a group of Egyptian salesmen tried to convince Congress that camels
should be used in desert outposts in the West. 2The salesmen pointed out that camels
2845 could carry up to 1,000 pounds more than an elephant. 3They said a camel's energy was
almost limitless. 4As proof, they had a camel race a horse across difficult land covering
110 miles. 5The horse won the race but died shortly afterward. 6To show how much
staying power the camel had, the salesmen had the camel run again the next day. 7The
camel covered the same area at the same speed. 8The salesmen then pointed out how little
2850 water camels need. 9Camels barely sweat, and they regulate their body temperatures
depending on the heat. 10Congress was convinced and bought seventy-five camels for
soldiers to use. 11However, soldiers hated the beasts and turned them loose in the desert.
12
Most disappeared, but there are still occasional sightings of camels in remote desert
regions today.
2855
_____ 1. Camels are bad-tempered animals.
_____ 2. The Egyptian salesmen were trying to cheat Congress.
_____ 3. Camels could have been valuable in the American West.
_____ 4. Camels travel at a steady speed without using much energy.
2860 _____ 5. The camels could never have lived in the American desert.

INFERRING MAIN IDEAS

2865
Sometimes a paragraph does not have a main idea; the writer has
decided to let the supporting details suggest the main idea.

Asking two questions will help you to determine the writer's main idea:
 What is the topic, or subject, of the paragraph?
In other words, what is the whole paragraph about?
 What is the main point being made about the topic?

The following paragraph has an unstated main idea. Ask the two
2870 questions above to help you decide which of the four answers that follow
the paragraph states the implied main idea.

When you have a relationship with someone, it is almost

1

certain that you will argue now and then. 2To keep an argument
2875 from causing hard feelings, listen to the other person's point of

81
 view. 3Don' t just hear what you want to hear but focus on what
the person is saying. 4Also try to identify with his or her point of
view as much as you can, remembering that a view other than
your own may be fair. 5Another way to keep an argument from
2880 causing hard feelings is to concentrate on behavior that is
annoying you, not on the other person's character. 6For example,
say, "This bothers me a lot," not, "Only a stupid idiot would act
the way you are!" 7Finally, when the argument is over, put it
behind you.
2885
The unstated main idea is:
A. People often argue with each other.
B. When you have a relationship with someone, you should try not to
argue with him or her.
2890 C. There are things you can do to make sure that an argument does not
cause hard feelings.
D. The most important point in knowing how to argue is to put an
argument behind you once it is over.

2895 Explanation:
If you answered the question "Who or what is the paragraph about,"
you probably found the topic: arguing. The next question to ask is
"What is the main point being made about arguing?" To answer that
question, consider the supporting details:
2900  The details of the paragraph are not about how often people
argue or the importance of trying not to argue, so answers A and
B are wrong.
 The details of the paragraph are specific ways to keep an
argument from causing hard feelings: "listen to the other
2905 person's point of view," "try to identify with his or her point of
view," "concentrate on behavior that is annoying you, not on the
other person's character," and "when the argument is over, put it
behind you." Therefore, answer C is correct.
 Answer D is wrong because it is too narrow: it is about only one
2910 of the guidelines.

2915

82
 The following paragraphs have implied main ideas, and each is
followed by four sentences. In the space provided, write the letter of
the sentence that best expresses the implied main idea.
2920

1
A. Because turnips were often eaten by the poor, other people often turned
up their noses at them. 2Carrots were also once held in low esteem. 3They
grew wild in ancient times and were used then for medicinal purposes.
4
2925 But they weren't considered fit for the table in Europe until the thirteenth
century. 5Similarly, in the early seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
some Europeans considered potatoes fit only for animals. 6They were
thought to cause leprosy in humans.

2930

2935

Turnips Carrots and potatoes

The unstated main idea is:

2940 A. Vegetables are a healthy addition to any diet.
B. In previous centuries, some Europeans thought potatoes were unhealthy
for humans.
C. Through the centuries, people have had mistaken ideas about certain
vegetables.
2945 D. While potatoes were once considered unhealthy, carrots were once used
as medicine.

B. 1
A minister in Louisiana gave his cat to a granddaughter who lived in New
2950 Orleans. 2Three weeks later, the cat showed up at the minister's home. 3It had
traveled 300 miles and crossed the Mississippi and Red Rivers on its own. 4A
German man took his cat on a family vacation from Germany to Turkey. 5At the
border, the cat was nowhere to be found. 6However, two months and 1,500 miles
later, the cat returned to his home in Germany. 7An American man took his cat
2955 with him when he moved from Utah to Washington. 8Soon after arriving in his
new home, the cat disappeared. 9Over a year later, the cat showed up on the front
porch of the man’s Utah home 850 miles away. 10The man's former neighbors
recognized the animal and offered him a new home.

2960

83
 The unstated main idea is:
A. Cats do not adjust well to new homes.
B. Lost pets are often found thanks to the kindness of people.
C. People should not get a cat unless they are sure they will not be
2965 moving.
D. Cats can have an incredible sense of direction.

C. 1
To become president of the United States, a person must be at least thirty-five
2970 years of age. 2He or she must have lived in the United States for the last fourteen
years. 3In addition, he or she must be a natural-born citizen of the country. 4A
convicted criminal cannot be president of the United States.

The unstated main idea is:

2975 A. There is an age limit to becoming president.
B. There are specific rules about who can become an elected official of a
country.
C. The requirements for becoming a president of the United States are
too strict.
2980 D. There are certain requirements for becoming president of the United
States.

2985

84
2990 Aesop’s Fables
Belling the Cat

2995 Long ago, the mice had a meeting to consider what they could do to
outsmart their common enemy, the cat. Some said this, and some said that; but
at last a young mouse got up and said he had a suggestion to make, which he
thought would work well. "You will all agree," he said, "that the most dangerous
trait of the cat is the sly and treacherous manner in which he approaches us.
3000 Now, if we could receive some signal of her approach, we could easily escape
from her. I have an idea: we should get a small bell and attach it with a ribbon
around the neck of the cat. In this way we will always know when she is nearby,
and can easily hide while she is in the neighborhood."

3005 This proposal met with general applause, until an old mouse got up and
said: "That is all very well, but who will put the bell on the cat?"

Unstated Main Idea:

3010 _______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
3015

85
 The Goose with the Golden Eggs
3020

One day a farmer went to the nest of his goose and found
an egg all yellow and glittering. When he picked it up it was
as heavy as lead, and he was going to throw it away because he
3025 thought a trick had been played on him. But he took it home on second thought,
and soon found to his delight that it was an egg of pure gold. Every morning the
same thing occurred, and he soon became rich by selling his eggs. As he grew
rich he grew greedy; and thinking to get at once all the gold the Goose could
give, he killed it and opened it only to find nothing.
3030
Unstated Main Idea:
_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
3035
_______________________________________________________

3040 The Hare and the Tortoise

A HARE one day ridiculed the short feet and slow pace of the Tortoise,
who replied, laughing: "Though you be swift as the wind, I will beat you in a
3045 race." The Hare, believing her assertion to be simply impossible, assented to the
proposal; and they agreed that the Fox should choose the course and fix the
goal. On the day appointed for the race the two started together. The Tortoise
never for a moment stopped, but went on with a slow but steady pace straight to
the end of the course. The Hare, lying down by the wayside, fell fast asleep. At
3050 last waking up, and moving as fast as he could, he saw the Tortoise had reached
the goal, and was comfortably dozing after her fatigue.

Unstated Main Idea:

3055 _______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
3060 The Fox and the Crow

86
 A Fox once saw a Crow fly off with a piece of cheese in its beak and
settle on a branch of a tree. "That's for me, as I am a Fox," said Master Reynard,
3065 and he walked up to the foot of the tree. "Good-day, Mistress Crow," he cried.
"How well you are looking to-day: how glossy your feathers; how bright your eye.
I feel sure your voice must surpass that of other birds, just as your figure does;
let me hear but one song from you that I may greet you as the Queen of Birds."
The Crow lifted up her head and began to caw her best, but the moment she
3070 opened her mouth the piece of cheese fell to the ground, only to be snapped up
by Master Fox. "That will do," said he. "That was all I wanted.”

3075 Unstated Main Idea:

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3080 _______________________________________________________

3085

3090

3095

3100 The Fox and the Goat

87
 A Fox one day fell into a deep well and could find no means of escape.
A Goat, overcome with thirst, came to the same well, and seeing the Fox,
3105 inquired if the water was good. Concealing his sad plight under a merry guise,
the Fox indulged in a lavish praise of the water, saying it was excellent beyond
measure, and encouraging him to descend. The Goat, mindful only of his thirst,
thoughtlessly jumped down, but just as he drank, the Fox informed him of the
difficulty they were both in and suggested a scheme for their common escape.
3110 "If," said he, "you will place your forefeet upon the wall and bend your head, I will
run up your back and escape, and will help you out afterwards." The Goat
readily assented and the Fox leaped upon his back. Steadying himself with the
Goat's horns, he safely reached the mouth of the well and made off as fast as he
could. When the Goat upbraided him for breaking his promise, he turned around
3115 and cried out, "You foolish old fellow! If you had as many brains in your head as
you have hairs in your beard, you would never have gone down before you had
inspected the way up, nor have exposed yourself to dangers from which you had
no means of escape."

3120
Unstated Main Idea:
_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
3125
_______________________________________________________

3130

3135 The Lion and the Mouse

Once when a Lion was asleep a little Mouse began running up and
down upon him; this soon wakened the Lion, who placed his huge paw upon him,
3140 and opened his big jaws to swallow him. "Pardon, O King," cried the little Mouse:
"forgive me this time, I shall never forget it: who knows but what I may be able to
do you a turn some of these days?" The Lion was so tickled at the idea of the
Mouse being able to help him that he lifted up his paw and let him go. Some

88
 time after the Lion was caught in a trap, and the hunters who desired to
3145 carry him alive to the King, tied him to a tree while they went in search
of a wagon to carry him on. Just then the little Mouse happened to
pass by, and seeing the sad plight in which the Lion was, went up to him
and soon gnawed away the ropes that bound the King of the Beasts. "Was I not
right?" said the little Mouse.
3150

Unstated Main Idea:

_______________________________________________________

3155 _______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

89
 Vocabulary in Context
3160
You don't always have to use a dictionary to learn the meanings of new words
in your reading. You can often use context clues to figure out the meaning of
a word.

There are four kinds of context clues:

1. Examples of the new word

2. Synonyms (words that mean the same as the new word)
3. Antonyms (words that mean the opposite of the new word)
4. The rest of the sentence or the passage

EXAMPLES
An unfamiliar word may appear with examples that reveal what the word
means. Examples are often introduced with signal words and phrases like for
3170 example, for instance, including, and such as.

Look at the sentences below. See if you can guess the meaning of the word
in italics from the examples in bold.

3175 1. Assets such as good health, a loving family, and an enjoyable job make life
rewarding.

A. things of value. B. rewards on the job. C. helpful

people.
3180
2. A coyote’s prey includes squirrels, rabbits, and mice.
A. friends. B. victims. C. replacement.

3185 3. The sports car had defects—for example, a dented door and torn seats—but
I didn’t care. I had wanted a Corvette for years, and I was going to buy it.

A. problems. B. fun things. C. foreign qualities.

3190

A dented door

90
3195 Explanation
1. The correct answer is A. The examples given—good health, a loving
family, and a job you enjoy—show that assets are “things of value”.
2. The correct answer is B. The examples—squirrels, rabbits, and mice—
reveal that prey are “victims”.
3200 3. The correct answer is A. The examples—a dented fender and torn
seats—show that defects are “faults”.

Read each item below. Underline the examples that suggest the
3205 meaning of the word in bold. Then circle the letter of the word’s
meaning

1. We often communicate what we mean by using gestures such as the

thumbs-up sign, hands on the hips, and a shrug of the shoulders.
3210
A. motions of the body.
B. good feelings.
C. hand signals.

3215

2. Newspaper reporters have been fired for fictitious reporting that

included quotations which were never said and events that didn’t
really happen.
3220
A. true-life.
B. unknown.
C. not real.

3225

3. Obnoxious behavior in a movie theater – for instance, burping, loud

talking, or playing around – is considered childish by most people.

3230 A. very unpleasant.

B. acceptable.
C. funny.

3235 4. For better health and a longer life, doctors recommend wholesome
activities, including exercising daily and eating nutritious foods.

91
 A. boring.
B. skillful.
3240 C. healthy.

5. Examples of distractions that always seem to occur during an

3245 important test include coughing, sighing, and the sound of moving
chairs.

A. things that are friendly.

B. things that take away your attention.
3250 D. things that increase your ability to perform.

SYNONYMS
3255
Context clues are often found in the form of synonyms: one or more words
that mean the same or almost the same as the unknown word. Look at the
sentence: "Julia was nervous about answering the detective's queries. Why
was he asking so many questions, anyway?" Here the synonym "questions"
3260 tells you the meaning of queries.

Each item below contains a word or phrase that is a synonym of the italicized
word. Underline the synonym in each sentence. Then read the explanation
3265 that follows.

1. Hal was a mediocre student. He was an average baseball player, as

well.

3270 2. It is hard to believe that my millionaire cousin was once indigent, so

poor that he walked the streets without knowing where his next meal
would come from.

3. Most companies have a regulation allowing new mothers to take three

3275 months off from work. Some businesses also have a rule allowing
fathers the same time off.

3280
Explanation

In each sentence, the synonym probably helped you understand the meaning

92
 of the word in italics:
3285
1. Someone who is mediocre at something is "average."
2. Someone who is indigent is "poor."
3. A regulation is a "rule."

3290
Practice: Each item below includes a synonym of the bolded word.
Underline the synonym.

1. Some people hate to admit an error. My boss, for instance, will never
3295 concede that he might be wrong.

2. You may be reluctant to give a speech now, but the more speaking
practice you get, the less unwilling you will be.

3300 3. The absurd idea that people from outer space live among us is as
ridiculous as the belief that the Earth is flat.

4. Students are often apprehensive of final exams, but with the right
study skills, they don't have to be fearful.
3305
5. The belief that you can drink and then drive safely is a fallacy;
unfortunately, this false idea is held by many people.

3310 ANTONYMS
Antonyms—words and phrases that mean the opposite of a word—are also
useful as context clues. For example, soft is the opposite of hard, and worried
is the opposite of comforted. Antonyms are often signaled by words such as
3315 unlike, but, however, instead of, in contrast, or on the other hand.

Look at the sentence: "Most of my history teacher's lectures were tedious,

but the one about what really happened on Paul Revere's famous ride was
very interesting." Here the word but helps suggest that tedious must be the
3320 opposite of interesting.

In each of the following sentences, underline the word or phrase that means
the opposite of the bolded word. Then, circle the letter of the meaning of the
italicized word. Finally, read the explanation that follows.
3325
1. The adverse weather conditions forced us to stay inside for most of
our vacation. The day the weather finally turned nice, we had to leave.

A. nice
3330 B. bad

93
 C. summer

2. I thought it was difficult to ascend the mountain, but I discovered that

climbing down it was even worse.
3335
A. climb up.
B. walk around.
C. climb down.

3340 3. After years of defying my parents, I decided life might be better if I

tried agreeing with them once in a while.

A. avoiding.
B. obeying.
3345 C. opposing.

Explanation

3350 1. The correct answer is B. Adverse weather conditions are the opposite
of "nice" ones-they are bad.

2. The correct answer is A. To ascend is the opposite of "climbing

down"—when you ascend, you climb up.
3355
3. The right answer is C. Defying one's parents is the opposite of
"agreeing with them." When you defy people, you oppose what they
say.

3360

3365

Each item below includes a word or phrase that is an antonym of the bolded
word. Underline each of those antonyms. Then circle the letter of the
3370 meaning of the italicized word.

1. Your science project is much more elaborate than mine. In fact, mine
looks very simple compared with yours. Hint: What would be the
opposite of elaborate?

94
3375
A. plain.
B. large.
C. complicated.

3380 2. Gordon's family worried that he would remain an obscure author all
his life. However, he believed that someday he would be famous.

A. unknown.
B. well-known.
3385 C. good.

3. The attorney introduced facts she felt were relevant to the case. But
the judge said the facts were unrelated to the trial.

3390 A. legal.
B. related.
C. known.

4. When providing directions, give the steps in sequence. If they are out
3395 of order, those trying to follow the directions will become confused.

A. all at once.
B. in order.
C. in a confusing way.
3400
5. The teacher commended two students on the outstanding work they
were doing. Then he criticized the rest of class for doing so poorly.

A. blamed.
3405 B. graded.
C. praised.

GENERAL SENSE OF THE SENTENCE OR PASSAGE

3410 Often, the context of a new word contains no examples, synonyms, or
antonyms. In such cases, you must do a bit of detective work and try to make
a guess based on any clues provided.

In each sentence below, look for general clues to the meaning of the word in
3415 bold. Then circle the letter of the answer you feel is the meaning of the
italicized word.

95
 1. Elena thought she had ample time to review her notes before the
afternoon exam. Then she discovered her watch was incorrect - she
3420 was actually late for the test!

A. no.
B. a lot of.
C. little.
3425
2. At the animal shelter, Rita fell in love with a poodle, but Dan couldn't
resist a collie. So, they felt that there was no alternative but to keep
both animals.

3430 A. choice.
B. reason.
C. mystery.
A poodle A collie

3435 3. As a consequence of his bad report card, my brother could not watch
TV until his grades improved.

A. right.
B. result.
3440 C. chance.

Explanations

1. The correct answer is B. Ample means "plenty of." Rita mistakenly

3445 thought she had plenty of time to think about the exam.
2. The right answer is A. An alternative is a "choice." Rita and Dan felt
they had no choice but to take both dogs home.
3. The correct answer is B. A consequence is a "result." The result of the
brother's bad report card was not being able to watch TV until his
3450 teachers reported that he had improved.
Figure out the meaning of the word in bold by looking for general clues. Then
circle the letter of the meaning you think is correct.

1. My brother felt it would be futile to try to join the basketball team. The
3455 other players were all at least eight inches taller than he was.

A. easy B. useless C. expensive

2. The impact of the crash was so great that you couldn't tell what kinds of
3460 car were in the accident. Both were totally destroyed.

96
 A. force.
B. time.
C. place.
3465
3. The young eagle was clearly a novice at flying. As he tried to land, he got
himself caught in a thorn bush.

A. bird. An eagle

3470 B. success.
C. beginner.

4. At a party given by a company for its clients, employees are expected to

mingle with the guests to make the guests feel more comfortable.
3475
A. bother.
B. mix with.
C. sell things to.

3480 5. Big band music was popular during the 1940s. It then disappeared from
the music scene but has been revived in recent years.

A. lost.
B. brought back to life.
3485 C. destroyed.

97
 Summaries
3490 Definition: A summary is a report on something that has already been written or presented
orally. It is shorter than the original, but it contains all the important points. Minor points, such
as details and examples, are not included.

Why summarize?
3495
1) To make sure you have understood something
2) To explain the sense of a passage to someone else
3) To review texts for examinations

3500
What should you write in a summary?

1) The author, title (in quotations), and/or source (italicized or underlined)

a) For example: In the New York Times article “Berkley Coffee Clash,” author Dave
3505 Disko states…
2) The main idea of the article
3) The major details in the same order as the original
4) The present tense
5) Only the opinions in the article
3510 6) Your own words, not the words from the article (paraphrase)

Combine 1 and 2 and make it the first sentence of your

summary.

3515 What should you not write in the summary?

1) Your ideas or opinions

2) The same words, phrases, and sentences as you find in the article (In other words, do not
copy any material. Change it.)
3520 3) Details

98
3525

Summarizing Sentences
Summarize a sentence by taking out the unnecessary words. Use summary words to take the
3530 place of groups of words about the same topic. Keep only the words which tell the main point of
the sentence. Use as few words as possible.

Example: The tall cowboy put the saddle on his horse, untied him from the fence, waved good-
bye and rode off into the sunset.
3535
Summary: The cowboy left.

Explanation: You can leave out the word “tall” since that is not an important fact. All of the
things that the cowboy did (put the saddle on the horse, untied him, waved good-bye, and rode
3540 off) can be summarized in one word: left.

Exercise 1 ________________________________________________________________________________________________

3545  Summarize these sentences. Work with another student.

1. After she turned on the oven, Michiko mixed the sugar, flour, eggs, milk, oil, and vanilla in
the new blender, poured the batter into the buttered pans, and put the cake in the oven.

3550 Summary:

2. As the bus rolled into her hometown, Liz looked around at the familiar streets and shops
which she had not seen for two years.
3555
Summary:

3. Serge put on his raincoat, picked up his umbrella from the table near the door, turned off the
3560 lights, put out the cat, and got ready for his ten-minute walk to the bus stop.

Summary:

3565 4. When the Chen family returned from their vacation, they found the back door broken open,
the television set missing, and all the food in their freezer gone.

Summary:

3570
5. In Natasha’s library you can find mysteries, romance novels, biographies, travel books, how
-to manuals, science fiction books, and reference books.

Summary:
3575

99
 6. With her new credit card, Yoko bought groceries at the supermarket, shoes at the department
store, and a new set of tires for her sports car at the auto supply store.

3580 Summary:

7. During the summer along the Charles River in Boston, you can go rollerblading, running,
biking, or sailing, or you can have a picnic, listen to a concert, or watch a movie.
3585
Summary:

8. After clearing away the old leaves and branches, Bill dug up the hard ground, mixed in
3590 fertilizer and new soil, raked it all smooth, and planted the seeds.

Summary:

3595 9. When they heard the weather forecast, the islanders closed the windows, put tape across the
glass, moved all of their plants and chairs indoors, and stocked up on bottles of fresh water.

Summary:

3600
10. Sue put her pens and pencils neatly in a row, turned on the radio, stacked her English books
on the desk, got herself a soda, and sat down in her desk chair.

Summary:

100
3605 Summarizing Paragraphs
A paragraph summary should be as short as possible, but it must be a complete sentence. The
summary of a paragraph is the main idea of the paragraph and can be found in the topic sentence
if there is one.
3610
Step 1. Read the paragraph all the way through to be sure you understand it.

Step 2. Check to see if the paragraph contains a topic sentence.

3615  If the paragraph has a topic sentence, it should state the main idea of the paragraph.
Therefore, you can use the topic sentence as the summary. Remember to paraphrase and
take out unnecessary words.
 If there is no topic sentence, read the major details and write a topic sentence. This will
be a summary that states the main idea.
3620
Step 3. Check to see if the name of the writer is given.

 If you know the name of the writer, you can start your summary with According to John
Smith, ….
3625  If the name of the author is not given, you can use the title of the selection (in quotation
marks) instead: According to “Big Trouble in Little China,” … .
 If you have both the writer and the title, you may decide to use both: According to John
Smith in “Big Trouble in Little China,” … .
 Some internet articles may not give you a title or a name. In these cases, you can use the
3630 website as the author: According to Newsweek.com, ….

Example:

3635 Shopping malls have produced a revolution in United States shopping and living habits in
just 45 years. Before 1950, there were no malls, but now almost every city or region has at least
one. In fact, shopping malls have become a part of daily life. Many people even think of them as
social centers. In a way, malls have taken the place of Main Street. Shops and services which
were once spread over several city blocks are now in one place at the mall. Busy householders
3640 can save time by doing their shopping at the mall. And people young and old, with time on their
hands, often say, “Let’s go to the mall!”

Topic Sentence: Shopping malls have produced a revolution in United States shopping and
living habits.
3645
Summary: According to Wombat MacNoodle in “Malls and America,” shopping malls have
changed United States culture.

101
 Exercise 2 ________________________________________________________________________________________________
3650  Summarize each of the following paragraphs. Follow the steps
explained above. Use as few words as possible. All of these articles
come from “Malls and America” by Wombat MacNoodle.

Malls and America

3655
1. Although every shopping mall is a bit different in design, shoppers often quickly feel
comfortable in a new mall. That is because malls usually share certain features. You can
almost always find most of the following: a department store, a pharmacy, a toy store, a book
shop, clothing shops for all ages, shoe shops, a bank, and places to eat. These businesses are
3660 all under one roof. Most malls are enclosed, so that shoppers never have to go outdoors once
they get to the mall. A few malls sometimes also have doors to shops on the outside of the
mall. Every mall is surrounded by a large parking area.

Summary:
3665

2. Malls are not all exactly alike. In a suburb of Chicago, where many wealthy people live,
malls are quite large and beautiful. One of these malls is two stories tall and houses about 50
3670 businesses. These range from small specialty shops to large luxury department stores. The
roof of the mall is made of glass and is twice as tall as the shops inside. Musicians play for
the customers in the evenings, and trees and fountains are found in central seating areas. In a
poor, rural town in southern Maine, however, a typical mall is plain and rather small. It
might have a supermarket, a pizza parlor, a book and gift shop, a laundromat, and a bank. All
3675 its shops are found on one level, and the interior of the enclosed mall is plain and
undecorated. Recorded music is piped in through speakers.

Summary:

3680

3. While shopping malls have changed American life, not all of their effects have been
positive. Most of the shops and services found in malls are parts of large corporations.
These businesses have taken away customers from smaller shops in the area and forced them
3685 to close. That has meant fewer individually owned businesses and less local control over
jobs. In addition, malls are harmful to the environment. They have sometimes been built on
land that is important for the survival of birds and wild animals. Wherever they are built,
they cover large areas with buildings and parking lots instead of trees or grass. Thus, they
contribute to the general loss of nature. Finally, malls are usually far from any town center,
3690 so people must use cars to get there. This results in increased air pollution and heavy traffic
on the roads near the mall.

Summary:

102
 Exercise 3 ________________________________________________________________________________________________
 Summarize each of the following paragraphs. Follow the steps
explained previously. Use as few words as possible.

The Challenger Disaster

3700 by Andy Hyde

1. By 1984, NASA, the United States space program, had carried out many successful
flights of the space shuttle. In fact, Americans were beginning to take the whole NASA
program for granted. Then the president announced that the next shuttle would carry a
3705 school teacher into space. Hundreds of teachers from all parts of the country applied for
the job. They all wanted to be “the first teacher in space.” During the next year, these
adventurous educators were tested and examined and trained. At last, the choice was
announced. A teacher from New Hampshire, Christa MacAuliffe, would be the first
teacher-astronaut.
3710
Summary:

3715 2. Many months of preparation and training followed the announcement. First, Christa
went through intensive physical training. She had to be in top condition for the flight.
Then she learned how to operate some of the delicate instruments on the Challenger
space shuttle. Christa planned special lessons which she would teach from space.
Finally, she trained with the other astronauts so they could work as a team in space.
3720
Summary:

3725 3. Everyone knows what happened on that terrible day in January, 1986. Early in the
morning, the Challenger crew had a good breakfast and discussed their plans. They made
sure they understood all of the work they would be doing during the flight. Later, they
boarded a special van which carried them to the shuttle. The weather was rather cold,
and some NASA officials wondered if they should put off the flight. After some
3730 discussion, they decided to go ahead. The Challenger took off over the Atlantic Ocean in
Florida. Minutes later, it exploded in the air. All of the crew members died in the crash.

Summary:

3735

On another paper, summarize the entire article.

103
 Longer
3740 Readings

104
 Five Avoidable Marketing Mistakes When
Taking Your Brand Global
by Susanne Evens
3745 June 4, 2007

Many of us have heard the urban legend of Chevy experiencing dismal sales of its
Nova in Mexico because the name means "no go" in Spanish.
We laugh at stories like this, thinking we could never make such a silly mistake
3750 today. Or could we? Recently, when Microsoft released its new product called Vista, PC
users in Latvia found a "frumpy woman" on the software market. Microsoft may fully
realize it has a “frumpy” (boring, unattractive, and unfashionable) woman for sale in
Latvia, choosing to stick with the name because it works in all its major target markets.
But without doing the necessary research, it would have no idea whether "Vista" is
3755 something positive or negative in other languages around the world.
Global marketing would be simple if brand names were all we had to worry
about, but successful international business efforts go far beyond a name. Think of all the
communication methods necessary to market and support a product that is sold globally
—from websites to print to product packaging and manuals. You can't stop with words
3760 or, in some cases, treat an entire country the same.
Innocent marketing, language, and cultural mistakes are easy to make. As you
expand to new markets or strengthen efforts in an existing market this year, here are five
mistakes to avoid.

3765 1. Understand Your Brand Name

Your company or product name could mean something undesirable in another
language. Do the research necessary to ensure you do not sell a car that means "no go" or
a computer product that means "frumpy woman." Even something as innocent as a
person's name can trip you up. "Gary" sounds like the Japanese word for "diarrhea." Do
3770 your homework, and you'll avoid unpleasant surprises.

2. Understand the Cultural Significance of Colors

Colors can play a significant role in the aesthetics of your website or other
marketing materials, but they also communicate a message. Unfortunately, the message
3775 and significance of a color may not be the same in different cultures.
In North America, for example, red is often used in operating instructions to
signify danger, while other cultures often use green or black for the same purpose. In
Asia, white is the color of funerals, while in Western cultures, white is the color of
weddings. Without realizing the difference, a wedding company could be sending a
3780 disturbing message to its Asian audience.
Again, it's critical to do your homework before choosing colors for your
international branding efforts.

3. Use Humor Carefully

3785 What's funny in one culture may not even make sense in another. For example,
when a preacher visited a missionary, his message on "The Four Ships of Christianity"

105
 (fellowship, discipleship, membership, and worship) was a disaster because it was based
in a pun that was completely lost in translation.
Culturally or regionally based humor should be avoided as well. Even within the
3790 U.S., what might be funny in one part of the country may not be understood elsewhere. If
that's true within the same country and language, imagine how true it is across cultures
and borders.
If you must use humor, research carefully first and proceed with caution.

3795 4. Don't Alienate with Analogies

Similarly, analogies can cause problems. Common analogies in the US may make
no sense elsewhere. Even worse, the analogy may be insulting. Neither scenario will help
you reach your goal of gaining and maintaining customers.
Instead, use analogies your target market is familiar with. When the Walt Disney
3800 World Resort created promotional material for a North American audience, it stated that
the resort is 47 square miles or "roughly half the size of the state of Rhode Island."
Outside of North America, many people don't know about Rhode Island, and this
analogy would have no meaning. Walt Disney wisely chose to customize the material for
each target market. For instance, in the UK version, the material states that the resort is
3805 "the size of greater Manchester," and in Japan, the resort is described as the size of the
subway system.
A little research can go a long way in avoiding mistakes and making your target
market feel as if you're truly speaking to them.

3810 5. Go Native Online

For years, many people assumed that being on the web meant that you were
instantly global. But being available online internationally is a far cry from being able to
act global and meet the needs of local international markets.
A website is typically the most efficient and economical way to market and sell to
3815 an international customer base. Localizing your website for your target markets is key,
and part of localization involves translating your website into the language of your target
market.
A report by Forrester Research on multilingual websites reported that
international visitors are three times more likely to explore a website and make a
3820 purchase if the website is in their native language.
The localization process, however, goes much deeper than straight translation and
involves meeting both technical and linguistic challenges. From a technical standpoint,
all facets of the material being localized must be considered, from the user interface to
how numbers and other values must be presented in the local format. Equally important is
3825 targeting your audience appropriately, taking such things into consideration as cultural
nuances, appropriateness of graphics, and even locally preferred color schemes.

Source: http://www.brandchannel.com/brand_speak.asp?bs_id=165

106
3830 Questions
Inferencing: Guessing the Meaning of Vocabulary

1. What does “trip you up” (line 23) mean?

3835 a. Solve problems c. Cause problems for you
b. Make you fall d. Help you understand

2. What does “aesthetics” (line 27) mean?

a. Beauty c. Message
3840 b. Meaning d. Significance

3. What does “critical” (line 35) mean?

a. Quite fair c. Very interesting
b. Very important d. Sometimes unnecessary
3845
4. What does “customize” (line 57) mean?
a. Cut out c. Change to fit
b. Usual behavior d. People who buy a product

3850 5. What does “a far cry” (line 66) mean?

a. Distant sadness c. A real possibility
b. A call for help d. Not at all the same

Comprehension
3855
6. What problem did Microsoft have with Vista in Latvia?
a. Only frumpy women wanted to buy it
b. People thought it was unattractive
c. The name has a strange meaning in the Latvian language
3860 d. It is positive or negative in other countries

7. According to the article, in some cultures green or black means…

a. Funerals b. Weddings c. Danger d. Instructions

3865 8. Why can the use of humor be a problem when designing advertising materials for other
countries?
a. Because culturally based humor should be avoided
b. It is very difficult to be funny
c. What is funny in one part of the U.S. may not be funny in other parts
3870 d. Things that are funny often do not translate across cultures

9. Why is it important to translate your website into the local language?

a. So people can understand it
b. So people will be more likely to buy your product
3875 c. Because it shows respect for the local culture
d. Because it is an efficient and economical way to do business

107
 Main Ideas

10. Which sentence gives the main idea of 2: Understand the Cultural Significance of Colors?
3880
a. Colors can play a significant role in the aesthetics of your website or other marketing
materials, but they also communicate a message.

b. Unfortunately, the message and significance of a color may not be the same in different
3885 cultures.

c. In North America, for example, red is often used in operating instructions to signify
danger, while other cultures often use green or black for the same purpose.

3890 d. In Asia, white is the color of funerals, while in Western cultures, white is the color of
weddings. Without realizing the difference, a wedding company could be sending a
disturbing message to its Asian audience.

3895 11. What is the main idea of section 3: Use Humor Carefully?

________________________________________________________________________

3900 12. In designing advertising for other countries, what is the author’s conclusion?

a. We should consider both language and culture

b. There is a need to make sure your translations are accurate

3905
c. Cultural differences can be a major problem for advertisers

d. Most companies have not done a good job in designing materials

108
3910 Raymond Dart and Our African Origins
by C. K. Brain

In 1924, the skull of a female child, half-ape, half-human, found its way into the hands of a young
anatomist in Johannesburg, South Africa. This man was Raymond Dart; his insight shows the value of
3915 the prepared mind.

In 1923, Dart and his wife Dora traveled from Britain to South Africa, where Dart was to take up a new
post. He was thirty years old and not enamored of the idea. He later recalled, "I hated the idea of
uprooting myself from the world's center of medicine [University College, London]…to take over the
anatomy department at Johannesburg's new and ill-equipped University of the Witwatersrand.” But
3920 what was to happen there the following year was surely beyond his wildest dreams.

Dart wished to establish a museum in his new department, and his attention
was drawn to fossilized baboon skulls that were being found in a mine at
Taung in the northern Cape. In Adventures with the Missing Link, Dart tells
how two boxes of fossils from Taung were delivered to his house one
3925 Saturday afternoon just as he was dressing for a wedding reception. Unable
to contain his curiosity, he hurriedly opened the boxes. The first did not
seem to contain anything of interest. But when he looked into the second, he
later recalled:
A baboon skull
3930
“A thrill of excitement shot through me. I knew at a glance that what lay in my hands was no ordinary
brain. Here was a brain three times as large as that of a baboon and considerably bigger than that of an
adult chimpanzee. It was not big enough for man, but for an ape it was a big bulging brain. Here, I was
certain, was one of the most significant finds ever made in the history of anthropology.”

3935 For the next three months Dart used every spare moment to patiently take the rock away from the skull.
Then, two days before Christmas, the rock opened and the face of a child came out, with a full set of
baby teeth. Dart wrote: "I doubt if there was any parent prouder of his offspring than I was of my Taung
baby on that Christmas of 1924."

Dart wasted no time in preparing his report for submission to Nature Magazine. It pointed out that the
3940 skull, teeth, and jaw of this child had been "humanoid" (like a human) rather than “anthropoid” or
apelike; this was undoubtedly a small-brained hominid, or member of the human family — the first of
its kind to be discovered. He pointed out that this hominid had walked upright, on two legs, with its
hands free to use tools and weapons. Australopithecus africanus, the southern ape of Africa, as he
called it, provided clear evidence that Africa was the cradle of mankind.

3945 Although Charles Darwin had predicted that human ancestors must have lived in Africa, subsequent
discoveries of large-brained fossil humans in Europe had swung scientific opinion in favor of Eurasia as
the birthplace of humanity. These included numerous Neanderthal remains, and those of the modern-
looking Cro-Magnon man, discovered in 1868. So it is not surprising that Dart's child from Taung,
109
 presented as the "missing link" from Africa, met disapproval in Europe. The authorities dismissed it as,
3950 at best, a relative of the chimpanzee or gorilla, with little importance to human ancestry.

Although Dart's claims endured severe disrespect in Europe, in South Africa they enjoyed the
unwavering support of Robert Broom, a paleontologist known for his work on the evolution of mammals
from reptiles. In his later years, while he was based at the Transvaal Museum in Pretoria, Broom started
a search for an adult fossil of Australopithecus.

3955 In August 1936, on his second visit to Sterkfontein, Broom found the skull of an adult ape-man. One
month later his report on Australopithecus transvaalensis, as he named the new discovery, appeared in
Nature and The Illustrated London News. The initial discovery was followed by many others during the
next few years, leaving no doubt as to the hominid status of this African ape-man. With fossils of adult
ape-men now available for study, Dart's concept of Australopithecus as an African ancestor of later
3960 humans was generally accepted.

Today paleoanthropology is a rapidly evolving field. New discoveries and interpretations confirm
Africa's place as an evolutionary center. Attention has lately shifted to Chad, in the central part of the
continent, with the announcement of the discovery of a six to seven million-year-old hominid skull
there. Moreover, fossil discoveries are now not the only way to investigate human origins: molecular
3965 techniques, which involve the tracing of our ancestry through analysis of genetic material in living
humans, and even in Neanderthals, provide a further tool. Dart would be delighted with the development
of his vision.

http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/284158_brain.html

3970
At the far left we see Australopithecus, discovered by Raymond Dart.

3975

110
 Questions
Inferencing: Guessing the Meaning of Vocabulary

3980 Can you guess the meanings of these words?

1. not enamored of the idea (paragraph 2)

3985 2. anthropoid (paragraph 6)

3. cradle (paragraph 6)

3990
Comprehension

2. Who was Dora?

3995
3. Where did Raymond Dart work before he moved to Africa?

4. What city is the University of the Witwatersrand in? What country?

4000

5. Why did Dr. Dart want to collect fossils?

4005

6. Why was the skull so interesting to Dart? Why was it special?

4010

7. In oaragraph 5, Dart says, "I doubt if there was any parent prouder of his offspring than I was of
my Taung baby on that Christmas of 1924." Who is the “Taung baby”?

4015

8. What did Dart’s new discovery say about where humans started?

4020

9. How did Dr. Broom support the ideas of Dr. Dart?

111
4025 Main Ideas

13. Which sentence from paragraph 4 gives the main idea of the paragraph?

a. A thrill of excitement shot through me.

4030
b. Here was a brain three times as large as that of a baboon and considerably bigger than
that of an adult chimpanzee.

c. It was not big enough for man, but for an ape it was a big bulging brain.
4035
d. Here, I was certain, was one of the most significant finds ever made in the history of
anthropology.”

4040 14. What is the main idea of this article?

a. Dr. Dart found a new kind of baboon Africa

b. Raymond Dart made a museum at his new university

4045
c. People in Europe did not accept Dr. Dart’s new ideas about Australopithecus

d. Dr. Dart discovered evidence that humans started in Africa

4050 1.

112
 Eight Things International Students Have to Deal
With All of the Time
Valquiria Vita from Brazil studying at Pittsburg State University shares eight things international
students have to deal with all the time. We’re sure you can relate, read more!

4055

1. “You have an accent. Where are you from?”

(Sometimes I just say one sentence, or one word, and that is enough for me to hear that). So just face it.
It doesn’t matter how hard you try, how long you have been living in the U.S., people are always going
to say that to you. And I’ve tried to change to an easier answer, because when I say “Brazil”, that
4060 usually means I am going to have to hear a lot of other questions after that, and after two and a half
years you get kind of tired of that. So lately I’ve been trying to answer “Missouri”, but of course, it’s
not working. Because of my accent.

2. “Are you from Brazil? Oooooooh, that is soooo exciting!”

Actually, it is not, but you just agree, because it is easier that way. But for most international students,
4065 what is actually really exciting is the fact that we are living in the U.S. I guess the grass really is
always greener on the other side.

3. Your passport and your I-20 are your life.

They are the only things you would think about saving in case of a fire in your apartment, for example.
(Or if a tornado was approaching. I’ve been there, because I live in Kansas). If you need to leave the
4070 house with your passport, like to go to a bar, for example, you check your purse or pockets hundreds of
times to see if it is still there (and you have mini heart attacks if you think you have lost it for a second –
especially if your trip back home is close).

4. You need to be prepared to answer everything about your home country, at any time.

There is always that professor who is going to ask you, “And how does that work in Brazil?” and….

4075 #1 You were not paying full attention to the lecture, so you don’t know what he is asking about, or

#2 Sometimes you just don’t know how does that work in your country! I’ve been there in both of the
situations.

My advice: 1. Always pay attention to class. 2. Try to keep up with the news of your home country.

5. Your language becomes a mess.

113
4080 You mix English words, with words of your own language. Sometimes you create new English words
(and you just realize that when some American starts laughing at you), or then you create new words in
your own language (and I realize that when some Brazilian friend starts laughing at me). So in
conclusion, you now suck at both languages.

6. The weather.

4085 If you are an international student living in the Midwest, like my case, you have to adapt to Polar
temperatures you have never experienced before. And you would be fine with that, if it wasn’t for the
fact you see the local people wearing T-shirts and saying things like “yeah, it’s kinda chilly”. And you
are freezing, even though you are wearing your biggest coat, plus scarf, hat, gloves, and leg warmers.

7. Conversions.

4090 Speaking of temperature, being an international living in the U.S. means you need to adapt to Fahrenheit
(not Celsius), miles (not kilometers), inches (not centimeters), and pounds (not kilos). Thank God for
cell phone converters. You also need to adapt to rules and more rules. Do not drink on the street. Do not
even carry a drink on the street. Do not download movies from the internet (very, very important).

8. Adapt to the unexpected.

4095 And to conclude, speaking of adapting, being an international students means having to adapt to all
kinds of unexpected situations, besides being ready to live well with all kinds of people – even though
they are really different from you and life is different compared to how you were raised. But during this
process (you don’t even need to wait for the end of it) you will see you have become a much better
person, with more friends, experiences, knowledge, and, most importantly, more and more stories to tell!

4100 https://www.isvmag.com/2015/03/8-things-international-students-deal-time/

Questions
Inferencing: Guessing the Meaning of Vocabulary

4105 Can you guess the meanings of these words?

1. “You have an accent. Where are you from?”
a. Suitcase
b. Different colored skin
c. Airplane ticket
4110 d. Different sound of voice

2. I am going to have to hear a lot of other questions after that, and after two and a half years you
get kind of tired of that.
a. Bored with that
4115 b. Sleepy because of that
c. Happy about that
d. Confused by

114
 3. I guess the grass really is always greener on the other side.
4120 a. It’s nice to have a nice garden in front of your house
b. Other people’s lives always seem more interesting than your life
c. People don’t care about how other people live
d. Many people want to move to another country

4125 4. So in conclusion, you now suck at both languages

a. Are bad at
b. Can speak very well
c. Understand the differences between
d. Enjoy using
4130
5. If you are an international student living in the Midwest, like my case, you have to adapt to
Polar temperatures you have never experienced before.
a. Nice
b. Very cold
4135 c. Interesting
d. Normal

Comprehension

4140 6. Where is Valquiria Vita from?

7. Valquiria Vita likes to joke that she is from “Missouri” (an American state) when people ask
where she is from. Why don’t people believe her?
4145

8. Is Valquiria Vita excited about being from Brazil? If not, what is exciting to her?

4150

9. If the apartment was on fire, what would Valquiria Vita want to save first?

4155

10. According to the author, why is it important to pay attention in class?

4160

11. Which of the problems that Valquiria Vita talks about in this article are problems that YOU are
having now?

4165

115
 Main Ideas
12. What is the main idea of 1. “You have an accent. Where are you from?”
a. My accent makes it hard for people to understand me.
4170 b. I like people to ask me about my accent.
c. People with accents are very interesting.
d. I don’t like everyone always asking me about my accent.

13. What is the main idea of 5. Your language becomes a mess?

4175 a. You mix English words, with words of your own language
b. Sometimes you create new English words (and you just realize that when some American
starts laughing at you)
c. You create new words in your own language (and I realize that when some Brazilian
friend starts laughing at me)
4180 d. So in conclusion, you now suck at both languages.

14. What is the main idea of 7. Conversions?

a. Americans use different ways to measure distance, weight, and temperature.
4185 b. You have to adapt to new ways of measuring and to new rules.
c. Cellphone apps can help us understand other ways of measuring.
d. Living in the U.S. can bring a lot of problems.

4190

116
4195

The Hidden Lives of Chickens

Brainy Birds
Several research teams have recently published findings on chicken intelligence
that have challenged old notions about avian cognitive abilities. For instance,
4200 scientists have found that chickens clearly understand cause-and-effect
relationships, an advanced comprehension skill that puts their intellect beyond
that of dogs. In the book The Development of Brain and Behaviour in the Chicken,
Dr. Lesley Rogers, a professor of neuroscience and animal behavior, concludes,
“[I]t is now clear that birds have cognitive capacities equivalent to those of
4205 mammals, even primates.”7

In one experiment that explored chickens’ understanding of causal relationships,

researchers found that when injured chickens were offered the choice between
regular food and food that contained a painkiller, the birds soon understood that
the medicated food made them feel better, and they learned to seek it out it over
4210 the other choices. “The chickens will take the analgesic every time,” says Dr. Joy
Mench, a professor in the Department of Animal Sciences at the University of
California at Davis. They understood cause and effect and learned how to make the
best decision.8

4215 Chickens can also understand other complex mental concepts. For instance,
according to Evans, chickens are able to understand that objects still exist even
after they are hidden or removed from view. This level of cognition is actually
beyond the capacity of small human children. 9 Researchers also recently reported
that chickens “can anticipate the future and demonstrate self-control, something
4220 previously attributed only to humans and other primates.” 10 Scientists made this
discovery after they observed that when given the option between pecking a
button and receiving a small food reward instantly or holding out for 22 seconds in
order to receive a larger food reward, chickens in the study demonstrated self-
control by holding out for the larger reward over 90 percent of the time. 11
4225
Chickens are social animals who form complex social hierarchies and interact in
complex ways that are indicative of what anthropologists call “culture.” For
example, researchers have shown that chickens learn from observing the success
and failure of others in their community. One experiment that demonstrated this
4230 finding involved teaching one group of chickens to peck red and green buttons a
certain number of times to obtain a food reward. Researchers were surprised to
find that when a new group of chickens watched those who had learned how to
push the buttons for food, the new chickens quickly caught on by watching the
others. At a scientific conference, Dr. Christine Nicol, who worked on the on the
4235 study, told her colleagues, “They may be ‘bird brains,’ but we need to redefine

117
 what we mean by ‘bird brains.’ Chickens have shown us they can do things people
didn’t think they could do. There are hidden depths to chickens, definitely.” 12

Researchers have also found that chickens have a cultural knowledge that they
4240 pass down from generation to generation. John Webster, a professor at Bristol
University in the U.K., set up a study in which he gave chickens a mixture of yellow
and blue kernels of corn. The blue kernels were tainted with chemicals that made
the birds feel sick, and they quickly learned to avoid the blue corn entirely (this is
also another example of their understanding of cause and effect).
4245
When the chickens in Webster’s study had their young, he spread yellow and blue
corn around the farm, and even though he made it so that both types were
harmless, the mother hens remembered that the blue corn had previously made
them sick, and they steered their young away from it. In an article in the
4250 London Times, Webster explains, “What this tells us is that the mother hen has
learnt what food is good and what is bad for her, that she cares so much for her
chicks she will not let them eat the bad food, and she is passing on to her young
what she has learnt. To me, that is pretty close to culture—and an advanced one at
that. Chickens are sentient creatures and have feelings of their own.” 13
4255
Scientists have been so impressed with the cognitive capabilities of birds that a
group of international experts recently called for a new naming system to reflect
the advanced nature of birds’ brains. According to an article that appeared in The
Washington Post, “The new system, which draws upon many of the words used to
4260 describe the human brain and has broad support among scientists, acknowledges
the now overwhelming evidence that avian and mammalian brains are remarkably
similar—a fact that explains why many kinds of bird are not just twitchily
resourceful but able to design and manufacture tools, solve mathematical
problems and, in many cases, use language in ways that even chimpanzees and
4265 other primates cannot.”14
7
Lesley Rogers, The Development of Brain and Behaviour in the Chicken, CABI
Publishing: Oxfordshire, U.K., 1995: 217.
8
Specter.
4270 9
Grimes.
10
Jennifer Viegas, “Study: Chickens Think About Future,” Discovery News 14 Jul.
2005.
11
Viegas.
12
Ananova.
4275 13
Valerie Elliott, “Why Did the Chicken Cross the Road?” London Times Online 18
Mar. 2005.
14
Weiss.

118
4280 Can you guess the meanings of these words?
1. “The chickens will take the analgesic every time”
a. Choice
b. Food
c. Painkiller
4285 d. Birds

2. Researchers were surprised to find that when a new group of chickens watched those who had
learned how to push the buttons for food, the new chickens quickly caught on by watching the
others.
4290 a. Became caught
b. Understood
c. Watched
d. Pushed buttons

4295 3. …the mother hens remembered that the blue corn had previously made them sick, and they
steered their young away from it.
a. Didn’t let the young chickens eat it
b. Watched the young chickens walk away
c. Did not eat the clue corn
4300 d. Pushed the young chickens to the corn

Make an outline or a web of “The Hidden Lives of Chickens."

119
4305 Final
Review
4310 Part 1 - Main Ideas
Directions: Underline or highlight the stated main idea in the following passages.

Passage 1
4315 Every family needs a plan to survive a fire. First of all, you need to call a family meeting. At the
beginning of the meeting, you need to talk about a fire escape plan. Then, you will need to draw a fire
escape route from each room of the house. Hang these routes where everyone can see them. Next, your
family must also decide where to meet once you’ve left the house. Finally, your whole family must
practice this “home fire drill.”
4320

Passage 2
Many people are not good listeners. They may not even realize that they lack this skill. But
4325 almost anyone can become a better listener by being aware of certain negative listening habits. One
such habit is jumping to conclusions before hearing the entire message. Another bad habit is to nod off
when someone is speaking in a monotone. Turning off to speakers who are not necessarily experts is
also a negative listening habit. Yet another bad habit to avoid is the habit of reacting emotionally to
certain words.
4330

Passage 3
Is this year's holiday season making you tired? You can easily perk up by following a few easy
tips. First, get plenty of rest. Second, snack wisely. Third, keep fit. Exercise is very important during
4335 the holidays--and not just for its weight benefits. Fourth, take a relaxing bath, and finally try sharing
with others.

Passage 4
4340 An interesting feature of body language is that we are often unaware of it. We usually do not

120
 consciously decide that we will smile, dilate our pupils, and move closer to someone to show our
attraction. We may not be aware that narrowed eyes and a clenched jaw may reveal our anger or rage.
Nor are we necessarily aware that eyebrows up and eye blinks reveal that we are startled.
(Adapted from Worchel and Shebilske, Psychology: Principles and Applications, 3rd edition)
4345

Passage 5
Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly different in
4350 many ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different. Arizona is large, having an area of
114,000 square miles, whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth the size, having an area of only 1,214
square miles. Another difference is in the size of the population of each state. Arizona has about four
million people living in it, but Rhode Island has less than one million. The two states also differ in the
kinds of natural environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of large
4355 desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year. However, Rhode Island is located in a
temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In addition, while Arizona is a
landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a
significant coastline.

4360
Passage 6
Lara is quite different from her sister Lisa. Lara's hair is jet black and curly, while Lisa's is blond
and straight. Lara stands 5 feet 10 inches in her stocking feet, while Lisa is a mere 5 feet 2 inches (in
heels!). Furthermore, Lara's complexion is olive, quite unlike Lisa's rosy hue.
4365

Passage 7
Yesterday's storm did considerable damage to our neighborhood. Many stately oaks were
uprooted, and several large old pine trees crushed the roofs of at least five houses. The hail that
4370 accompanied the storm damaged all of the cars that were not under shelter, and my neighbor's home was
completely demolished. And my own "detached" garage was certainly detached from its foundation.
Clearly, yesterday's storm caused much destruction.

4375 Passage 8
Some folks think that pets are trustworthy and harmless creatures. However, it's surprising what
little thieves these creatures can be. My daughter's ferret has stolen my checkbook, my calculator, my
wallet, and my change purse. My officemate's dog stole a neighbor's T-bone steak right off the grill.
My old dog Moonbear was known to steal freshly baked cherry pies and peanut butter cookies, while the
4380 dog that lived below us stole his master's roast one day.

Passage 9
In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about 50% of the Earth's population lives
4385 in urban areas. There are several reasons for this occurrence. First, the increasing industrialization of the
nineteenth century resulted in the creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located in cities.
These jobs, with their promise of a better material life, attracted many people from rural areas. Second,

121
 there were many schools established to educate the children of the new factory laborers. The promise of
a better education persuaded many families to leave farming communities and move to the cities.
4390 Finally, as the cities grew, people established places of leisure, entertainment, and culture, such as sports
stadiums, theaters, and museums. For many people, these facilities made city life appear more
interesting than life on the farm, and therefore drew them away from rural communities.

Passage 10
4395 Many self-help books have been written to show job-seekers how to land the job of their
dreams. However, little has been done to help those who wish to stay unemployed. Baker (2008) has
some simple techniques that almost assuredly will keep one unemployed. His advice includes arriving
10 minutes late for interviews, preferably disheveled. He also suggests chewing gum and wearing
excessively strong cologne. Bad-mouthing a previous employer and using a few four-letter words should
4400 also complete the process.

Part 2 - Paragraph Organization

4405
Directions: Choose which pattern of organization was used in the following passages.
Passage 1 c. compare and contrast
a. sequence d. cause and effect
b. listing 4430
4410 c. compare and contrast Passage 7
d. cause and effect a. sequence
b. listing
Passage 3 c. compare and contrast
a. sequence 4435 d. cause and effect
4415 b. listing
c. compare and contrast Passage 9
d. cause and effect a. sequence
b. listing
Passage 5 4440 c. compare and contrast
4420 a. sequence d. cause and effect
b. listing
c. compare and contrast Passage 10
d. cause and effect a. sequence
4445 b. listing
4425 Passage 6 c. compare and contrast
a. sequence d. cause and effect
b. listing

122
4450 Part 3 - Supporting Details
Directions: Identify the major supporting details used in the following passages. Do not write complete
sentences, just key words.

4455 Passage 1
1. _________________________________ Passage 6
2. _________________________________ 1. _________________________________
3. _________________________________ 2. _________________________________
4. _________________________________4490 3. _________________________________
4460 5. _________________________________
6. _________________________________ Passage 7
1. _________________________________
Passage 2 2. _________________________________
1. _________________________________4495 3. _________________________________
4465 2. _________________________________ 4. _________________________________
3. _________________________________
4. _________________________________ Passage 8
1. _________________________________
Passage 3 4500 2. _________________________________
4470 1. _________________________________ 3. _________________________________
2. _________________________________ 4. _________________________________
3. _________________________________ Passage 9
4. _________________________________ 1. _________________________________
5. _________________________________4505 2. _________________________________
4475 3. _________________________________
Passage 4
1. _________________________________ Passage 10
2. _________________________________ 1. _________________________________
3. _________________________________4510 2. _________________________________
4480 3. _________________________________
Passage 5 4. _________________________________
1. _________________________________ 5. _________________________________
2. _________________________________ 6. _________________________________
3. _________________________________4515
4485 4. _________________________________

123
4520 Part 4 - Listing/Signal Words
Directions: Identify signal words used in the following passages.

Passage 1 3. ___________________________
1. ___________________________ 4555 4. ___________________________
4525 2. ___________________________
3. ___________________________
4. ___________________________

4530 Passage 3
1. ___________________________
2. ___________________________
3. ___________________________
4. ___________________________
4535

Passage 5
1. ___________________________
2. ___________________________
4540 3. ___________________________
4. ___________________________
5. ___________________________

4545 Passage 6
1. ___________________________
2. ___________________________
3. ___________________________

4550
Passage 9
1. ___________________________
2. ___________________________

124
 Part 5-Inferencing
Directions: Each item in this exercise introduces a topic. Six specific statements about the topic
follow. Read them carefully. Then choose the most appropriate inference.

4560 1. Topic: Shakespeare in nineteenth-century America

Specific Statements:
 In the early nineteenth century, Shakespeare was the most widely performed playwright
in both the North and Southeast.
4565  In the first half of the nineteenth century, English and American actors could always earn
money by performing Shakespeare in towns both big and small.
 American audiences were famous for their participation in performances of
Shakespeare’s plays: They hurled eggs and tomatoes at the villains and cheered and
whistled for the heroes.
4570  By the end of the nineteenth century, theater owners claimed that most ordinary people
couldn’t understand Shakespeare, and they were refusing to stage his plays.
 In the early 1800s, theater goers in big cities could often choose between three different
productions of Macbeth or Romeo and Juliet; by the end of the nineteenth century, it was
hard to find one production of a Shakespeare play, let alone several.
4575
Inference
a. Early American audiences embraced Shakespeare’s plays enthusiastically because
they wanted to prove that they were as clever and sophisticated as their former British
rulers.

4580 b. The role of Shakespeare in America changed dramatically as the nineteenth century
drew to a close.

2. Topic: The medics in World War II

Specific Statements:
 During training for combat, the medics were often despised because most of them had
4585 refused to take up arms.
 The medics had their own barracks and were separated from combat soldiers, who
referred to them as “pill pushers” and laughed at their medical drills.
 In actual combat, it was often the medics who meant the difference between life and
death for soldiers wounded in battle; they were the ones who braved gunfire to carry
4590 wounded soldiers to the hospital.
 In many divisions, soldiers who had lived through combat took up collections in order to
provide bonuses for the medics.
 Interviewing veterans of World War II, author Stephen Ambrose consistently heard from
men who believed they owed their lives to some member of the medical core.
4595
Inference
a. The combat experience profoundly changed the way soldiers felt about the medical
core.
b. Despite their bravery in the battles of World War II, medics never really received the
4600 respect that was due them.

125
 3. The high-heeled shoes that are so much in fashion right now are actually terribly
unhealthy for women's feet. They lift feet out of their natural position and shorten the Achilles'
4605 tendons. They put damaging pressure on nerves and remove the feet's ability to stabilize the body
and absorb the impact of heel strikes while walking. Therefore, women who regularly wear high
heels often suffer from sprained ankles, arthritis, shin splints, bunions, toe deformities, and back
pain. But the exact opposite type of shoe, the popular flip-flop or thong sandal, is also bad for
feet. Because flip-flops are flat and soft, they offer no support or protection. They can also easily
4610 catch on things and cause the wearer to trip and fall. Even athletic shoes can sometimes be
unhealthy for feet. According to foot specialists, some of them don't provide enough cushioning
for people with high arches. Others don't provide enough arch support for people with flatter
feet. Therefore, they can cause tearing of body tissues, bruises, and sprained ankles. (Source of
information: Lorraine Kreahling, "In the Relentless Pursuit of Fashion, the Feet Pay the Price,"
4615 The New York Times, August 31, 2004, www.nytimes.com)

Implied Main Idea:

a. Shoes are actually bad for the human foot, and we would all be better off going barefoot.
b. Fashionable high-heeled shoes are bad for women's feet but that doesn't stop women from
4620 wearing them.
c. Several of today's most popular shoe styles are unhealthy for the feet.

4. Soon after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks upon America, New Yorkers erected a
4625 temporary "Tribute in Light" memorial near the site of the destroyed World Trade Center. The
memorial beamed two powerful pillars of light into the night sky. Later, when the Lower
Manhattan Development Corporation held a competition to select a design for a memorial to the
victims those attacks, one of the eight finalists proposed a design called "Passages of Light:
Memorial Cloud." This memorial would consist of 10,000 vertical light sources that would be
4630 suspended above visitors' heads. Another finalist's design, called "Inversion of Light" suggested
turning the footprint of one of the towers into a reflecting pool above a circle of lights. Yet
another finalist proposed a "Garden of Lights," in which each light represented a victim of the
attack. Similarly, another of the eight finalists wanted to create "Votives (candles) in
Suspension," in which lights representing each victim would hang in an underground space.
4635 (Source of information: Paul Goldberger, "The Sky Line: Memories," The New Yorker,
December 8, 2003, p. 50)

Implied Main idea:

a. Although temporary, the memorial consisting of two beams of light was the best and
4640 most powerful memorial of all.
b. Americans take the design of a memorial very seriously.
c. Many of the ideas for September 11 memorials revolved around the use of light as a
symbol.

4645

Directions: Read each passage. Then draw an inference that sums up the main idea.

126
 5. I was over 5,000 feet in the air. I jumped and felt the cold wind rush across my face. I
looked down and saw that the small dots were getting bigger and bigger. I pulled a string and
4650 felt a jolt. Everything slowed down.

What was the author doing?

____________________________________________________________

4655

6. I was high—higher than the house. My friends were cheering me on. “Don’t look
down,” one of them said. I smelled the piney wood and went higher. I had reached the top.

4660 What was the author doing?

____________________________________________________________

4665 7. We stood in a line for about 20 minutes. When the lights came on in the front, people in
the line started moving forward. When we got to the window, we bought tickets and then went
to the refreshment counter. We bought some popcorn. Then we all went in a large dark room
and sat down in one of the rows.

4670 Where are they?_______________________________________________________________

8. Dave had trouble removing the last spark plug from the car’s engine. He wanted to
4675 check all of the plugs before he began working on the faulty carburetor.

What does Dave do for a living?

__________________________________________________________
4680

127
 Paragraph to Essay
4685
Paragraph: Man’s Best Friend

There are three main relationships that dogs have with people. First, we have working dogs.
These dogs, such as Siberian huskies and collies, serve people almost like employees. To a sheep farmer,
4690 for example, a good sheepdog is his most valuable partner. Other dogs are known primarily for their
excellence in sports. The sleek and supremely fast greyhound is used in dog races, and many hunting
dogs, such as setters, retrievers, and pointers, often compete in hunting trials. Third, many people enjoy
dogs as companions. All kinds of dogs can be excellent companions, but a few breeds are kept only for
this purpose. Some examples are the toy dogs, such as the Chihuahua or a Lhasa Apso. Because of the
4695 relationships they have with people, dogs are often called “man’s best friend.”

Essay: Man’s Best Friend

4700 The dog is generally considered to be the first domesticated animal. The domesticated dog has
lived with human beings in all eras and cultures since the time people lived in caves. It is generally
believed that the direct ancestor of the domestic dog is the wolf, originally found throughout Europe,
Asia, and North America. Archaeologists have found remains of dogs that are 10,000 years old. In these
ancient societies, as well as in our modern one, there are three main relationships that dogs have with
4705 people.
First, we have the working dogs. These dogs, such as Siberian huskies and collies, serve people
almost like employees. The dogs help pull heavy loads, round up cattle, and keep a sharp eye out for
strangers. To a sheep farmer, for example, a good sheepdog is his most valuable partner. Sheepdogs,
such as Border collies, standard collies, and Shetland sheepdogs, are very intelligent and can learn to
4710 respond to hand signals as well as spoken words. Sheepdogs in Scotland, for instance, move sheep along
with barely a glance from the shepherd. As a result, working dogs know their worth to their master, and
they are proud of it.
Other dogs are known primarily for their excellence in sports. The sleek and supremely fast
greyhound is used in dog races. These races take place on specially prepared tracks where the
4715 competitors chase a mechanical rabbit. People gamble on these athletes’ performance. Bird dogs are a
type of hunting dog. Setters and pointers, for example, recognize a bird’s scent long before it makes a
sound and show their owners where the bird is by standing rock still. Retrievers, such as golden
retrievers or Labrador retrievers, will throw themselves into an icy cold lake to pick up the bird their
owner has shot. These special hunting dogs often compete in hunting trials. Clearly, sporting dogs are
4720 the athletes of the dog world.
Third, many people enjoy a dog as a companion. All kinds of dogs can be excellent companions.
Both the working dogs and the hunting dogs have great patience and are very good with small children.
Most of these dogs will allow children to climb all over them and are great babysitters because of their
loyalty to their owner and their family. A few breeds are kept only for the purpose of being a companion.
4725 Some of these are the toy dogs, such as a Chihuahua or a Lhasa Apso. Since these dogs are so tiny, they
are great to have if you live in a small apartment. In short, many dogs, including the toy dogs, are
wonderful companions.
Although there are a great many breeds of dogs, they can be classified into these three main types
by their relationships to their owners. Even if you have no interest in sports and no farm to run, you can
4730 have a great companion in a dog. Because of the relationships they have with people, dogs are often
called “man’s best friend.”

128
 HIGH INTERMEDIATE READING AND WRITING
QUESTIONS FOR “MAN’S BEST FRIEND”
4735
Directions: Find the answers to these questions with a partner.

Part One: The Paragraph

4740 1. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph?

2. How many major details are there in the paragraph? What are they? (Paraphrase them – don’t
4745 write full sentences)

4750 3. For each major detail, how many minor details are there?

4755 4. What is the concluding sentence of the paragraph?

4760 Part Two: The Essay

1. In your own words, how does the author introduce the essay?

4765

2. What is the thesis statement for the essay? How is it different from the topic sentence of the
paragraph?

4770

3. Write the topic sentences for each of the body paragraphs.

4775

4. Are the topic sentences for the essay the same as the major details of the paragraph?
4780

5. Looking at the first body paragraph, what are the major details? What are the minor ones?
(Don’t use full sentences!)

4785
129
4790 6. Looking at the second body paragraph, what are the major details? What are the minor ones?
(Don’t use full sentences!)

4795

7. Looking at the third body paragraph, what are the major details? What are the minor ones?
(Don’t use full sentences!)
4800

4805

8. In your own words, describe how the author ends the essay.

130
 Paragraph: Animal Camouflage

4810 Many animals find security in blending in with their environment. In birds, for example, it is
quite common for adult males to be brightly colored and very noticeable, while adult females and young
chicks are light brown or sand colored in order to blend into their background and escape the sharp eyes
of a predator. Many mammals have also adopted the colors of their surroundings over the years. A zebra
is almost invisible among the branches and stripes of sunlight in its native Africa, and a lion is very hard
4815 to see when it is sleeping on the beige sand of the plains. Most fish are colored differently on top than on
the bottom. From above, they look like the land at the bottom of the water, and from below they look like
the water’s surface. The safety that these animals’ protective coloring provides has helped them survive
over the ages.

4820
Essay: Animal Camouflage

Animals in the wild have many natural enemies. A small bird wants to avoid being seen by a
hawk, a zebra doesn’t want the lion to find him, and a flatfish would prefer that the shark swim quietly
4825 by. If an animal can’t easily run away from its predator, how can it protect itself? One way that has
evolved over time is protective coloring, or camouflage. Many animals find security in blending in with
their environment.
In birds, for example, it is quite common for adult males to be brightly colored and very
noticeable, while adult females and young chicks are light brown or sand colored in order to blend into
4830 their background and escape the sharp eyes of a predator. This coloring protects the weaker birds.
Consider the bright red cardinal, a very common bird in colder areas of North America. The male is like
a red fire engine against white snow, but you hardly ever see the females. They are sandy brown, with
touches of red on the wings, tail, and breast. The peacock is another bird where the male is bright and
showy, whereas the female is easily overlooked because of her dull coloring. The long tail feathers of the
4835 male are generally bright green and gold and have round markings of a rich color, known as peacock
blue. The female, called a peahen, has short tail feathers and is much less colorful than the male.
Adopting camouflage colors helps the female birds survive and raise another generation of birds.
Many mammals have also adopted the colors of their surroundings over the years. A zebra is
almost invisible among the branches and stripes of sunlight in its native Africa, and a lion is very hard to
4840 see when it is sleeping on the beige sand of the plains. The lioness, in particular, looks just like part of
the ground until she raises her head. The camouflage of the lioness makes her invisible to her prey so she
can concentrate on hunting and feeding her young. All these mammals have, over many, many years,
developed protective coloring to assist them in the struggle to survive.
Most fish are colored differently on top than on the bottom. From above, they look like the land
4845 at the bottom of the water, and from below they look like the water’s surface. Many ocean fish have a
horizontal line along their body that separates the top from the bottom. An ocean mackerel, for example,
is easily distinguished by this dark stripe. Some flatfish have taken this protection a step further; for
example, a fish that lives on a sandy bottom has a light-brown upper side, while a flatfish that lives on a
rocky bottom has an upper side that looks like pebbles. Because they look just like their surroundings,
4850 these fish survive and avoid becoming someone else’s lunch.
Looking like their environment is helpful to these animals for the survival of the species. The
mother bird that is invisible among the brown leaves, the lion snoozing on the sandy plains, and the fish
that hides among the pebbles will live to see another day. The safety these animals find in their protective
coloring has helped them survive over the ages.
4855

131
 Word Processing Reference Sheet

Typed paragraphs and essays have specific formatting requirements. This paper will help you
4860 remember how to format your paragraphs/essays correctly.

1. Double spacing
2. Setting fonts
3. Responding to Red-underlining
4865 4. Paper Size
5. Centering
6. Paragraph Indents
7. Headers
8. Page Numbers
4870 9. Margins

1. Double Spacing:

1
2
4875

2. a) Setting Font Style (Many Instructors may prefer Arial or Times New Roman)

4880

1
2
4885

4890

132
4895 2. b) Setting Font Size (If you use Times New Roman or Arial, choose 12 point only)

1
2

3. Responding to Red-underlining: A red-underlined word means the underlined word is

4900 misspelled. When you click the right button on the mouse, suggestions of other ways to
spell the word will appear. Choose the correct option.

First, you will have to make sure the red underlining feature is turned on. Here
is how to do that:
4905 1. Click on the File button on the top left.
2. Click on Options, at the bottom of the box.
3. Click on Proofing on the left.
4. Even though the boxes will already be checked off, they don’t work until you
uncheck them and then check them again. The boxes to uncheck-check are:
4910  Spelling as you type
 Check grammar with spelling
 Mark grammar errors as you type

Here is how the red underlining works, once you have all those boxes checked
4915 off:

133
 4. Paper size: This is usually not a problem with computers at school, but it may be a problem with
a computer or file that you brought from another country. The USA is not an A4 paper size
4920 country. You may need to reset this on your own computer, or change files that you created on
other computers.

1
2
3

134
 5. Centering: You will need to center the title of your paragraphs and essays.
4925 Note: there is no reason to put your title in bold, or a larger font, or to CAPITALIZE
every letter. However, you should capitalize the first word, and all of the content
(‘important” words – don’t capitalize articles, the “be” verb, conjunctions, or
prepositions (“and,” “is,” “the,” “of,” etc.).

1
4930

6. Paragraph Indents: The first line of each paragraph must be indented. Indent by using the
TAB key once.

This is the indent.

4935

135
 7. Headers: Your name, Course name, Assignment name, and Date can go in the header.
(Check with your teacher.)

1
2
3
4940

8. Page Numbers

1
2
3
4
4945
9. Margins: Usually margins are 1” all around for most papers.

4950 Now you know how to format a paragraph! Now type the paragraph (corrected) you
wrote before in class. Fix your mistakes and make it better. Use correct formatting. Then
print your paragraph AND email it to me at ____________@greenriver.edu

4955

136
 INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPHS

The first paragraph in an essay is called the introduction. Without an introduction, your essay may start
4960 too abruptly. You need to lead readers to the subject of the essay in an interesting way and show them
that reading your essay is worth their time. As a result, the purpose of the introductory paragraph is
twofold: to get the reader’s attention and to introduce the subject of the essay to them.

There are several guidelines for writing a good introductory paragraph:

4965
 the thesis statement should come at the end of the introductory paragraph
 there should be at least two sentences before the thesis statement
 the introduction should not preview points that will form the body of the essay

4970 There are many ways for a writer to get the reader’s attention in an introductory paragraph. Five of the
most common are discussed here.

4975 Anecdote
An anecdote is a brief story that illustrates your topic. You can either base this anecdote on a real event
or invent a story that could have taken place. Here is an example of an anecdotal introduction:

4980 I’ll never forget the agony of my first waltz. I was twelve years old, and it
occurred at my sister’s wedding. My mother forced me to ask my bossy
cousin Mary to dance. Naturally, both of us tried to lead. We stepped on
one another’s feet and we both fell to the floor, as everyone laughed at
us. How embarrassing! Therefore, I signed up for dancing school the next
4985 day. If I can learn to waltz, so can you – if you remember a few simple
steps.

4990 Interesting Facts or Statistics

Another way to introduce your essay is with interesting facts or statistics. To write this kind of
introduction, you need to be aware of commonly known information. You can expand your knowledge of
facts and statistics by reading. Here is an example of an introductory paragraph using facts and statistics:
4995
Almost everyone in the United States has been to a McDonald’s
restaurant. Whether you like the hamburgers or not, you must admit that
McDonald’s cannot be ignored as part of the American restaurant scene.
Almost one-third of all hamburgers sold in U.S. restaurants are sold in
5000 McDonald’s. In fact, its sales are larger than the combined sales of Pizza
Hut, Burger King, and KFC. A new McDonald’s opens every 15 hours
somewhere in the world, and there are now almost 11,000 McDonald’s in
the world. A brief look at the development of this restaurant chain may
explain its overwhelming popularity.
5005

137
 Historical
5010 You may also choose to write a brief historical introduction to your essay. Naturally, this is not meant to
be a comprehensive account; it simply provides general historical background.

Since the middle of the twentieth century, women around the world have
been seeking greater independence and recognition. No longer content
5015 with their traditional roles as housewives and mothers, women have
joined together to secure the right to vote, be accepted into colleges and
universities, and pursue any profession they want. The basic causes of
this movement in the United States can be traced to three events: the
development of effective birth control; the invention of labor-saving
5020 devices for the home; and the advent of World War II.

5025 Question
For some topics, it is appropriate to engage the reader by asking a question he or she will then answer in
his or her mind. This style of introduction should be used infrequently – it is often seen as a lazy way to
write. Use it only if the question is truly interesting or something the reader would actually wonder
5030 about.

Have you ever walked downtown in a large city and felt afraid when
you’ve seen a homeless person? Almost everyone has felt this way when
they see homeless people sitting on the sidewalks or on park benches with
5035 their belongings piled around them, often acting strangely or asking for
money. The truth is that most homeless people do not want to be
homeless, and they are afraid of the same things you are. Homeless
people, like everyone else, need three things to feel safe in their
environment.
5040

General to Specific
5045
This is probably the most common type of introduction. It begins with a general statement about the
larger topic, and then each sentence narrows it down until you get to the specific thesis statement.

Americans are well-known for their love of sweet things. They love
5050 chocolate, ice cream, cake, cookies and candy. One traditional American
favorite candy is taffy. Making taffy is very easy if you follow these steps.

5055

138
139
5060 Identify each type of introduction: anecdote, historical, facts and
statistics, general to specific, question.

1. Do you know who the Crips and Bloods are? They sound like they could be fraternal organizations at
5065 respected universities, but they aren’t. They are rival gangs which originated in the Los Angeles area but
have now spread to most other major American cities. This increase in gang membership has occurred in
tandem with the decline of the traditional family of past generations. Gangs are a direct result of the
breakdown of the traditional family.

5070
2. It is difficult to grow up in this society. A teenager can get into all kinds of trouble with school,
smoking, drugs, and dating. One of the worst kinds of trouble that a teenager can get into is getting
involved with a gang. Gang members commit crimes and get hurt or killed all too often. Why do
teenagers get involved in gangs? Gangs are a direct result of the breakdown of the traditional family.
5075

3. Gangs have existed in the United States for at least 100 years. At the turn of the twentieth century,
there were many gangs in big east coast cities. These gangs were mostly made up of members of the
same ethnic group and primarily protected the neighborhood where their families lived. Nowadays,
5080 however, gang members have little to do with protecting their relatives. Gangs are a direct result of the
breakdown of the traditional family.

4. It is estimated that there are nearly 5,000 gangs in the United States with a total of almost 250,000
5085 members. In fact, in inner cities, where gangs are most common, seven percent of all teenagers are gang
members. Why are all these young adults choosing to be gang members? In my opinion, gangs are a
direct result of the breakdown of the traditional family.

5090 5. Sam hated to be at home. His parents were always fighting – at least on the rare occasions that both of
them were at home at the same time. His mother was on drugs, and his father was an alcoholic. He felt
totally alone at home, but when he was with his fellow gang members, he felt as if he belonged. He loved
being with the members of his gang and would do anything for them and with them. This all-too-
common example illustrates why I think that gangs are a direct result of the breakdown of the traditional
5095 family.

140
 The Hawaiian Islands

by Linda Jefferies

5100 Type of Introduction: _________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

5105 _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________Thesis

Statement: ______________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________

They all have a tropical climate, first of all. The average daytime temperature is about 78 degrees
Fahrenheit in the winter and 85 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer. However, it is never uncomfortably
5115 hot. The nighttime temperature is always cooler and there is generally a little wind. Rain falls often, but
usually not for long. People in Hawaii say that it rains every day somewhere on the islands.
The islands are also similar in natural beauty. They all have volcanic mountains and waterfalls,
rain forests and beautiful beaches. The warm, clear water around the islands is filled with many kinds of
sea creatures. There are giant sea turtles, whales, and dolphins as well as lots of tropical fish. The forests
5120 are full of beautiful birds and flowers. Many of them cannot be found anywhere else in the world.
Each of the islands also has features that are special. For example, the Big Island, Hawaii, is the
only island with active volcanoes. Both Mauna Loa and Kilauea on Hawaii occasionally erupt, pouring
out hot lava and smoke. The island of Oahu is the site of the modern capital of Hawaii, Honolulu. This
island also has one of the world’s most famous beaches, Waikiki Beach, especially popular with surfers.
5125 Finally, the island of Maui is important to Hawaiians for its role in the history of the islands. In 1800,
Kamehameha the Great became king of the islands. He established his capital on Maui, where it remained
until the early 20th century.
Today, with its tropical climate and natural beauty, Hawaii is a major tourist attraction. People
come from all over the world to view the volcanoes, the seacoast and the rain forests. They come to
5130 sunbathe or surf at the beaches, or they come just to relax in the warm, sweet air. Hawaii is truly a
wonderful, magical place.

141
 Food Choices
by Eleanor Noss Whitney and Sharon Rady Rolfes
5135
1. Type of introduction: ____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

5140 _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________

2. Type of introduction: ____________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

5145 _____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________

5150 One reason people choose foods, of course, is that they like certain flavors. Two widely shared
preferences are for the sweetness of sweetness of sugar and the tang of salt. Other preferences might be
for the hot peppers common in Mexican cooking or the curry spices of Indian cuisine. Some research
suggests that genetics may influence people’s food preferences.
In addition, some people eat in response to emotional stimuli – for example, to relieve boredom
5155 or depression or to calm anxiety. A lonely person may choose to eat rather than to call a friend and risk
rejection. A person who has returned home from an exciting evening out may unwind with a late-night
snack. Eating in response to emotions can easily lead to overeating and obesity, but may be appropriate
at times. For instance, sharing food at times of bereavement serves both the giver’s need to provide
comfort and the receiver’s need to be cared for and to interact with others, as well as to take nourishment.
5160 Furthermore, people eat foods that are accessible, quick and easy to prepare, and within their
financial means. Consumers today value convenience especially highly, as reflected in their choices of
meals they can prepare quickly, recipes with few ingredients, and products they can cook in microwave
ovens. Many people frequently eat out or have food delivered, which limits food choices to the selections
on the restaurants’ menus.
5165 In summary, a person selects foods for a variety of reasons. Whatever those reasons may be,
food choices influence health. For this reason, people are wise to allow nutrition knowledge to play a
major role in their food decisions.

5170

142
 WRITING ASSIGNMENT CORRECTION SYMBOLS

SYMBOL MEANING EXAMPLE

c Capitalization I like fridays but Not mondays.
p Punctuation What’s your name.
paral Parallel construction. I want to study and doing research.
poss Possessive John book is red.
Pro Pronouns I want to talk to they.
RS Run-on Sentence Living away from home for the first
time has been good for me I have
become a more independent person.
frag. Sentence fragment Because it was hot.
sp Spelling Thier books are torn.
sv Subject/verb agreement She like chocolate.
art Article I have car.
vt Verb tense They eat dinner at 6 pm last night.
wc Word choice She has twenty years old.
wo Word order He went yesterday home.
wf Word form She is a safety driver.
# Singular/Plural I have two dog and I have a cats.
? Unclear/I don’t understand Banana and no penguins,
sometimes.
/ Separate She shops there eventhough it’s
expensive.
 Join together She likes to talk to her self.

 Insert missing word He wants eat lunch soon.
X/~~~ Delete He can to go to Seattle

 Change places He read an article newspaper.

cs Comma splice He is short, his hair is black.

T Wrong or missing transition I wanted to buy it so I didn’t have
enough money.

∥
LS Problem in line spacing

↱
Start new paragraph

⟶, ↓
Indent paragraph
Problem with margins
5175

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