WTO

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is a multilateral organization headquartered in Geneva,

Switzerland. It came into existence on January 1, 1995, as a successor to the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The organization functions as a central body that
facilitates global trade.

The WTO provides a common platform to negotiate trade agreements among member countries
and to resolve any trade disputes. It manages 60 global and about 300 regional trade
agreements. The 60 trade agreements are accorded the status of international law. The WTO
comprises 164 member states. There are also observer states that are not signatories to the
WTO agreements, and they do not participate in free trade.

Structure of the World Trade Organization

The Ministerial Conference

The Ministerial Conference of the WTO meets every two years to make important decisions
about existing trade agreements. The Ministerial Conference holds the authority to make
decisions on any aspects of all multilateral agreements made under the WTO.

The Conference includes representatives from all members of the WTO. It gives equal
representation to all its members regardless of the size of their economy or share
in international trade. It can be thought of as the legislative branch of the WTO. The
12th Ministerial Conference is now scheduled to take place in June 2021 in Kazakhstan.

The WTO is headed by the Ministerial Conference, while the daily operations are carried out
by three administrative bodies:

1. General Council

The General Council comprises the representatives of all member countries and acts as the
representative of the Ministerial Conference when it comes to daily operations. Its job is to
carry out the implementation and monitoring function of the WTO.

The General Council is further divided into multiple councils and committees that focus on
specific topics. Examples of such bodies include the Council on Goods, the Councils on
Services, the Committee on Textiles under the Council on Goods, etc.

2. Dispute Settlement Body

The Dispute Settlement Body is a part of the General Council and is responsible for settling
trade disputes between member states. There is also an Appellate Body, where member states
can appeal any decisions made against them during a dispute settlement.

3. Trade Policy Review Body

The Trade Policy Review Body is also a part of the General Council and is responsible for
ensuring the trade policies of member states are in line with the goals of the WTO. Member
countries are required to inform the WTO about changes in their laws and trade policies.
The body undertakes regular reviews of the policies to ensure they conform to the rules of the
WTO. This is part of the monitoring function of the WTO, and it helps the WTO to adapt to
the changing economic landscape.

Functions of the WTO

The WTO’s functions can be broadly divided into the following categories:

1. Trade Negotiations

The WTO facilitates trade negotiations among countries by providing a framework to structure
the agreements, as well as providing dispute resolution mechanisms. It creates an international
legal framework that ensures the smooth exchange of goods and services among the member
countries.

2. Implementation and Monitoring

Once the agreements are negotiated, the job of the WTO is to ensure that the signatory countries
adhere to their commitments in practice. It also produces research based on the impact of the
agreements on the economies of the countries involved.

3. Dispute Settlement

The WTO also acts as a dispute settlement body when there is a trade conflict between its
member states. The members of the WTO can file complaints against other member states if
they feel the trade and economic policies of a country are divergent from their commitments
under one of the agreements of the WTO. Following the complaint, there are formal hearings
like a court until a settlement is reached.

4. Building Trade Capacity

The WTO runs special programs to support developing countries by helping them build the
capacity to participate in free trade with more developed countries. It also gives concessions
under certain agreements to low-development countries to ease them into free trade with other
countries.

5. Outreach

Finally, the WTO carries out lobbying and outreach across the world as a part of its larger
objectives to promote free trade. They try to persuade governments to reduce barriers to trade
to free, fair, and open markets around the world.
2nd info on wto

World Trade Organization (WTO)

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organisation responsible for

regulating commercial activity between countries. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is
built around a system of multilateral agreements that regulate the commercial exchange of
goods, services, and ideas across national borders. The objective is to facilitate unhindered,
predictable, and free trade. The World Trade Organization (WTO) succeeded the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was established in 1947 in anticipation of its
replacement by a United Nations (UN) specialised agency to be known as the International
Trade Organization (ITO). The liberalisation of trade and the elimination of barriers and tariffs
that followed the creation of WTO were huge successes for the global economy. Yet, progress
has not been made without difficulties. While the World Trade Organization (WTO) has been
instrumental in advancing globalisation and increasing trade, there is always room for
improvement.

History

Following World War II, international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) were established. As part of the original plan for
international economic cooperation, a third institution was to be established to oversee the
commerce component. The International Trade Organization (ITO) is a specialised agency of
the United Nations that was negotiated by over fifty different countries. Employment
regulations, commodities agreements, restrictive trade practices, foreign direct investment, and
service provision were all under the purview of the proposed ITO Charter. The goal had been
to establish the International Trade Organization (ITO) at the 1947 United Nations Conference
on Trade and Employment in Havana, Cuba. The plan, however, was never implemented. In
the meanwhile, 23 nations began discussing trade in 1947 at the Geneva Conference. This deal,
dubbed the General Agreements on Trade and Tariffs (GATT), was scheduled to take effect on
January 1, 1948.

As a result of the Uruguay Round of Trade Talks in 1994, the World Trade Organization was
established. It succeeded GATT, which had been in effect since the post-war era of the 1940s.
The agreement’s stated goals include the elimination of import limits and the reduction of
tariffs. However, GATT was never meant to be a permanent arrangement. While the World
Commerce Organization (WTO) eventually replaced it as the dominant multilateral pact
governing international trade, the GATT remained in effect for almost 45 years. They weren’t
a global trading bloc, either. Nevertheless, it was able to attract about 130 signature parties.
Rounds of negotiations, extra codes and arrangements, interpretations, waivers, reports by
dispute-settlement panels, and council decisions all contributed to GATT’s continuous
existence. The GATT governments walked a long road to establish the World Trade
Organization. This took place during the Uruguay Round of talks, which took place between
1986 to 1994.
On April 15th, 1994, 111 out of 125 member states signed the final document, marking the
completion of the round. As of January 1, 1995, 81 states had ratified it, representing more than
90% of global commerce. Not only did the round result in the creation of the World Trade
Organization, but it also resulted in a broadening of multilateral accords governing trade and a
restructure of relevant institutions. It is also credited with bringing services and intellectual
property under the system of multilateral accords by concluding the General Agreement on
Trade in Services (GATS) and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS). The GATT of 1948 was also superseded by the GATT of 1994. The
World Trade Organization (WTO) is designed to replace GATT by fostering a more equal
footing for all commodities and services. It understands the significance of redressing the
economic structure’s inherent inequalities. The World Economic Organization was formed to
eliminate discrimination in international trade relations and to ensure that tariffs and other trade
obstacles are significantly reduced.

The primary goal of the WTO was to act as a global organisation that facilitates trade between
countries and manufacturers of goods. Specifically, this was planned to be made possible by
WTO accords, which are negotiated and signed by the vast majority of the world’s trading
states. Contractual in nature, these agreements lay the groundwork for international trade and
investment. As commerce and business around the world expanded rapidly in the 1980s, it
became clear that GATT was not designed or structured to handle the myriad of new issues
that had arisen in international trade.

Origin and structure of WTO

The initial members of the WTO are the state parties to GATT 1947 and the European
Communities that accept the Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreements (MTA)
attached to GATT 1994, and the Schedules of Specific Commitments annexed to GATS.
Through the process of accession, additional states might join the organisation. The World
Trade Organization (WTO) is the leading international organisation for commercial exchanges.
As of June 2014, 160 countries were members. China and Russia, two traditionally
conservative nations, are now full members of the World Trade Organization. Both China in
2001 and Russia in 2012 joined the World Trade Organization after being closely monitored
for several years to determine if they would alter their trade and tariff policies to conform with
WTO standards. A Director-General leads the WTO Secretariat. The Ministerial Conference,
composed of delegates from WTO member states, acts as the organisation’s highest authority.

Every two years, ministers get together for a Ministerial Conference. This body makes the
institution’s final decisions. To make a call under GATT 1947, all parties involved must agree.
Ministerial Conference and General Council decisions under WTO are reached through
unanimous agreement. However, if member states were unable to come to an agreement, a
majority vote would be used to make a decision. In the organisation, the General Council plays
a chief executive role. Aside from the General Council, there are additional subordinate
councils. Other subsidiary entities exist in addition to the Council for Trade in Goods and the
Council for Trade in Services and the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
Agreement. Committees on trade and development, balance of payments restrictions, and
budget and finance are only a few examples. WTO, unlike GATT, has an international legal
personality.
Role of WTO in promoting international trade law

The World Trade Organization is a global body in charge of coordinating commercial activity
between nations. In contrast to other tripods, this one has a specific function. Firstly, it aims to
promote progressive trade liberalisation and the removal of regulatory obstacles that states
erect on the import and export of goods and services, which distort trade flows and reduce
economic prosperity and development. Second, it is a venue where member nations meet to
negotiate the terms of trade liberalisation treaties that are binding on all members. This forum
is referred to as a “round.” Last but not least, the World Trade Organization aims to establish
uniform standards of conduct to make international trade more open and predictable. The
WTO’s policies and agreements are defined and determined by the organisation’s guiding
principles. Of them, the MFN and the National Treatment Principle are the most well-known.
The MFN provision is the cornerstone of WTO’s nondiscrimination among states, since it
mandates that members treat all other members of the Agreement the same way they would
treat any other country with respect to any tariff or concession on a particular commodity. Once
commodities enter a member state, all members are obligated to treat them the same as if they
were produced in that country. This is known as the “national treatment principle.”

To counteract the negative effects of tariff cuts and other forms of trade liberalisation, this
provision prohibits states from using domestic regulations to discriminate against imported
goods. To name only a few of the six main goals of the WTO:

1. establishing and enforcing norms for commerce between nations;

2. hosting a forum where additional trade liberalisation can be discussed and
monitored;
3. settling commercial disputes;
4. increased openness to input in policy-making;
5. allowing for coordination with other important international economic organisations
engaged in world-wide economic management; and
6. assisting emerging economies in realising the full potential of international trade.

WTO has been successful in finalising various trade agreements that liberalise trade between
governments. A higher amount of international trade is a direct effect of this achievement. Over
the previous eight years, this growth has been estimated at over 25%. More rounds of
negotiations are ongoing in a variety of trade and service industries, raising the possibility of
additional expansion. The members of these states have persisted in keeping the doors of
commerce wide open. For instance, since China joined the WTO in 2001, her simple average
tariff has reduced from almost 40% in 1985 to under 10% at present.
As major developing markets continue to open up, more options exist for countries to sell their
goods. Clearly, this is a sign of progress. The World Trade Organization (WTO) regime has
been credited with laying the groundwork for and fueling the growth of globalisation by
facilitating the unrestricted exchange of commodities, services, technology, and capital among
nations. Divergent trade regulations and a lack of reciprocity have previously hampered the
expansion of international trade by creating obstacles including trade barriers, financial aid,
piracy, and most notably, the violation of intellectual property rights. In order to ensure a
seamless transition to more liberal trade regimes, WTO provides a worldwide forum for
governments to meet and solve these concerns and devise mechanisms to guarantee generally
acceptable answers. It has been argued that the industrialised countries that have the financial,
industrial, and technological resources to compete in a global economy benefit
disproportionately from the World Trade Organization’s triumphs in promoting free trade. It’s
disheartening to see that the gains from the 25% boost in global commerce don’t trickle down
equally to developing and developed nations.

However many people live in underdeveloped nations, and their share of global trade is a
pitiful 0.05%. Instead of the “free” trade that the WTO promotes, developing nations would
rather have “free and fair” trade between nations. Developed nations have rendered their
market inaccessible to developing nations through the use of tariffs and non-tariff barriers, even
though developing nations are supposed to eliminate trade obstacles and make their market
accessible to developed nations. As an example, the US government has maintained its policy
of providing substantial subsidies to the country’s agriculture sector. The conclusion is that
non-supported agricultural exports from developing countries will have a hard time competing
with their subsidised US counterparts.

ilo

International Labour Organization (ILO) – History

The ILO was established as an agency for the League of Nations following World War I.

 It was established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.

 Its founders had made great strides in social thought and action before the establishment
of the organization itself.
 It became the first specialised agency of the United Nations (UN) in the year 1946.
 The ILO has played a significant role in promoting labour and human rights. It had held
a significant position during the Great Depression (1930s) for ensuring labour rights.
 It played a key role in the decolonization process and in the victory over apartheid in
South Africa.
 The organization got the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969, for its efforts to improve peace
amongst the classes, and for promoting justice and fair work for the workers.

International Labour Organization (ILO) Objective

The ILO is the only tripartite U.N. agency. The ILO is a meeting point for
governments, workers and employers of ILO’s member States to set labour
standards, improve upon policies and create programs that promote
decent work for people. The four strategic objectives at the heart of the
Decent Work agenda are:

 To develop and effectuate standards, fundamental principles, and fundamental

rights at work.
 To ensure that men and women have equal access to decent work while
enhancing opportunities for the same.
 To magnify the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for everyone.
 To strengthen Tripartism and social dialogue.

International Labour Organization (ILO) – Structure

The basis of the ILO is the tripartite principle. The ILO comprises the International Labour
Conference, the Governing Body, and the International Labour Office.

 International Labour Conference:

 The progressive policies of the ILO are set by the International Labour
Conference.
 The Conference is an annual event, which happens in Geneva, Switzerland. The
conference brings together all the representatives of the ILO.
 Function: It is a panel for the review of the important issues regarding labour.
 Governing Body:
 The Governing Body is the executive body of the International Labour
Organization.
 The governing body meets in Geneva. It meets three times annually.
 The Office is the secretariat of the Organization.
 It is composed of 56 titular members, and 66 deputy members.
 Functions:
 Makes decisions regarding the agenda and the policies of the
International Labour Conference.
 It adopts the draft Programme and Budget of the Organization for
submission to the Conference.
 Election of the Director-General.
 International Labour Office:
 It is the permanent secretariat of the International Labour Organization.
 Functions: It decides the activities for ILO and is supervised by the Governing
Body and the Director-General.
 The ILO member States hold periodically regional meetings to discuss the
relevant issues of the concerned regions.
  Each of the ILO’s 183 Member States has the right to send four delegates to the
Conference: two from government and one each representing workers and
employers, each of whom may speak and vote independently.
International Labour Organization (ILO) Functions

The ILO plays an important role in the formulation of policies which are
focussed on solving labour issues. The ILO also has other functions, such as:

 It adopts international labour standards. They are adopted in the form of

conventions. It also controls the implementation of its conventions.
 It aids the member states in resolving their social and labour problems.
 It advocates and works for the protection of Human rights.
 It is responsible for the research and publication of information regarding social
and labour issues.
 The Trade Unions play a pivotal role in developing policies at the ILO, thus
the Bureau for Workers’ Activities at the secretariat is dedicated to
strengthening independent and democratic trade unions so they can better
defend workers’ rights and interests.
 The ILO also assumes a supervisory role: it monitors the implementation of ILO
conventions ratified by member states.
 The implementation is done through the Committee of Experts, the
International Labour Conference’s Tripartite Committee and the
member-states.
 Member states are obligated to send reports on the development of the
implementation of the conventions they have approved.
 Registration of complaints: The ILO registers complaints against entities that
are violating international rules.
 The ILO, however, does not impose any sanctions on the governments.
 Complaints can also be filed against member states for not complying
with ILO conventions that have been ratified.
 International Labour Standards: The ILO is also responsible for setting
International Labour Standards. The international labour conventions which are
set by the ILO are ratified by the member states. These are mostly non-binding
in nature.
 But once a member state accepts conventions, it becomes legally
binding. The conventions are often used to bring national laws in
alignment with international standards.
 ILO Global Commission on the Future of Work: The formation of an ILO Global
Commission on the Future of Work marks the second stage in the ILO Future of
Work Initiative.
  The Commission outlines a vision for a human-centred agenda that is
based on investing in people’s capabilities, institutions of work and
decent and sustainable work.
 It also describes the challenges caused by new technology, climate
change and demography and appeals for a collective global response
to the disturbances being caused in the world of work.

International Labour Organization – Mission

The ILO’s mission is to promote decent work for all workers. This is
accomplished by promoting social dialogue, protection, and employment
generation.

 The ILO provides technical support along with the support of development
partners to multiple countries in order to achieve this mission.

2 info on ilo
Symbolising social justice, world peace, and the dignity of humans, the ILO was
founded in 1919. The Peace Conference created the International Labour
Organisation (ILO) in Versailles held on April 19, 1919, as an independent agency.
International Labour Organisation (ILO) was the only institution or organisation that
remained after World War II when the League of Nations was abolished. An
international labour standard system has been sustained and improved by the
International Labour Organisation (ILO) since 1919 to provide men and women alike
with the opportunity to work in an environment that promotes their rights and dignity.
To ensure that everyone benefits from a growing global economy, standards of
international importance are an integral part of the framework.

History of the International Labour

Organisation
In 1946, ILO was designated a United Nations specialised agency. As a new social
organisation, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) seeks to raise awareness
about the potential impact of unfair working conditions on global peace. It is
concerned with issues relating to international labour. The International Labour
Organisation (ILO) is unique since it comprises companies, workers, and
government representatives. The government, which provides the funding, the
employees for whom it is formed, and the employers, who have the responsibility
regarding the well-being of workers, are its three main elements.

Objectives of the International Labour

Organisation
The objectives of the international labour organisation are:

 Workers who are satisfied with their jobs are more likely to be employed, encouraging full
employment and raising their quality of life.

 To ensure that this goal is met and that all parties are protected, it is necessary to
provide enough training and labour transfer facilities and reasonable assurances for
everyone involved to achieve this goal.

 To guarantee that all workers get a fair share of development benefits, including a living
wage, by implementing wage and benefit laws that consider this.

 An effective acknowledgement of collective bargaining, management and labour’s

cooperation in improving productivity, and workers and employers are working together
on social or economic initiatives.

 To extend social security measures so that everyone in need of such protection and
adequate medical care receives a basic monthly income.

 To ensure that all employees’ lives and health are adequately safeguarded.

 The protection of pregnant women and children.

 Ensure that people have access to food, shelter, and recreational and cultural resources.

Functions of the International Labour

Organisation
There are several international labour organisation functions which are outlined
below:

Standardisation at the International Level

Adopting international standards is the most prominent method in ILO’s efforts. Other
methods have been increasingly used to develop international standards, even if
Conventions and Recommendations remain the primary tools. In addition, there are
—
  Committee and ad hoc conferences have approved resolutions and conclusions at their
meetings.

 Industry-specific resolutions and reports are approved by organisations that represent the
interests of their members.

 Recommendations from regional meetings and conference resolutions.

 Independent bodies make social security decisions.

 Models for a variety of topics.

The Development of International Labour Standards

Creating worldwide labour standards on various labour and social issues is a major
focus of the International Labour Organisation (ILO). Adoption of Conventions and
Recommendations is the primary method of doing this. From fundamental human
rights to employment to industrial relations to social security to employment for
children and women to labour administration to social policy to topics affecting
special-category employees, these conventions have addressed many issues.

Information Gathering, Distribution, and Publication

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has long served as a clearinghouse for
data on matters of social issues and labour and a publisher. The International Labour
Organisation (ILO) gathers and disseminates information on societal and labour
issues worldwide. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is often considered a
reliable source of statistics data. The process of gathering data is aided and
supported by research.

It is the International Labour Organisation (ILO) that produces original publications

based on major international social and labour issues, such as standard reference
data, technical guides of specialised topics, templates of practice on security and
health in the occupation sector, workers’ education materials, and textbooks on
management.

Research and Analysis

Many studies and research projects have been carried out under the direction of the
ILO, and the findings have been published. The working environment, industrial
safety, occupational health and workforce development have been discussed as a
part of the international labour organisation functions.

Training
In the eyes of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), education is of the utmost
significance. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has a primary function in
the area of training as an adviser. Experts, designs and assistance for a wide range
of programmes relating to training, such as the ones for the jobless, women, and
particular target groups, are accessible to governments, social partners, private
trainers, and public and private trainers.

Conclusion
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) aims to improve the working conditions
of workers, believing that social fairness is the foundation of permanent peace. While
conforming to international labour and human rights standards, it also supports
creating new jobs and the notion of “dignified work.”. The ILO is dedicated to
advancing workers’ human rights across the world. Freedom of association, the
eradication of child labour, and promoting social justice are their three main ideas.
As per the objectives of the international labour organisation, the governing body
develops policies and programmes to meet the demands of the world’s labour force
in general. The policy ensures all employees have equal opportunity, are
appreciated for their work, and get a fair salary.