PERCEPTION

Perception is the process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. However, what we perceive can
be substantially different from objective reality.

FACTORS INLFUENCING PERCEPTION

. The Perceiver

1. Attitudes:
o Definition: Attitudes are the predispositions or tendencies to respond positively
or negatively towards certain ideas, people, objects, or situations.
o Impact on Perception: A person's attitude can color their perception of a
situation. For instance, a person with a positive attitude towards teamwork may
perceive a collaborative project more favorably than someone who prefers
working alone.
2. Motives:
o Definition: Motives are the underlying reasons or goals that drive an
individual’s behavior.
o Impact on Perception: If someone is motivated by achievement, they may
perceive challenging tasks as opportunities for success. Conversely, if
motivated by security, they may perceive the same tasks as threats.
3. Interests:
 o Definition: Interests refer to the things that an individual finds engaging or
worthy of attention.
o Impact on Perception: An individual’s interests can direct their focus. For
example, a person interested in technology may notice and appreciate
innovative tools in the workplace more than others.
4. Experience:
o Definition: Experience encompasses the knowledge or skill acquired through
involvement in or exposure to events.
o Impact on Perception: Past experiences can shape how an individual perceives
current situations. Someone who has had negative experiences with
management may be more critical of managerial decisions.
5. Expectations:
o Definition: Expectations are beliefs about what will happen in the future.
o Impact on Perception: Expectations can create a perceptual bias. If someone
expects a meeting to be unproductive, they might focus on the negatives, even
if there are positive aspects.

B. The Situation

1. Time:
o Definition: Time refers to the specific moment or duration during which an
event occurs.
o Impact on Perception: The timing of an event can influence how it is perceived.
For example, feedback given during a stressful period might be taken more
negatively than if given during a calmer time.
2. Work Setting:
o Definition: Work setting refers to the physical and social environment of the
workplace.
o Impact on Perception: A supportive work setting can enhance positive
perceptions, while a hostile or chaotic environment can lead to negative
perceptions.
3. Social Setting:
o Definition: Social setting involves the presence and behaviors of other people
in the environment.
o Impact on Perception: The behavior and attitudes of colleagues, superiors, and
subordinates can influence how a situation is perceived. For example, a group
consensus can sway an individual's perception of a decision.

C. The Target

1. Novelty:
o Definition: Novelty refers to the quality of being new, original, or unusual.
o Impact on Perception: Novel or unusual stimuli are more likely to be noticed
and can be perceived more intensely. A novel approach to a problem may be
seen as innovative or risky.
2. Motions:
o Definition: Motions pertain to the movement of the target.
o Impact on Perception: Moving targets are more likely to catch attention and
be perceived differently than stationary ones. For example, a manager actively
engaging with employees may be perceived as more involved.
 3. Sounds:
o Definition: Sounds refer to the auditory stimuli produced by the target.
o Impact on Perception: Loud or distinctive sounds can draw attention and
influence perception. A loud discussion may be perceived as aggressive or
passionate, depending on the context.
4. Size:
o Definition: Size refers to the physical dimensions of the target.
o Impact on Perception: Larger objects or individuals may be perceived as more
important or dominant. In a meeting, a large presentation screen might be seen
as more authoritative.
5. Background:
o Definition: Background is the context or environment surrounding the target.
o Impact on Perception: The background can influence how a target is perceived.
A presentation given in a well-designed room might be seen as more
professional than one in a cluttered space.
6. Proximity:
o Definition: Proximity refers to the closeness or distance of the target from the
perceiver.
o Impact on Perception: Targets that are closer in proximity are more likely to
be noticed and can have a stronger impact. Close physical proximity can
enhance the perception of intimacy or immediacy in interactions.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Rules for Determining Attribution:

In trying to determine whether behaviour is internally or externally caused, we rely on three
rules about the behaviour: (1) distinctiveness, (2) consensus, and (3) consistency.
Distinctiveness:
 Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual acts similarly across a variety of situations. Is
the student always underperforming (being late for class, goofing off in team meetings, not
answering urgent emails) or is the student’s behaviour in one situation unusual from what he
shows in other situations? If the behaviour is
unusual, the observer is likely to make an external attribution. If this action is not unusual, the
observer will probably judge it as internally caused.
Consensus
Consensus considers how an individual’s behaviour compares with others in the same
situation. If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can
say the behaviour shows consensus. When consensus is high, an external attribution is given
to an individual’s behaviour. But if an individual’s behaviour is different from everyone else’s,
you would conclude the cause for that individual’s behaviour was internal.
Consistency Finally, an observer looks for consistency in an action that is repeated over time.
If a student is usually on time for class (she has not been late all term), being 10 minutes late
will be perceived differently from the way it is when the student is routinely late (almost every
class). If a student is almost always late, the observer is likely to attribute lateness to internal
causes. If the student is almost never late, then lateness will be attributed to external causes.

SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS / BIAS IN PERCEPTION:

 Fundamental Attribution Error:

 Definition: The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore

situational factors in judging others' behavior.
 Example: If a colleague misses a deadline, you might think they are lazy (internal
attribution) rather than considering they might have been dealing with a family
emergency (external factor).

Self-Serving Bias:

 Definition: The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors and one’s
failures to external factors.
 Example: When you get a promotion, you credit your hard work and talent (internal
factors). However, if you don’t get the promotion, you blame office politics or
favoritism (external factors).

Selective Perception:

 Definition: The process of selectively interpreting what one sees based on their
interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
 Example: A manager who values punctuality may only notice the instances when an
employee arrives late, ignoring all the times they were on time or early.

Halo Effect:
 Definition: The tendency to let an overall impression of a person influence specific
judgments about their traits.
 Example: If you perceive a colleague as friendly, you might also assume they are
competent and reliable, even without evidence supporting their professional skills.

Horn Effect:

 Definition: The tendency to let an overall negative impression of a person influence

specific judgments about their traits.
 Example: If you find a colleague uncooperative, you might also assume they are
disorganized and unprofessional, even if they are quite effective in their work.

Projection:

 Definition: The process of attributing one’s own characteristics, feelings, or beliefs to

others.
 Example: If you are particularly detail-oriented, you might assume that everyone else
also values and pays attention to details in their work.

Contrast Effects:

 Definition: The evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected by

comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics.
 Example: If you interview a mediocre candidate right after interviewing an
exceptional one, the mediocre candidate might seem worse than they are in
comparison.

Stereotyping:

 Definition: The process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a

social category.
 Example: Assuming a young employee is tech-savvy and good with social media
simply because of their age group.

Prejudice:

 Definition: A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience;

often directed against people based on their social group.
 Example: Believing that someone from a particular ethnic background will be less
competent without any evidence, based purely on preconceived notions.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:
 Definition: A prediction that causes itself to become true due to the feedback between
belief and behavior.
 Example: If a teacher believes a student is high-achieving, they may provide more
encouragement and attention, which helps the student perform better, thereby
confirming the teacher's initial belief.