INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 2167/2 -Montenegro -Armenia

-Australia -Britain
-France -Russia
THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918
Central powers during World War One
The First World War broke out in 1914. It started as a European war  -Germany -Austria-
but by 1917 it became purely a world war as it involved United Hungary
States of America,Asia,Canada, Australia,Brazil, China,the  -Turkey -Bulgaria
Caribbean Islands and most ofAfrica.The cataclysm came as a  -Jordan
disturbing calamity to the relative peace and tranquillity which the
people of Europe had enjoyed since the end of the Napoleonic Methods of fighting used during World War One
wars.Everyone had expected to enjoy the fruits of industrialisation  -Air strikes -Submarine
and scientific developments that had started in Europe but this was warfare
however ,rendered null and void by this great war of 1914.The war  -Use of tanks -Trench warfare
was fought on land and above land[air],on seas and under the  -Use of poisonous gas
seas.The war was fought by Germany and Austria-Hungary and their
allies[Central powers] against Britain andFranceand their allies Seas where World War One was fought
[Allied powers].  -North Sea -English
Channel
Allied powers during World War One  -Pacific -Atlantic
-Canada -United States  -Red sea
of America
-Romania -Italy
-South Africa -Greece Weapons used during World War One
-Georgia -New Zealand  -Tanks -Hydrophone
-Japan -China  -Howitzers -Rifles
-Portugal -Spain  -Battle cruisers -Aeroplanes[zeppelin]
-Serbia -Belgium  -Destroyers -Poisonous gas

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  -Torpedoes -Cruisers
 -Light cruisers -Machine guns Long Term Causesof World War One
 -Depth charge -  -The system of alliances initiated by Bismarck caused the
Bombs[grenades] First World War.
 -Submarines[U-boats] -Cannons  -The colonial clashes or conflicts by European powers
 -Dreadnoughts [battle ships] caused the 1914 war.
 -The naval race especially between Britain and Germany
Types of ships used during World War One increased tension in Europe.
 -Dreadnoughts -Light  -Arms race by European powers increased enmity among
cruisers European powers.
 -Cruisers -Battle cruisers  -Militarism in Europe also caused the 1914 war.
 -Submarines[U-boats] -Destroyers  -Nationalism was another cause of world war one.
 -The first Moroccan crisis[1905] and the second Moroccan
European countries that had colonial interests in North Africa crisis [1911] also contributed.
in early 1900s  -German Weltipolitik [a policy aimed at dominating Europe]
 -Britain -France also caused this war.
 -Germany -Italy  -War plans such as the Schlieffen plan by Germany caused
 -Turkey -Spain the 1914 war.
 -Kaiser’s utterances or tactless public statements by the
European countries that had interests in the Balkan region Kaiser provoked other countries.
before World War One
 -Britain -Russia Short term causes/Balkan Instability/Balkan crisis [1908-1914]
 -Germany -Austria–  -The Bosnian crisis [1908] caused the war.
Hungary  -The first Balkan war [1912] and the second Balkan war
 -Turkey [1913] caused the 1914 war.
 -The Sarajevo assassination [1914] sparked the war.

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR ONE

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 Causes of World War One [in detail] Terms of this Treaty
 -The league members agreed to cooperate in the suppression
1]The Alliance System of subversive activities in their countries.
The system of alliances was initiated by Otto von Bismarck who  -They agreed to consult each other if other powers threatened
was the Chancellor of Germany from 1871 to 1890.Following the European peace.
defeat of France by Germany in the 1870-71 Franco-Prussian war.  -The three monarchs agreed to consult each other about
Bismarck was determined to prevent any attempts by the French to events in the Balkans.
regain the mineral rich provinces of Alsace-Lorraine or to find allies  -The three agreed to assist each other in case of an attack of
in Europe who would be prepared to assist her in a war of revenge. any member by two or more powers.
Generally Bismarck’s foreign policy was geared towards isolating  -In case of an attack by one country, others were to remain
France who was seen as the greatest danger to the newly created neutral[not to intervene].
German Reich. Alsace-Lorraine had been absorbed into the newly
created German Empire. b]The Dual Alliance[1879]
It was signed by Germany and Austria-Hungary
a] TheDreikaiserbund Treaty/ The League of the Three
Emperors[1872] Terms of this treaty
 -The two countries promised mutual aid if one of them was
It was signed by Kaiser William I of Germany, Tsar Alexander II of attacked by Russia.
Russia and Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary. By clever  -The two promised mutual aid if one of them was attacked
diplomacy, Bismarck managed to secure the friendship of both by any power assisted by Russia.
Austria-Hungry and Russia in spite of the conflicting ambitions of  -They promised each other aid if either of them were
these two countries. By this treaty Bismarck hoped that attacked by two or more powers.
monarchicalfriendship would form a common bond against  -They promised each other neutrality in the case of an attack
republican France [which was one reason why he wanted France to by any other country, for example, France.
remain a republic]. Bismarck was able to isolate France by  -The treaty clearly promised support to Germany in the event
befriending Austria Hungary and Russiawhom France could get into of a joint attack by France and Russia.
friendship with.
c]The Renewed Dreikaiserbund Treaty[1881]

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 colony established on the borders of French Algeria, took
Bismarck feared that France might come into an agreement with Bismarck’s hint and occupied Tunis.This threw Italy into the arms
Russia[He wanted to keep France isolated].As a result Bismarck of Germany and the following year [1882] Italy joined the two
persuaded Russia and Austria-Hungary to renew the old powers of the 1879 Dual Alliance to form the Triple Alliance.
Dreikaiserbund.Tsar Alexander II had died and Bismarck renewed
the League of the Three Emperors with Austria-Hungary and Russia Terms of this Treaty
.Thus the possibility of a Franco-Russian alliance was banished.  -Germany and Austria-Hungaryagreed to help Italy if she
Terms of this Treaty were attacked by France.
 -Italy agreed to help Germany if she were attacked by
 -The three powers agreed to consult each other in matters of France.
the Balkans.  -Each of these powers agreed to help if either of the powers
 -They promised each other neutrality if one of them was were attacked by any two or more powers.
attacked by a fourth power [single] power.  -Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed that they would help
 -Austria –Hungary was allowed to annex Bosnia and each other against a Russian attack of either of them.
Herzegovina.  -In case of any war that involved Britain, Italy was to remain
 -There was to be creation of a Big Bulgaria [the union of neutral.
Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia] under Russian influence.  -Each of these powers agreed to remain neutral if either of
 -The alliance was to be renewed after every three years. them was attacked by a single.
 -the alliance was joined in the following year [1883] by
d]The Triple Alliance [1882] Romania and later on by Turkey.

It was signed by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.It was an e]The Re-insurance Treaty[1887]
enlargement of the 1879 Dual Alliance to include Italy.Italy joined
because she resented French expansion in North Africa.Bismarck It was signed by Germany and Russia.TheDreikaiserbund
secretly encouraged French ambitions in North Africa, mainly to was supposed to be renewed in 1887 but failed, owing to
divert her from scheming to recover Alsace –Lorraine and to bring Austro-Russian antagonism over the Balkan affairs.At that
France into collision with Italy, who had ambitions and some 20 000 time the Russian press was actively anti-German and articles
settlers in Tunis area.In 1881 the French reluctant to see an Italian were advocating a Franco-Russian alliance.This was a threat

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 to Germany’s policy of keeping France isolated. To improve Re-insurance treaty needed to be renewed in 1890, Kaiser
the Russo-German relations, Bismarck secretly signed the William ignored.Russia signed the Dual Alliance with
Re-insurance treaty with Russia.It was signed without the France because since 1888 Russia was being given French
knowledge of Italy and Austria-Hungary. loans, which greatly helped her to finance her industrial
progress.
Terms of this Treaty
 -Both promised to remain neutral if either of them was at war Terms of this Treaty
with a third [single] power.  -If France was attacked by Germany alone or by Germany
 -If Russia attacked Austria-Hungary or if Germany attacked and Italy, Russia would help her.
France they were to remain neutral.  -If Russia was attacked by Germany alone or by Germany
 -They were also to try and localise the conflict. and Austria-Hungary, France would help her.
 -Germany was to support Russian claims to influence  -The alliance was to continue as long as the triple alliance
Bulgarian affairs. was in force[a clear indication that they were geared towards
a war].
f]The Franco-Russian Agreement/ Dual Alliance 1894  -If the members of the triple alliance mobilised, France and
Russia were to mobilise immediately.
It was signed by Russia and France.France was without an g]The Anglo- Japanese Alliance [1902]
ally but by 1890 she felt she needed one, partly because of
her weakness in relation to Germany and partly because she It was signed by Britain and Japan.Britain approached Japan
was increasingly coming into conflict with Great Britain and in 1902 because she wanted an ally who could check Russian
Italy over colonial matters.Russia had a tradition of alliance and German expansionist ambitions in the Far East
with Germany but she had come to realise that whenever especially China.The alliance was meant to guard against the
Austrian and Russian interests clashed in the Balkans, movement of Russia in the Far East, that is, in Manchuria
Germany was likely to support Austria.Therefore in 1890 and Korea.Japan also wanted an ally who could help her plan
when her existing treaty with Germany lapsed, she did not for a war against Russia[Russo-Japanese war 1904].This
renew it.The dismissal of Bismarck in 1890 marked a turning alliance was the first step which Britain took to end her
point in the relations of European countries.French isolation isolation.
died a natural death as a result of Kaiser’s policies.When the

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  -The Fashoda incident of 1898
Terms of this Treaty  -The congratulatory message of Kaiser William to Paul
 -Britain was to support Japan in the Far East if Japan was in Krugger in 1896 after the Jameson raid failure.
a war with two other powers.  -The Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902.In this war the Kaiser
 -If either of them was to wage war against two powers, her gave the Boers food supplies.
ally was bound to join her.  -The Kaiser’s proclaimed Weltipolitik threatened British
 -If either power went to war to maintain the Far Eastern supremacy
status quo, the other promised to remain neutral.  -Britain’s naval superiority was being challenged by USA,
 -If Japan was at war with a third power [single power] Japan and Germany
Britain was to remain neutral.  -Germany looked for colonies next to British ones
 -If Britain was at war with a third power [single power]
Japan was to remain neutral. h] The Entente Cordiale/Anglo-French-Entente/ Anglo-French
 -Britain recognised Japan’s interests in Korea. agreement [1904]
It was signed by Britain and France. An entente is an
Why Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation/Why agreement to settle areas of dispute.This agreement was
Britain looked for allies mainly concerned with colonial matters.It was not directed
against specific enemies.It was not a military alliance.It was
 -She wanted an ally who could check Russian and Germany aimed at fostering co-operation between Britain and France,
expansionist ambitions in the Far East especially China. especially in settling disputes concerning overseas
 -All the major powers had aligned themselves, for example, territories.Britain and France abandoned their traditional
the dual alliance of 1879,the Franco-Russian alliance of differences.The two were drawn together by the common
1893-4 and the Triple alliance and so on. fear of Germany’s intentions.To Kaiser William and the rest
 -Britain had the desire to control Russian expansion in the of the world, it showed that Britain preferred France to
Balkans. Germany.This alliance made France to work hard to draw
 -Arms race with Germany and other powers. her two friends [Russia and Britain] together.
 -German gunboat diplomacy
 -Division of Europe into two hostile camps hinted the Terms of this Treaty
vulnerability of Britain.  -Britain agreed not to oppose French aims in Morocco.

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  -Britain promised France a free hand in Morocco whilst  -Russia gained control over Northern Persia.
Britain’s occupation of Egypt was not to be opposed.  -Britain gained control of South East and the Persian Gulf.
 -Thus they recognised each other’s interests in Africa.
 -The two agreed to work together in the event of a conflict. j]The Triple Entente [1907]
It was signed by Britain, France and Russia.France brought
i]Anglo-Russian Agreement [1907] her two friends together.Britain and Russia ironed out their
It was signed by Britain and Russia.It was signed in St differences.The support given by Russia to France and
Petersburg in Russia.It was also known as the Anglo-Russian Britain at Algeciras Conference in 1906 drew them
agreement.The fear of a Franco-Russian drive against India together.This alliance was described as the anti-German club
forced Britain to oppose the extension of Russian of Britain, Russia and France. This alliance was meant to
influence.Even the downfall of Napoleon III did not make counter the triple alliance
the British feel secure in their possession of India.At the end .
of the nineteenth century Russia’s position was growing Terms of this Treaty
progressively stronger than Britain.Russia conquered most of  -They agreed to divide Persia [Iran] into three spheres of
Central Asia and extended her influence to Manchuria and influence.
Korea, posing a threat to British interests in China.It was not  -The Northern sphere including Tehran was to be under
a military alliance and not necessarily anti German.The Russian influence.
agreement led to the formation of the triple entente.  -The Southern sphere was to be under British influence.
 -Tibet which was of interest to both was declared to be
Terms of this Treaty neutral.
 -Britain and Russia settled their colonial disputes in Persia,  -They agreed that neither of them would interfere in Tibet’s
Afghanistan and Tibet. internal affairs.
 -The two also settled their differences over India.  -China’s sovereignty was to be recognised.
 -Tibet which was of interest to both was declared to be  -A complete balance of power was struck
neutral. .
 -They agreed that neither of them would interfere in Tibet’s
internal affairs.
 -The treaty recognised Britain’s influence over Afghanistan.

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Contribution of the Alliance System to the outbreak of European powers involved in the System of Alliances
World War One  -Germany -Austria-
Hungary
 -Russia -Britain
 -It called for the inconvenience of many countries because of
 -Turkey -Italy
the feeling of insecurity.
 -France -Bulgaria
 -Bismarck’s alliances helped to increase the fears of other
nations especially France, which began a frantic search
2] Colonial clashes/conflicts/rivalry
forallies to counter the triple alliance.
They also helped to produce the cataclysm of
 -It led to the division of Europe into two armed and equally
1914.Misunderstandings which took place among European nations
opposing camps, that is, triple alliance and triple entente.
as they competed to control African territories caused the war.These
 -The two camps increased strength year after year.
imperial conflicts strained relations between major powers.Almost
 -The relations between the two camps worsened.
all European countries rushed to control African land and this
 -The alliances operated to convert a local quarrel into a resulted in disputes over control of some territories, for example the
general war. clash between Italy and France over Tunisia, the Fashoda incident
 -These two camps were the ones that fought the war of 1914. and so on.In 1905 and 1911, France and Germany conflicted over
 -The armies ready for war on the continent were the largest Morocco.Morocco was taken as a threat by the members of the
ever formed in Europe in time of peace. Entente Cordiale of 1904 and therefore they cemented their
relationship against Germany.
Other Factors which led to the outbreak of World WarOne
3] Naval race
 -Naval race which increased tension between Britain and
-It was the competition for building warships especially,
Germany
between Britain and Germany.
 -Colonial clashes which increased enmity among European
-In 1870 Germany passed naval laws aimed at the
powers
construction of big warships.
 -The Sarajevo assassination which brought the fatal clash
-Britain who considered herself as the mistress of the sea felt
between allied and central powers
threatened.

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 -In 1889 Britain vowed to make her navy twice stronger than -Together with militarism, naval race cemented the system of
any two European countries combined. alliances which had brought Europe nearer to war than to
-After 1890 Germany challenged this view and began peace.
competing with Britain and passed naval laws aimed at
speeding up ship production. Types of ships involved in naval race
-Between 1898 and 1900 Germany doubled her warships -Dreadnoughts -Battle cruisers
from 31 to 62. -Light cruisers -Cruisers
-Britain felt threatened and went on to introduce new type of -Submarines -Destroyers
ship known as dreadnought.
-This type of ship dominated the seas during world war one. 4] Arms race
-This put Germany at a disadvantage because the  -It was the competition in the production of armaments.
dreadnought was comparably more powerful than any other  -During the period after 1870 Germany had the finest
battleship in existence at that time. military machine yet she continued to arm.
-It was faster and stronger than any other ship.  -France and Russia looked upon Germany’s own might army
-This rendered other ships virtually useless. with fear and began to arm.
-Germany not wanting to be outcompeted made her own  -They increased arms to counter Germany’s military
dreadnought in 1909. machine.
-Between 1909 and 1912 Germany built 9 dreadnoughts  -Almost all European countries embarked on making
while Britain consequently laid down 18 to maintain her weapons in order to fully equip their armies.
supremacy.  -Ammunition firms mushroomed all over Europe.
-The naval race reached its peak in 1906 with the launching  -Attempts to limit armaments had failed at the Hague
of the dreadnought by Britain, which stimulated German Conference of 1899.
naval rivalry.  -Tsar Nicholas II had suggested a 5 year halt in arms
-By 1914 Britain had built 32 dreadnoughts while Germany increases but no positive proposal of that kind was accepted.
had 20.  -The lead in the rejection came from Germany.
-Naval race increased tension between Britain and Germany.  -As a result the mood of militarism pervaded Europe by
1914.

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  -Each announcement of increased armaments expenditure by  -Various war plans were drawn, for example, Schlieffen
a European power was viewed as a threat by its perceived plan.
rival and this created an atmosphere of mutual fear and  -Railway lines were constructed to reach possible battle
suspicion which played a major part in creating the mood for fields.
war in 1914.  -These armies were not to remain idle. A chance to put their
 -Once started it was difficult impossible to slow down arms training into use was inevitable.
race.
 -On each side there was a complete lack of trust in the 6] Nationalism
intentions.  -It is the wish of people with a common origin to be united
 -European powers piled and piled arms and once armaments or to form an independent country.
were produced what was left was an opportunity to pull the  -The Balkan people, for example, were struggling to win
trigger. their national independence from Turkey and Austria-
 -Arms race increased insecurity among nations. Hungary.
 -They were anxious to win all people of the same race under
5]Militarism` their national flags and they were anxious to establish
 -It was an increase in soldiers by European powers. themselves in the world so that they would be at par [same
 -From the end of the nineteenth century most European level] with other great powers.
powers had been increasing their armies.  -Some nations, for instance, in the Balkans were anxious to
 -Most European countries began to introduce compulsory extend their rule over people of the same nationality.
military service.  -Serbia, for example, had freed many of her fellow
 -Able bodied men were forced to join the army. countrymen from the rule of Turkey.
 -France,for example, went on to increase military service  -She was therefore anxious to complete the task.
from 2 to3 years.  -Serbia wanted to wrest [take] from Austria-Hungary the
 -Russia increased military service from three to three and territory on the Adriatic coast which was inhabited by Slavic
half years. people [Slavs].
 -Germany increased her soldiers up to 5 million.  -This explains why Serbia and Austria-Hungary were at
loggerheads up to 1914.

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  -Thus world war one grew out of a clash between Slav
nationalism and the multi- ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire.
 -Austria-Hungary had incorporated the Slav people into her 10]The Moroccan Crisis
empire.
 -This led straight to the Sarajevo assassination. a] First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 / The Tangier Crisis
[1905]
7] Germany Weltipolitik
After the resignation of Bismarck in 1890, Germany adopted
a policy of Weltipolitik, a policy aimed at leadership and  -Germany learnt about the secret agreement [Entente
even dominating the whole world.Britain was not prepared to Cordial] between France and Britain.
let anyone country dominate Europe. She had fought  -On this agreement French claims on Morocco were
Napoleon I for this reason and was now prepared to fight recognised by Britain while France accepted British control
Germany. over Egypt.
 -Morocco had been regarded by Europe as officially
independent and under joint supervision by all powers since
8]Kaiser’s utterances /Tactless public statements by the
1900.
Kaiser  -The Entente Cordiale meant France would ignore the
Kaiser’s public statements caused the 1914 war.For instance, independence of Morocco.
the Kaiser congratulated Paul Krugger after the Jameson raid  -The cordiale was also meant to exclude German interests in
failure.This provoked Britain Morocco.
 -Germany which had economic and trading interests in
9] The Schlieffen plan Morocco could, in no way, accept the takeover of Morocco
It also caused the 1914 general war.It was a German war by France.
plan devised by General Alfred von Schlieffen in  -The Germany Kaiser felt that Germany’s interests had been
1905.According to this plan Germany wanted to invade sidelined since Germany had been left out of the negotiations
France via Belgium yet Britain and Germany had agreed not over the fate [destiny] of Morocco.
to violate Belgian neutrality [1839 London treaty].It was the
violation of Belgian neutrality which brought Britain into the
war.

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  -In 1905 the Kaiser and his chancellor Bulow, visited  -Instead, his views were rejected.
Tangier, a coastal city in Morocco, in an attempt to teach  -He was particularly bitter about the way he was treated, as if
France a lesson that she cannot depend on Britain alone. he had no right to speak on such matters.
 -The Kaiser was keen to show that Germany was now an  -Only Austria-Hungary supported her, the rest supported
important power in the area. French control of Morocco.
 -The Kaiser also wanted to test the strength of the Anglo-  -It was agreed that Morocco should remain independent, but
French entente [Entente cordial of 1904]. French and Spanish police forces were to keep order there.
 -By that time Russia was too weak to be a reliable ally as she  -The Kaiser who felt humiliated vowed to reverse the
had been defeated by Japan in the Russo-Japanese war of decision when Germany’s navy was powerful enough.
1904.
 -In a speech the Kaiser supported the Sultans [Moroccans] in b]The Second Moroccan Crisis/ Panther Crisis/ Agadir
their struggle against the French. He made a bold speech Crisis of 1911
trying to convince the Sultans that Germany would support
the independence of Morocco.
-The Kaiser William II had been disappointed by the
 -Both Britain and France were angered by this behaviour of
outcome of the Algeciras conference in 1906.
the Kaiser and threatened war.
-In 1908, the French secured the election of a new Sultan of,
 -Germany went on to demand a conference to settle the
Morocco because the previous one was against the French
dispute and this conference was held at Algeciras in Spain in
policy in Morocco.
1906.
-In 1911, a rising occurred against this new Sultan and in
order to suppress it the French forces occupied the Moroccan
The Algeciras Conference of 1906
capital, Fez.
 -This conference was held in Spain.
-The French claimed that the French citizens were in danger.
 -It was attended by Britain, France, Germany, Austria-
-The Kaiser sensing danger of total control of Morocco by
Hungary, Spain, Russia and Italy.
France sent a German gunboat called the Panther, to the west
 -At this conference it became clear that British backing for
coast port of Morocco at Agadir claiming to protect Germans
France was real.
who lived there but there were none.
 -At this conference the Kaiser was humiliated. He had
-The real reasons were [a] to frighten France into giving her
wanted to appear as a major power in Africa.
some colonial territory in compensation for the likely

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 occupation of the whole of Morocco by France. [b] Germany  -It made Germany to speed up her war preparations.
also wanted to test the strength of the Anglo-French Entente  -Although war was averted it was only a matter of
of 1904. postponement.
-The Germany action excited British opinion as Agadir was  -French hopes of a better relationship with Germany were
close to Gibraltar, a British territory in the Mediterranean. wrecked.
-The British and French suspected that the Kaiser wanted to  -It led to further division of Europe into twohostile camps.
establish a naval base at Agadir which would threaten  -The relationship between Britain and France was further
Britain’s trade routes. strengthened. Britain and France signed a naval agreement in
-They also suspected that Germany wanted to destroy the 1912.
Anglo-French Entente or the Triple Entente.  -The British and French realised that they had to take a firm
-This resulted in the British standing firmly behind France stand against the Kaiser’s bullying tactics.
and it was indicated that Britain would not accept German  -It increased opposition against Germany in Europe.
bullying.
-The British fleet was prepared for action. 11] The Bosnian Crisis of 1908
-For some weeks tension was high and there was the danger  -After the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary was
of an armed collision. given the mandate to govern Bosnia and Herzegovina.
-The three countries [Britain, France and Germany] made  -On the other hand Serbia wanted to control them since the
preparation for war. inhabitants of the two provinces were Serbs/ Slavs.
-Tension was only eased when France decided to give part of  -In 1908, a revolution to receive the Turkish emperor, Abdul
French Congo [100 000 square miles] to Germany. Hamid was organised by the Young Turks.
-However Germany had demanded the whole of French  -The Young Turks’ central aim was to revitalise the
Congo. weakening Turkish / Ottoman Empire and then maintain the
-In return Germany recognised the French occupation of autocracy.
Morocco and withdrew the Panther.  -The revolution shocked the major powers of Europe,
-The crisis ended without a war. especially Russia and Austria-Hungary since a strong Turkey
would disturb their interests.
Contribution of the Moroccan Crisis to the outbreak of World  -Such a strong Turkish government could make Austria-
War One Hungary lose her control over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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  -Therefore, before the government of the Young Turks could  -German threatened to give maximum support to Austria-
be established, Austria-Hungary met Russia and agreed that Hungary. Russia and Serbia gave in.
Austria-Hungary should annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.  -Although Britain and France did not recognise the
 -Russia was allowed to move her warships through the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary,
Dardanelles and Bosphorus to the Mediterranean. they were not prepared to help Russia or Serbia.
 -In October 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and  -Neither Russia nor Serbia was prepared to risk war with
Herzegovina, confident of support from Germany. Germany over the issue.
 -This was a blow to Serbia who wanted to acquire the two  -Austria-Hungary kept Bosnia and Herzegovina.
provinces which had 3000000Serbs.
 -Serbia wanted to create a South Slav state, that is, Contribution of the Bosnian Crisis to the outbreak of World
Yugoslavia [a union of Serbia with Bosnia and War One
Herzegovina].She wanted to create a union of all Southern  -It encouraged Russia to increase her army further.
Slav states under the Serbian crown.  -It worsened relations between Germany and Russia.
 -Russia felt cheated by Austria-Hungary since she failed to  -The enmity between Russia and Austria-Hungary was
get international support of her plans for the straits. increased.
 -The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina blocked Serbian  -It increased tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary
path to the Adriatic Sea. that at any given time the two countries would fight over
 -The Serbian government prepared to mobilise her army. Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 -Serbia appealed for help from fellow Slavs.  -It led to the formation of the Black Hand.
 -Russia called for a European Conference and expected
support from Britain and France.
 -However, Russia did not get support from Britain and
France. 12] The Balkan Wars
 -Russia alone could not fight Austria-Hungary because she
had not fully recovered from the defeat by Japan in the 1904 a] First Balkan War of 1912
Russo-Japanese war and she was weakened by the 1905 -On 12 October 1912 the First Balkan League which
revolution. comprised of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria
declared war on Turkey.

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 -They gained a swift victory. -They immediately called for a meeting in London to decide
-They drove Turks out of most of the European territory of the future of the Balkan affairs
the Balkans.
-The Turkish government attempted to introduce a common The Treaty of London [1913]
law, a national language and so on.  -By this treaty Turkey lost nearly the whole of her territory
-In addition, real power in Turkey rested with a few in Europe to the Balkan states.
ambitious army officers who suppressed the subject peoples.  -Greece was to get Thrace and Salonika.
-The renewed Turkish persecution forced the Balkan states to  -Serbia was to get a larger part of Macedonia.
cast their rivalry and jealousies.  -The Geek government felt cheated as it did not gain a larger
-All these caused resentment to the minorities against territory in Macedonia.
Turkey.  -Bulgaria was dissatisfied by this treaty and was determined
-The Balkan League wanted to drive Turkey out of all her to revise this treaty.
European territories.  -Each government felt it gained little.
-Each member of the Balkan League hoped to obtain a
 -As a result, the First Balkan League [coalition] soon fell
portion of the territory still under Turkish rule.
apart.
-The Balkan states witnessed the weaknesses of Turkey
 -Austria-Hungary was concentrating on the setting up of a
when it fought with Italy in 1911 in Libya.
small state, Albania in the Eastern part of Serbia to block
-The Italians had declared war on Turkey in 1911 and
Serbia from possessing a port in the Adriatic Sea.
attacked the Turkish province and very quickly defeated the
 -This angered Serbia as it was its key territorial objective
Turkish forces.
since it was a landlocked country.
-When the Serbians and Bulgarians captured Adrianople,
Balkan States involved in the First Balkan War
Turkey was forced to make peace.
 -Greece -Serbia
-Austria-Hungary and Germany had stood aside expecting
 -Montenegro -Bulgaria
that the Turks would defeat the Balkan League, but both had
gravely miscalculated.
Balkan States before World War One
-Turkey was defeated in roughly 6 weeks.
-Albania -Macedonia
-The great powers were shocked by this remarkable success
-Bulgaria -Serbia
of the Balkan states.
-Greece -Bosnia

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-Herzegovina -Montenegro  -In less than a month Bulgaria had been quite easily
-Romania -Thrace defeated.
-Crete -Salonika
The Treaty of Bucharest [1913]
 -This treaty was signed after the Second Balkan War.
b] The Second Balkan War of 1913  -Bucharest was the capital city of Romania.
 -This war was fought over how to distribute the spoils of  -By this treaty, Serbia and Greece kept those parts of
victory of the First Balkan War. Macedonia, but under the Austro-Hungarian and Germany
 -Bulgaria was angry with the settlement [Treaty of London] pressure.
of 1913.  -For its part, Turkey regained Adrianople. Bulgaria was
 -She was not satisfied by her spoils of the war. forced to give up Adrianople.
 -She felt other countries gained at her expense.  -The Serbs were once again denied the Adriatic port.
 -Bulgaria greatly resented the Greeks getting Salonika.  -Romania got part of Bulgarian Dobruga.
 -Bulgaria was not happy about Serbia being given part of  -Austria-Hungary was again determined to keep Serbia
Macedonia because these areas were supposed to have been landlocked.
part of Bulgaria’s share of the spoils.
 -Bulgaria claimed part of Macedonia which Serbia refused to
give up.
 -The war broke out in June 1913 when Bulgaria attacked
Serbia. Balkan States which took part in the Second Balkan War
 -This forced Greece, Romania and Turkey to declare war on -Serbia -Greece
Bulgaria. -Romania -Montenegro
 -Serbia, Greece and Romania had formed the Second Balkan -Bulgaria
League.
 -The Turks joined the war because they had seen in this Contribution of the Balkan Wars to the outbreak of World War
dispute an opportunity of regaining some of their lost One
European territory.  -The wars intensified bad relations between Serbia and
Austria-Hungary.

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  -Austria-Hungary with German support was determined to Balkan States that had become independent from Turkey by
suppress or to destroy Serbia. 1912
 -Serbia emerged from the war victorious, stronger, more -Montenegro -Romania
confident and aggressive than ever. -Bulgaria -Serbia
 -Austria-Hungary frustrated Serbian national aims when after -Greece -Albania
the Balkan wars she insisted on the formation of Albania as -Macedonia -Thrace
an independent state on the Adriatic. This move deterred -Salonika -Crete
Serbian expansion to the Adriatic coastline. This means
Austria-Hungary was determined to keep Serbia a Ethnic Groups in the Balkan States
landlocked country.  -Albanians -Serbs
 -The Serbs were now confident that the Austrians wanted to  -Bulgarians / Bulgars -Greeks
gain a continuous territory across the Peninsula from the  -Macedonians -Croats
Adriatic to the Aegean Sea and for this purpose Serbia which  -Bosnians -Montenegrins
stood directly in theirpath would have to be removed from  -Romani / Romanians
the map as an independent state.
 -The wars made the Franco-Russian and the Austro-German
commitments tighter.
 -The Kaiser assured the Austrians of his support if they 13] The Sarajevo Assassination [28 June 1914] /
fought a war with Serbia [the so called blank cheque]. Sarajevo incident
 -Turkey of course would be relied upon to support such a
move.
 -On 28 June 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand [an
 -Serbia began to encourage Pan-Slavism in Austria-Hungary
Austrian crown Prince], the heir to the Austro-Hungarian
while Austria-Hungary was determined to crush Slav
throne and his wife were driving through the streets of
nationalism in her country.
Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.
 -Thus after the two Balkan wars, Austria-Hungary was
 -They were murdered by a 19 year old terrorist,
prepared to wage a preventive war while Serbia was
GavrilloPrincip, a local Serb.
prepared to wage a war of liberation.
 -Princip was an ardent supporter of the Pan-Slav movement
called Black Hand [which was sponsored by Serbia].

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  -The murderer had come straight from a meeting of an anti- refusal was bound to be the answer. A satisfactory answer
Austrian society [Black Hand] in the Serbian capital, was demanded within 48 hours.
Belgrade.  -The three demands in the ultimatum were [a] That Serbia
 -GavrilloPrincip was allegedly said to have been sponsored was to suppress all societies organising anti-Austrian
by the Serbian Black Hand. propaganda. [b] That Serbia was to dismiss all officials to
 -The gun which Princip used was supplied by the Serbian whom Austria-Hungary objected. [c] That Austrian police
Black Hand. and officials were to enter Serbia to ensure that these two
 -Princip was given the task of assassinating the Archduke demands were carried out.
and he shot him.  -Of these demands Serbia accepted the first two, but refused
 -Serbia was bitter about the annexation of Bosnia and the third.
Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary as this thwarted her dream  -The terms of the ultimatum, especially the third term,
of the formation of a Yugoslav nation. werean impractical possibility to be undertakenas they meant
 -This is why Serbia encouraged Pan-Slavism in Austria– loss of sovereignty.
Hungary.  -Serbia suggested that the third demand should be submitted
 -There were several organisations which were formed and to arbitration by the international court of justice at Hague.
Black Hand was one of them.  -The Austrian government refused to consider this course
 -Betchtold, the Austrian Chancellor, welcoming an excuse and on 28 July 1914 Austria-Hungarydeclared war on Serbia
for war,claimed that the Serbian government had planned the and within a week the whole of Europe was ablaze.
assassination.  -Britain, France and Russia had been warned by Germany
 -There was no evidence to show involvement of the Serbian not to interfere.
government.  -Russia was not willing to see a fellow Slav country [Serbia]
 -Austria-Hungary consulted Germany and was given a crushed by a stronger opponent while Germany held the ring.
‘blank cheque’ full of military support.  -Russia too had Balkan ambitions of her own and here was a
 -The spark had now been lit by the assassination, which was chance to pursue them.
shortly to turn the whole of Europe into a furnace.  -Accordingly on 30 July 1914 Nicholas II ordered the
 -On 23 July 1914, Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to general mobilisation of Russian armies, in order to protect
Serbia whose demands were framed in such a way that Serbia. This was a threat to Germany which sent two
ultimatums .One demanded that Russia should stop her

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 mobilisation. The other insisted that France should give clear  -The incident heightened Slav nationalism and the desire for
guarantees of her neutrality. self determination.
 -After receiving a refusal, Germany declared war first on  -It was important in that it started the war.
Russia [1 August 1914] and secondly on France [3 August  -There were many long term causes of the 1914 war but this
1914]. incident came as an immediate cause.
 -By the treaty of London of 1839, Britain and Prussia had
promised to guarantee Belgian neutrality. Powers involved in the Balkan Crisis between 1908 and 1914
 -But on their way to France, German troops entered -Bulgaria -Romania
Belgium. -Greece -Serbia
 -On 4 August 1914, Britain declared war on Germany. -Albania -Montenegro
 -This was because German militarists had violated the -Germany -Turkey
sanctity of the London Treaty. -Austria-Hungary -Russia
 -Germany thought Britain would not intervene to protect the -Britain
Belgian neutrality since it was a ‘scrap of paper’.
 -On 4 August 1914 Austria–Hungary declared war on
Russia.
 -Thus one after another, honouring commitments made in
treaties with allies, the major powers of Europe were
engaged in the most costly war the world had yet witnessed. Who was to blame for the outbreak of World War One? /
Contribution or part played by European powers in the
Contribution of the Sarajevo Assassination to the outbreak of outbreak of World War One?
World War One
 -It increased enmity between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. a] Germany
 -It became the match stick that lit the bone fire.  -Bismarck’s alliance system which was an attempt to isolate
 -The incident showed the extent of German support for France led to the division of the world into two hostile
Austria-Hungary and Russian support for Serbia. camps. This made it difficult to localise the war.
 -The event brought the clash between the Triple alliance and  -The German Schlieffen plan [war plan] was an indication
the Triple entente. that she was anticipating war.

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  -Germany took part in arms race which caused the war.  -She supported the creation of an independent Albania at the
 -German naval race with Britain caused the war. treaty of London [1913] which created enmity with Serbia.
 -Kaiser’s utterances provoked Britain, for example, he  -Austria-Hungary made an agreement with Russia to
congratulated Paul Krugger after the Jameson raid failure. partition the Balkans which angered Serbia.
 -The colonial clash between Germany and France over  -She opposed the creation of a Russian backed Slav nation in
Morocco in 1905 and 1911 caused tension. Serbia.
 -After the Sarajevo incident Germany gave Austria-Hungary  -This would attract the support of the Slavs inside Austria-
a blank cheque to attack Serbia. Hungary.
 -Germany violated the neutrality of Belgium which brought  -She was involved in the system of alliances.
Britain into the war.  -She involved herself in the Balkans to make up for the
 -Germany supported Austria-Hungary in the Bosnian crisis. losses in Italy and Germany [which became unified in 1870
 -She fully backed Austria-Hungary’s aggressiveness over and 1871 respectively].
Serbia thinking that Britain would not intervene.
 -German’s Weltipolitik since 1890 was a threat to world
peace.
c] France
 -She declared war on France
 -She refused to remain neutral when Austria-Hungary
 -She declared war on Russia.
declared war on Serbia and this forced Germany to declare
war on France.
b] Austria-Hungary
 -She took part in arms race.
 -Austria-Hungary is blamed for declaring war on Serbia.
 -She took part in militarism.
 -She pursued a careless foreign policy towards the Balkans.
 -She took part in the alliance system.
 -She failed to respect the sovereignty of the Balkan states by
 -France had a war plan called plan 17.
annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina which angered Russia and
Serbia breeding hatred and grudge.
 -She wanted to destroy Serbia once and for all.
 -She made unreasonable demands meant to punish Serbia for
d] Russia
the death of Archduke Francis Ferdinand.

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  -She gave unrestricted support to Serbia making Serbia more -She sponsored anti-Austrian propaganda and terrorist
reckless. activities in Austria-Hungary.
 -She refused to remain neutral [and mobilised against
Austria-Hungary]when Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia and this forced Germany to declare war on her.
 -She took part in arms race and militarism.
 -It was opposed to Austrian and German influence in the
Balkans.
 -She was involved in the system of alliances.
 -It protected other Slav peoples as it was the largest of Slav
nations.
 -It was hostile to Germany which ruled Polish Slavs.
 -She made an agreement with Austria-Hungary that Austria-
Hungary should take Bosnia and Herzegovina. COURSE OF WORLD WAR ONE[1914-1918]
 -She influenced the formation of the Balkan League.
 -She supported Pan Slavism. Battle Fronts during World War One
a]The Western Front
e] Britain b] The Eastern Front
-She should be blamed for arms race. c] The Balkan Front
-She took part in naval race. d] The Turkish Front
-She supported France against Germany over Morocco in 1905 and e] The Austro-Italian Front
1911.
-She declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914. a] The Western Front
 -This refers to the areas /states where the war was fought
f] Serbia situated to the West of Germany.-
-She engineered the Sarajevo assassination which led to the  -Countries which fought on this front included Germany,
outbreak of the 1914 general war. France, Britain, Belgium and United States of America.

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  -The Franco-German border and Belgium was the first area  -The German forces were to occupy the Channel ports in
to be affected by the First World War. order to prevent the landing of British reinforcements.
 -Thus the war broke exactly in accordance with to the  -When war broke out in 1914, Germany moved quickly to
Schlieffen plan. implement the Schlieffen plan.
 -The Schlieffen Plan was a German war plan which was  -Troops moved swiftly through Belgium.
devised by General Alfred Count von Schlieffen in 1905.  -The Germans however met resistance from the Belgians and
 -Schlieffen was the chief of the General Staff in Germany. the British Expeditionary Forces [BEF].
 -The plan was based on the assumption that Germany was to  -The Germans were held for 3 weeks in Belgium.
fight war on two fronts against France and against Russia  -This delayed the German strike against France.
simultaneously.  -The British came in to strengthen French defences a little
 -It was based on the use of railways to move troops. earlier than Germans anticipated.
 -According to this plan Germany would invade France via  -As a result some German forces withdrew to fight the
Belgium / Holland and Luxembourg. Russians in the East.
 -The Germans were to march through Belgium within two  -The Germans were temporarily stopped by allied counter
weeks. attacks thereby disturbing the speed and timetable.
 -The plan aimed at swift victory against France in the West.  -The French army was sent to deal with German invasion
 -France was to be defeated within six weeks. instead of invading Alsace-Lorraine.
 -France was to be defeated before Russia mobilised her  -Germany thus made changes to the plan.
troops.  -Germany sent forces through a shorter route East of Paris
 -The Germans also aimed at capturing Paris and instead of West.
encirclement of French armies as well as attacking Alsace-  -The French and British checked German troops at the River
Lorraine before Russian mobilisation was complete. Marne and were pushed back to river Aisne.
 -After defeating France, German soldiers were to be  -The end result was that Germans were not able to penetrate
transferred to the East to fight Russia. into the West of Paris and the Schlieffen plan collapsed. The
 -This was meant to avoid fighting war on two fronts at the German High Command lost contact with the operation.
same time.  -Germans retreated 60km and dug trenches.
 -The Germans were to defeat Russia within six months.

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 -The quick mobilisation of France and Russia forced Germans to
alter the movement of their troops.
Aims of the Schlieffen plan -Resistance by the Belgians and the BEF forced Germans to fight
 -The Germans wanted to fight war against France and Russia with many powers at the same time.
on one front at a time. -Paris could not be encircled as originally intended.
 -The Germans were to rely on the speedy movement of
German forces through Belgium. Events or factors which led to the failure of the Schlieffen Plan
 -The Germans were to march through Belgium within two  -The Belgians offered stiff resistance.
weeks.  -The plan failed to anticipate that Britain might enter into the
 -The Germans aimed at defeating France within six weeks. war to defend Belgium.
 -They were to conquer France before Russia mobilised.  -The British Expeditionary Forces [BEF] landed in France
 -When France was defeated they were to attack Russia. holding up the German advance at Mons.
 -Russia was to be defeated within 6 months.  -France mobilised earlier than the Germans anticipated.
 -They were to allocate the bulk of the German soldiers on the  -Russians mobilised earlier than the Germans anticipated.
Western front.  -This forced Germans to divide her forces and resources.
 -They were to hold the French in Alsace-Lorraine.  -Germany forces in Belgium were weakened when some
 They were to occupy the Channel ports in order to prevent forces were withdrawn to go and fight the Russians.
the landing of the British reinforcements.  -British rifle fire was so rapid that the Germans thought the
Successes of the Schlieffen plan troops had machine guns.
-It motivated German declaration of war on Russia and France.  -British resistance at Mons slowed German advance and
-War broke out in accordance with the Schlieffen plan. gave the French more time to prepare.
-Germans were able to enter Belgium although they later met  -Von Kluck the German commander in France realised that
Belgian and British resistance. he could not keep to the Schlieffen plan.
-Although altered a little the plan allowed the Germans to avoid  -He changed the plan to attack and instead of going round
fighting war on two fronts for a short while. Paris he turned to the East of Paris.
Failures of the Schlieffen plan  -This left the Channel ports along the coast free from attack
-The plan failed to anticipate that Britain might enter the war to and enabled the British to reinforce to get to France.
defend Belgium.

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  -The French and British checked the Germans at the river -British naval blockade
Marne. -Fighting war on many fronts.
 -Germans were forced to retreat to 60 km and dug defensive -The Battle of Marne and Ypres forced the Germans to reconsider
trenches. the Schlieffen plan.
 -At Ypres the British troops under Sir Douglas Haig checked
German forces. The Battle of Marne [September 6-10 1914]
 -British naval blockade starved Germans of supplies. This battle was fought between Germany and France.France
 -Fighting war on many fronts led to the failure of the was invaded by Germany.On 6 September 1914, the French
Schlieffen plan. commander made a counter attack.Troops were rushed from
 -German allies were too weak to supply materials. Paris in every form of transport available.The battle of
Marne involved 1300000 French soldiers.The French
How important was the role played by Belgium in the failure of managed to push the Germans 48km but at a heavy loss of
the Schlieffen plan? 600000French soldiers.The French could not make a follow
-The Belgians resisted and slowed down the German army. up and take advantage of the victory because of heavy
-After the Belgian attack Britain sent the BEF of 90000 soldiers. human and material losses.
-Germany exhausted her resources in Belgium.
-At Mons inside the Belgian border the German progress was Impact of the battle of Marne
stopped. -The defeat by France was a setback for the Central powers as
-This affected their plan of a swift knockout blow to France through human and material resources were lost.
neutral Holland, Luxemburg and Belgium. -French victorymeant that Germany had to re-strategise and fight on
-It affected their plan of attacking Paris because they were delayed two war fronts, especially after the failure of the Schlieffen plan.
in Belgium.
The Battle of Ypres
Other factors which led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan It was between Germany and Britain.It was fought in Belgium in
-British entry into the war on the side of the Belgians. October and November 1914.Poisonous gas was used for the first
-British fire power proved too much for the Germans. time with the Germans.The German Zeppelin [air ship] was
-The French mobilised too quickly for the Germans. used.The French and British defenders managed to maintain control
-The Russians mobilised much earlier than was anticipated.

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of the Channel ports and war became bogged down in trenches.By  -Heavy artillery was used to pound down defences.
the end of 1914 there was a deadlock on the Western front.  -Poisonous gases were used.
 -There was loss of morale as soldiers spent too much time in
The Trench Warfare trenches.
 -The trench warfare was the brainchild of the German  -Diseases affected them in trenches.
soldiers.  -Soldiers also experienced starvation and drowning.
 -One of the German soldiers was defeated at Marne and  -There was also use of tanks in this war.
forced to retreat beyond river Aisne.  -The trench warfare resulted in a deadlock and this
 -The Germans could have surrendered at Marne and the war prolonged the war.
would have ended within two months.  -This meant that from December 1914 to November 1918 the
 -Instead of surrendering the Germans retreated some 48km to Western front was a scene of stalemate.
river Aisne. *In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany
 -There they began to dig trenches. while Romania joined the Entente powers in August 1916 but was
 -The French and British forces also adopted the idea of quickly over ran by Germans and Austrians in November 1916.
trench warfare.
 -They began to live and fight in trenches. The Battle of Verdun [February 1916]
 -Trenches protected them from machine gun fire and the This was between France and Germany.The German army
explosions of artillery shells. commander devised a plan to frustrate the allied forces on the
 -Trenches were heavily fortified with barbed wire. Western front.According to this commander [Falkenhayn], Britain
 -The trenches were extended into elaborate systems of was the iron pillar of the allied forces; however, it could easily be
defence and communication. removed out of allied war by a serious submarine action.Falkenhayn
 -It was the first of its kind. viewed that France was the main German objective.Verdun was a
very important French fortress and the hub [central point of activity]
 -There were millions of soldiers on each side.
of the French defensive system which threatened the German lines
 -The soldiers confronted each other below ground level.
of communication.By pulling the French manpower into the defence
 -In between the soldiers lay the no man’s land.
of the Verdun, Falkenhayn hoped to destroy the forces, capture
 -Those who tried to advance to the no man’s land were killed
Verdun and knock France out of war.On 21 February 1916, the
by machine guns. They were sure to die a cruel death.

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Germans opened the barrage.A concentrated German infantry attacks commencing / starting on 1 July lasting through to
caused the French to retreat.The fall of Verdun was imminent with November 1916.On both sides, many soldiers died.Germany lost
high casualties.The British, Russians and the Italians came to help morale and failed to capture Verdun though, the French and the
France.The British under the commander Haig took control of the British failed to defeat German.France changed its General Joffre,
French Arras sector.Britain and her allies raised the offensive which with a younger General Neville.The British Haig was replaced by
compelled Falkenhayn to withdraw.The French strengthened their other more active generals to work with Neville to put off German
resistance and under the command of Marshal Petain, they put off attacks.It was at the battle of Somme that Britain used for the first
the Germans.The Germans retreated to their trenches having failed time the tanks which they had invented against Germany.It was this
to capture Verdun.Hindenburg and Ludendorff replaced Falkenhayn Somme battle that discredited Douglas Haig, the commander in
as the new German commanders.The French lost 350000men while chief of the Western front and that led to the resignation of the
the Germans lost 330000 but Verdun did not fall to the Germans British Prime Minister, Asquith who was replaced by Lloyd
George.When the allied forces finally abandoned the attack, losses
Contribution of the Battle of Verdun to the defeat of Germany on both sides were quite high.At Somme, the Germans lost over
 -Germany lost heavily in [in terms of manpower and 500000 men, Britain lost over 200000 and France lost about 400000
resources] but neither side won a decisive victory.Japan also fought on the side
 -German advance to capture Verdun was checked by Petain of Britain.
who defended the fortress stubbornly.
 -The allied powers poured in reinforcements. The Battle of Jutland [31 May 1916]
 -German onslaught was held. It was fought between Germany and France. The British suffered
 -Huge offensive against Germans at Somme by the allies. heavy losses but they remained in command of the seas.
 -Russian offensive under the General Brussilov in Galicia
against German ally Austria-Hungary. The Battle of Passchendaele [July 1917]
It was fought between Germany and Britain.They fought in the
The Battle of Somme [July 1916] mud.The British won.
The British launched an attack on Somme.The aim was to reduce /
relieve pressure on the French at Verdun.This battle was initiated by
b] The Eastern Front
Haig.He aimed to break the German defence forces and capture
German fortress at Cambria and Bapaume.The battle was a series of

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On this battle front Russia fought Germany and Austria-Hungary.On the war front in increasing numbers.By the end of 1916, strikes and
this front the war had opened with a Russian invasion of East food riots were rampant and in March 1917 a revolution broke out in
Prussia.This resulted in the dispatching of some German forces by Russia and Tsar was overthrown.
Moltke of Germany from the Western front.When war broke out
Russia mobilised her forces swiftly than the Germans had
anticipated.Germany was thus forced to divert much of her forces to
the Eastern front.Germany thus began fighting war on two c] The Austro-Italian Front
fronts.The German forces on the Eastern front were commanded by Italy, Austria-Hungary and Germany fought on this front.Italy who
Hindenburg.Hindenburg retreated and was replaced by Ludendorff was a member of the Triple Alliance declared war on Austria-
who defeated the two main Russian armies at Tannenberg Hungary [in May 1915], which was also a member of the Triple
[August1914] and MasurianLakes.This achievement was facilitated Alliance. She had signed a secret treaty of London with the Entente
by the failure of Russian commanders to co-operate. [Allied] powerswhich promised her Istria, the city of Trieste,
Trentino, Southern Tyrol and some Dalmatian Islands. Italy thus
The Battle of Tannenberg [August 1914] changed her mind and fought on the side of the allied powers. Italy
This battle was between Germany and Russia.Russia was defeated. fought the Austrians at Isonzo, North of Trieste. A series of
The Russian disaster in the North was partly compensated for by inconclusive battles [11 battles] were fought here in 1916. In
important successes against the Austrians in Galicia. The Russian October 1917, combined Germany and Austro-Hungarian forces
were forced to retreat.Germany diverted much of her forces away defeated the Italians at the battle of Caporetto. Italy lost 600000
from the Western front in 1915 to give assistance to the Austro- men. Despite such a blow, Italy remained in the war and was
Hungarians.In September 1915, the Russians were driven to the counted among the victors after world war one.
Bukovina and Carpathians.They were also driven out of the Austro-
Hungarian territory.Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany d] The Turkish Front
and this resulted in the closure of the straits [a strait is a narrow In November 1914, Turkey entered into the war on the side of
stretch of water connecting two seas].It therefore became difficult Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Western allies, who had
for France and Britain to supply their Eastern ally with her war supplied Russia with her war time needs through the straits and the
needs.Russia suffered not only from shortage of weapons and Black Sea, could no longer continue to do so. This starved Russia of
ammunition, but also of food.The devastating defeats of Russian weapons, ammunition and food. This helped to force her out of the
troops made them to refuse to fight and streamed homewards from war in 1917.

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 -The straits remained closed for the allied powers.
The Gallipoli Campaign/ Battle of Gallipoli -This starved Russia of ammunitions, weapons, food and other war
This campaign was inspired by Winston Churchill, the British Prime necessities which forced her out of the war.
Minister.The aim of this campaign was to knock Turkey out of the *However, fighting on the Western front continued.
war.The Western allies, who had supplied Russia with her war time -USA entered into the war on the side of the allied powers.
needs through the straits and the Black Sea, could no longer -Austria continued to lose battles.
continue to do so.This starved Russia of weapons, ammunition and
food as well as other war necessities.The allies thus wanted to open e] The Balkan Front
up direct contact with Russia through the straits and the Black In this front, several countries were involved in the war. Romania,
Sea.They also wanted to win Bulgaria over to the allied side.The Serbia Albania, Montenegro, Russia, Greece, Britain, and France
first attempt was to enter through the straits and Sea of fought Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria-Hungary.
Marmora.They tried to bombard Constantinople and cause the The Entrance of United States of America [USA] into the First
collapse of the Turkish government.The naval attempt failed as the World War /The German Submarine warfare /The German U-
strong forts at the narrow waters of the Straits were defended.A boat campaign during World War One
second attempt was made when a combined force of British,  -In 1917 United States of America ended her so called
Australian and New Zealand troops landed on the Gallipoli isolation and entered the First World War on the side of the
peninsula.They destroyed the forts to clear the way for ships to try allied powers against the central powers.
again to enter.The Turks were helped by the Germans under Liman  -In December 1916 Woodrow Wilson [United States
Von Sanders.The allied troops were defeated and they withdrew in President] had tried to mediate between the allied powers
December 1915.There was loss of morale among the allied powers. and the central powers but this was a failure.
 -Neither side was willing to give up war for peace.
To what extent did the outcome of the Gallipoli campaign  -The British had imposed a strict naval blockade, designed to
benefit the Central powers? starve the enemy [Germany] of vital products like rubber,
-Bulgaria joined the central powers after the victory of the central cotton, crude oil and many other commodities vital for the
powers. war.
-The defeat of the allies made it difficult for the allies to assist  -The Germans responded with submarine warfare or the U-
Russia via the straits. boat campaign which was meant to destroy British shipping.
-It boosted the morale of the Central powers.

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 The Germans aimed at starving Britain by cutting off British Scheer’s demand for a renewal of unrestricted U-boat
supply lines by sinking her merchant ships. warfare.
 -This was thus a characteristic of war at sea.  -The Germans also resumed the U-boat warfare after
 -The Germans declared all the waters around the British Isles realising that they now had sufficient U-boats [300] to win
[Islands] a war zone and this threatened ships of neutral war before the United States of America intervened.
countries doing regular trading business.  -In March 1916, Germans sunk another British ship, the
 -This German U-boat campaign was initiated by Admiral Sussex, again with some Americans.
Scheer of Germany in 1915.  -The unrestricted submarine warfare created food shortages
 -The raiding of British merchant ships by Germans caused in Britain.
havoc in Britain.  -The U-boat campaign initially proved very successful with
 -Germany wanted to control the Seas. several British ships being destroyed.
 -In May 1915 the Germans sunk without warning the British  -By April 1917 about 450 ships had been lost and many
ship, the Lusitania. people died.
 -1200 people were drowned including 118 Americans.  -To reduce the losses in the Sea the British admiralty
 -This angered the United States President, Woodrow Wilson introducedthe radar and the convoy system.
who sent a warning to the Germans that a repeat of such an  -Warships were also assisted by newly developed Depth
action would result in serious consequences. Charge and Hydrophones.
 -USA thus protested against German barbarism.  -On 6 April, the USA responded to German submarine
 -Germany temporarily stopped the U-boat attacks. warfare by declaring war on Germany and her allies.
 -The major reason for temporarily stopping the U-boat  -Japan also gave naval assistance to the allied powers.
campaign was the realisation by Germany that they lacked  -The Germans had wrongly calculated that America would
sufficient U-boats to risk American intervention. take time to mobilise her forces.
 -In 1916 Germany resumed the unrestricted U-boat  -The Germans also sent a telegram to Mexico and the
campaign / submarine warfare. German intention was to ally with Mexico in an attempt to
 -They attacked both neutral and enemy ships /vessels alike. recover for Mexico, the states of Texas, New Mexico and
 -It was a successful blockade on German supply lineswhich Arizona which the United States had conquered in 1848.
forced the German High Command to accept Admiral  -Thus this is another factor which brought USA into the war.

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  -By the beginning of 1918, American industries were -USA joined the war later when others were weak and tired of
manufacturing armaments for both the American forces and fighting.
allied forces. -USA had a powerful navy, fresh and many soldiers to aid the allies.
 -Weapons, loans, food and ammunition poured into Europe -More tanks were made available by USA.
in unlimited quantities. -USA aided the allies with food, funds, weapons and ammunition in
 -Fresh American troops also reinforced the exhausted British loan to ensure that Germany and her allies were defeated.
and French forces. -The entrance of USA was very timely.
 -The US navy helped to effect naval the blockade on Other factors which led to the defeat of Germany
Germany. -Germany had weak allies
 -The entrance of USA into the war boosted the morale of the -Germany fought on many fronts
allied powers. -Central powers were outnumbered by allied powers
 -The Americans arrived on the Western front [in France] and
they did swig the balance of power against Germany. Contribution of the US Navy to the defeat of Germany
 -Italy gained new life and started to deliver effective blows -US navy increased the scope of the war.
against Austria-Hungary in the South. -German troops were demoralised by the entry of USA.
 -Italy had been defeated by Germany and Austria-Hungary at -There were fresh marines from USA.
Caporetto. -US navy brought a steady supply of war materials for the allies.
 -The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated in October -The US navy helped to effect naval blockade on Germany.
1917 and Germany was fighting literally single handed.
 -Although the Germans fought courageously they lacked the The War at Sea during the First World War
necessary reserves of men yet the American forces were still -Initially the battle between Britain and Germany was
pouring in. signalled by the sinking of a smaller British squadron off the
 -Tanks were brought into operation and Germans had no coast of Chile in 1914 by the German Pacific fleet.
effective reply to them. -The British Royal Navy fleet responded by having a
 -It was thus impossible for Germans to escape defeat. blockade around Germany which continued until the end of
 -At 11:00 AM, on 11 November 1918, Germany surrendered the war.
and the world war one came to an end.
Contribution of the entrance of USA to the defeat of Germany

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 -The most significant naval battle was the Battle of Jutland, -Battle of Ypres -Battle of
in 1916 the Royal Navy recorded considerable loss to the Passchendaele
Germans. -Battle of Heligoland -Battle of Arras
-Although German surface ships made poor showing their -Battle of Caporetto -Battle of Tannenberg
submarine campaign was the most effective and almost -Battle of Masurian Lakes -Battle of Folk lands
brought Britain to defeat in 1917. Islands
-Germany crippled the British supply lines by sinking a -Battle of Cambria -Battle of Amiens
majority of her merchant ships.
-Britain remained with only six weeks of supply of food. Why Germany and her allies [Central Powers] were defeated
-The unrestricted use of the U-boat, in 1915 led to the during the First World War?
sinking of the British ship, the Lusitania in which 1200 lives
were lost. Weaknesses of the Central Powers
-Among these were 118 Americans.
-This was followed by the sinking of another British ship, the  -Austria-Hungary and Turkey were weakened by nationalist
Sussex by the Germans in 1916. movements at home and could not give maximum help to
-Again there were also some Americans in this ship. Germany.
-Thus it was this German submarine warfare which brought  -Germany fought war on many fronts. This divided her
USA into the First World War. resources.
-The entrance of USA demoralised the German soldiers.  -The German revolt at home by the socialists led to its
-Some mutinied [rebelled] and the allies took control of the defeat.
seas, thus contributing to a larger extent to the defeat of  -The failure of the Schlieffen Plan also led to the defeat of
Germany. Central powers.
 -The Germans under estimated the duration of the war.
Battles fought during the First World War  -The Central powers had poor food supplies.
-Battle of Somme -Battle of Verdun  -The failure of the U-boat campaign also contributed to the
-Battle of Dardanelles -Battle of Gallipoli defeat of Central powers. The German war ships failed to
-Battle of Jutland -Battle of Marne overpower those of the allied powers.
 -There was poor communication among the German soldiers.

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  -Germany had some inexperienced soldiers and  -The entrance of USA into the First World War on the side
commanders. of allied powers led to the defeat of central powers.
 -Germany had weak allies, that is, Austria-Hungary, Turkey
and Bulgaria. The fought half- heartedly. RESULTS / EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD
 -Germany and her allies had a restricted number of soldiers WAR
yet almost the whole of Europe was against Germany and her
few allies. Political Results / Effects of world war one
 -The Central powers were few and were outnumbered by the  -The Central powers were defeated.
Allied powers.  -Self determination was given to some minorities.
 -The disintegration of Austria-Hungary in 1918 led to the  -There was rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler in
defeat of Central powers. Europe.
 -Franchise [voting] was introduced for women in countries
Strengths of the Allied Powers like USA, Britain and France.
 -Four empires collapsed, that is, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
 -The Allied leaders were competent. Turkey and Russia.
 -The allied blockade brought about starvation of the Central  -There was creation of new states like Poland, Yugoslavia,
powers in both food and raw materials. Czechoslovakia and Latvia.
 -Italy joined the war on the side of the allied powers.  -There was signing of peace treaties with the defeated
 -Belgian resistance also contributed to the defeat of central powers.
powers.  -There was rise of extremist parties such as Nazi part in
 -The allied powers gave a high joint command. Germany, Fascistpart in Italy and Communist part in Russia.
 -The inexhaustible wealth of the British Empire also  -There was development of new ideologies such as
contributed. Communism in Russia.
 -The capture of German scientists by allied powers led to the  -There was creation of the League of Nations.
defeat of central powers.  -There was rise of banditry [robbery], especially by
 -The allied powers outnumbered the central powers. demoralised soldiers.
 -Britain’s superiority at sea which Germany failed to break  -There was establishment of democratic governments in
led to her defeat. Germany and Austria, thus there was fall of monarchism.

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  -There was abdication of the Kaiser in Germany.  -There was equality of men and women as women worked in
 -A legacy of hatred, bitterness and suspicion was left among ammunition factories together with men.
nations which helped to bring world war two.  -There were poor living and sanitary conditions.
 -New methods of warfare were introduced, for instance,
trench warfare. Economic Results / Effects of world war one
 -There was introduction of new weapons of mass  -War gave great commercial advantage to industrialised
destruction, for instance, tanks, bombs, aeroplanes, machine nations outside Europe, for example, USA and Japan.
guns and gas.  -America got a large share of world trade and became the
 -The map of Europe was redrawn. greatest creditor nation.
 -There was a shift in balance of power, for instance.  -Europe became relatively poor and the people of Europe
Germany was left a weaker state. were heavily taxed to pay off the war debts.
 -Countries like India now began to build industries of their
Social Results /Effects of world war one own instead of depending on European countries.
 -Many children were orphaned.  -There was increased production.
 -Many women became widows.  -There was availability of cheaper goods.
 -Unemployment was rampant [widespread].  -Workers earned low wages.
 -There was erosion of class and sex barriers as men of all
 -There was land degradation.
classes had shared the same hardships in the trenches and
 -Inflation was high.
had been forced into conduct.
 -Unemployment was widespread.
 -Prostitution was rampant.
 -There was an economic depression [not of 1929].
 -There was emergence of incurable diseases like influenza.
 -There was great loss of human lives, for example, Germany  -There was closure of factories.
lost 1900000 soldiers.  -There was destruction of infrastructure.
 -Homeless societies were created.  -British and French industries were concentrating on war
 -There was widespread poverty and destitution. materials and could no longer supply customers with the day
 -There was widespread starvation and hunger. to day goods.
 -There was an improvement in communication, for example,  -Europe lost its lead in industrial development and its people
radios, televisions and the code language were introduced. became poorer.

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  -Some countries lost raw materials to newly formed states. -The return of men from war meant that some women lost their jobs.
 -There was technological advancement, for example,
washing machines, gramophones, radios; vacuum cleaners To what extent did the minority groups benefit from the effects
and so on were introduced. of the First World War?
 -Many countries were left with war debts.
 -There was payment of reparations, especially by defeated Benefits
Central powers. -Women were made free than before, for example, they had the right
 -There was bankruptcy in Europe. to vote, move freely without male accompaniment.
 -There were strikes, lockouts and demonstrations in Europe. -Minorities like Slavs and Czechs had states created for them.
-There was recreation of states like Poland swallowed by Germany
To what extent did women benefit from the results of the First and Russia.
World War?
Non Benefits
Benefits -The Jews were scattered all over the world due to the war.
 -War situation created jobs for several women who would -The return of men from war meant loss of jobs by some women.
otherwise have spent much of their time at home.
 -Women took up tasks usually the preserve of men, for To what extent did the people of Europe benefit from the results
example, in industries, the military and so on, proving wrong of the First World War?
the notion that they were of a weaker and inferior
orientation. Benefits
 -Franchise [voting] was opened to women in some countries -People benefited from technological developments that occurred in
like USA, France and Britain. production of goods during the war.
 -Women were freer than before, for example, in USA they -Greater benefits only came when their countries had introduced
could now drive cars, smoke, discuss sex openly and move tariffs against American goods.
freely without accompaniment by men. -Railways were built.
Non Benefits -Hydro-electric power plants were incepted.
-Some women were left widows and took up roles of bread winners. -There was an improvement in communication, for example, radios,
-Not all women were given franchise. televisions and code language.

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-Equality of men and women came about as women worked in -Yugoslavia -Finland
ammunition factories. -Lithuania -Latvia
-Estonia
Non Benefits
-Europe lost its lead in industrial development and the people
became poorer.
-The people of Europe were heavily taxed to make up for war debts.
-Unemployment was widespread.
-There was destruction of industries.

To what extent did United States of America [USA] benefit

economically from the First World War?

Benefits
-War gave great commercial advantage to the USA.
-She exported cars and chemicals to Europe. THE PARIS PEACE SETTLEMENT /
-USA loaned money to the fighting countries. CONFERENCE
-USA overtook Europe to become an economic giant.
Non Benefits
After the First World War, many treaties were signed from 1919 to
-The war also brought some economic disadvantages.
1923 between the victorious and the defeated powers. The collective
-Overproduction later led to the Great Depression.
name for all these treaties was Paris Peace Settlement. The specific
-After the war some European countries introduced tariffs on
treaties were---
America.
a] Treaty of Versailles signed with Germany [1919]
-Some countries failed to pay back the American loans.
b] Treaty of St Germain signed with Austria [1919]
c] Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria [1919]
New States created in Europe after the First World War
d] Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary [1920]
-Poland -Czechoslovakia
e] Treaty of Sevres signed with Turkey [1920]
-Austria -Hungary
f] Treaty of Lausanne signed with Turkey [1923]

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 Jan Christian Smuts was the only one who signed both peace
The Turkish government had refused to ratify [approve and make settlements, that is, after World War One and after World War Two.
official by signing] the treaty of Sevres and signed another one He was born in 1870 and died in 1950. He was the Prime Minister of
[Lausanne]. Lausanne was the only one which negotiated while all South Africa from 1939 to 1948.
others were dictated [imposed].The names of the treaties were
determined by the venues the negotiations were held. The leading Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points
states at the negotiations at Paris were the Big Three which are- 1] There was to be an end of secret diplomacy and secret treaties.
a] USA-represented by Woodrow Wilson 2] There was to be freedom of navigation on seas.
b] Britain-represented by Lloyd George 3] There was to be removal of economic barriers to trade.
c] France-represented by Georges Clemenceau 4] There was to be reduction of armaments to a level consistent with
The peace settlement was in accordance with Woodrow Wilson’s domestic safety.
14 points which were accepted as the basis for making peace. All the 5] There was to be settlement of colonial claims with proper regard
defeated powers were not represented for the interests of the inhabitants.
6] German troops were to evacuate [move out of] the Russian
territory.
The defeated powers not represented at Paris Peace Settlement 7] There was to be restoration of Belgian sovereignty.
-Germany -Austria 8] Alsace-Lorraine was to be returned to France.
-Hungary -Bulgaria 9]Italy was to recover her proper boundaries [frontiers].
-Turkey 10] The subject peoples under Austria-Hungary were to be
independent.
The victorious powers represented at Paris Peace Settlement 11] Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were to be evacuated and
a] USA represented by Woodrow Wilson Serbia was to be given access to the sea.
b] Britain represented by Lloyd George 12] The people under Turkish rule were to be autonomous and the
c] France represented by Georges Clemenceau Dardanelles were to be open to ships and commerce of all nations.
d] Italy represented by Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando 13] An independent Poland was to be created and given access to the
e] Japan represented by Ikhali sea.
f] Greece represented by Venizolos 14] An international Organisation was to be formed to guarantee the
g] South Africa represented by Jan Smuts independence of all states, both great and small.

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 The Aims [Views] of the Big Three at Paris Peace
QN: To what extent were Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points Settlement / Conference of 1919
followed?
a] David Lloyd George of Britain
Points followed  -He wanted an end of the German threat to the British navy
 -Points number 7, 8, 10, 11 and12 were accepted and empire.
 -Belgian sovereignty was restored [7]  -To make Germany a non aggressive country without
 -Alsace-Lorraine were returned to France [8] colonies.
 -The subject peoples under Austria-Hungary were made  -To prevent Germany from becoming economically weak so
independent [10] that a revival of European industry and trade is not hindered.
 -Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were evacuated and  -To prevent Germany from becoming very poor such that the
Serbia was given access to the Sea [11] Germans won’t turn to communism.
 -The people under Turkish rule were given autonomy [12].  -To avoid humiliating Germans so that they have no reason
to seek revenge.
Points not followed  -To help secure France against Germany but prevent France
 -The Allied powers met in secret [1]. from becoming too powerful.
 -Britain refused to give up its right to search ships trading  -To create a balance of power so that no one European
with an enemy during war time [2]. country can threaten others.
 -Tariff barriers were retained and increased [3].  -To hang the Kaiser
 -There was no real attempt at disarmament [4].  -To make Germany pay for war damages.
 -Britain and France increased their colonial holdings [5].
 -The allies sent troops to attack the Bolsheviks [6]. b] Georges Clemenceau of France
 -The boundary of Italy was not settled [9]. -To have revenge on Germany for France’s suffering.
 -Post war Poland contained millions of Germans [13]. -To make Germany pay for the cost of damage.
 -The League of Nations never works as Wilson had hoped -To punish Germany for the humiliation she had inflicted on
[14]. France after defeating her in the 1870-71 Franco Prussian
war.

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 -To ensure that Germany would never be able to attack To what extent were the aims of Wilson fulfilled?
France again.
-To take away German lands. Aims fulfilled
-To weaken German industries. -Alsace-Lorraine was given to France.
-To reduce her armed forces. -An international organisation [League of Nations] was formed.
-To weaken Germany militarily and economically. -Self determination was given to minorities.
-To have Germany divided into small state.
-To hang the Kaiser. Aims not fulfilled
-The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France. -Reparations were too high.
-Prevention of Union of Germany and Austria. -The defeated powers were excluded from the Conference.
-Return of French flags taken by Germany. -Disarmament was applied only to the defeated powers.
-Germany was to accept the responsibility of causing the war -Self determination was denied to Germans, for example, post war
Poland contained millions of Germans.
c] Woodrow Wilson of USA -The terms of the treaties were too harsh.
 -To establish peace without humiliating defeated powers.
 -To reduce armaments. To what extent were the aims of Gorges Clemenceau fulfilled in
 -To prevent Germany from becoming aggressive again. the treaty of Versailles?
 -To establish lasting peace.
 -To have a fair settlement. Aims fulfilled
 -To establish an international association of nations. -Germany was weakened which Clemenceau wanted.
 -To base the peace treaties on the 14 points. -Alsace-Lorraine went back to France.
 -To create a world made of safe democracy. -Germany was made to pay reparations.
 -To punish Germany for her aggression. -The Saar and Ruhr coal fields were to be managed by France who
 -To avoid forcing Germany to pay heavy damages. would take profits as compensation for war damages.
 -He wanted self determination and to give nations -German military strength was weakened as her air force was
democratic governments of their choice. disbanded.
*NB Anyone of Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points is accepted. -The Rhineland was demilitarised.
-Germany was forced to sign the war guilty clause.

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 delegates were never directly involved in the negotiations. They
Aims not fulfilled were invited only to endorse [sign] the treaty. Thus it was a diktat
-Germany sought revenge which the French did not want because of settlement.
the loss of her territory.
-Germany never paid the reparations in full because they were too The Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
harsh.  -Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France.
-British and American views were also considered.  -The Saar was to be administered by the League of Nations
-Germany was not divided into smaller states as Clemenceau for 15 years.
wanted.  -Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet went to Belgium.
To what extent were the aims of Lloyd George fulfilled?  -North Schleswig was given to Denmark.
 -The Port of Memel and surrounding land was placed under
Aims fulfilled international control.
-Germany was made to pay reparations.  -The Rhineland remained part of Germany but it was
-Germany lost colonies which Lloyd George wanted. demilitarised permanently.
-The Rhineland was demilitarised so as to make France secure.  -Poland was made independent.
-German army was reduced so as to make her a non aggressive state.  -The Polish Corridor and Posen were given to Poland.
 -The Port of Danzig, a predominantly German area, was
Aims not fulfilled made an independent city under the League of Nations. But
-Germany never paid the reparations in full. in practise it fell under Polish control as this was to allow
-French and American views were also considered. Poland direct access to the Sea though the creation of the
-Germany sought revenge because of her loss of territory. Polish Corridor which led to Danzig.
 -The coal and rich iron of Upper Silesia was again given to
THE SPECIFIC TREATIES Poland.
 -The union of Germany and Austria [Anschluss] was
forbidden yet Austria was a German state.
1] Treaty of Versailles
 -The Kiel Canal was opened to the shipping of all nations.
It was signed with Germany at Versailles in France. It was signed  -The Baltic states of Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia were
exactly five years after the Sarajevo assassination. The German granted independence from Germany.

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  -Finland was made an independent state. -Togoland
 -Strasbourg and Metz were given to France.
 -All German Islands in the Pacific Ocean were divided
amongst Australia, New Zealand and Japan. QN: Were the Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles fair
 -South East Asia [Samoa Islands] went to New Zealand. to the Germans?
 -Caroline Islands were given to Japan.
 -New Guinea was given to Australia. Unfairness of the treaty of Versailles
 -Tanganyika [German East Africa] was given to Britain. -The terms were dictated to Germany
 -Germany lost Namibia [South West Africa] to South Africa. -Germany was greatly reduced in size.
 -Rwanda and Burundi went to Britain. -Germany lost colonies which were a source of raw materials.
 -Cameroon and Togo were given to Britain and France who -Germany was not allowed to have colonies yet other countries were
governed them jointly. allowed to.
-Germans found themselves as minorities in newly created states.
Territories lost by Germany in Europe at the Treaty of -Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria which was a German
Versailles state.
-Alsace-Lorraine -Eupen
-Malmedy -Upper Silesia Fairness of the treaty of Versailles
-Danzig -Memel  -The return of Alsace –Lorraine to France was fair as they
-Northern Schleswig -Saar Basin belonged to her.
-Moresnet -Strasbourg  -The return of North Schleswig to Denmark was fair as it
-Rhineland -Posen belonged. [It was taken by Germany in 1864].
-East Prussia -Estonia  -Germany had taken one third of Russian territory through
-Lithuania -Latvia the treaty of Brest Litovsk, so these territories had to gain
independence.
Territories lost by Germany in Africa at the Treaty of Versailles  -Germany had caused great destruction to France and
-New Guinea -Burundi Belgium.
-Namibia -Tanganyika  -The demilitarised Rhineland was to act as a buffer zone [a
-Rwanda -Cameroon barrier] against French insecurity.

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  -Germany was to pay 6,6million pounds [132 million gold
Non Territorial Termsof the Treaty of Versailles marks] to the allied powers.
These included the disarmament clause / military clause, the war  -The payment was to be done in 30 years.
guilty clause and the reparations clause.  -France was to get 52% of the total amount, Britain 22%,
Italy 10%, Belgium 8 % and the rest of the allies were to
a] The War Guilty Clause share 8%.
 -Germany wasforced to accept responsibility of causing all  -Part of the reparations was to be paid in form of warships
the loss and damage to which the allied and associated which were to be builtby Germany for Britain for the next 5
powers have been subjected as a consequence of a war years.
imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her  -France was to be paid with minerals like coal from
allies. Germany.
 -Germany was given the entire blame for causingthe war.  -Belgium was to be paid with cattle.
 -The clause accused Germany of being a war criminal who  -Germany was to surrender part of her fishing fleet to the
among other things violated Belgian neutrality, destroyed allies.
occupied territories, bombed civilians and sunk merchant  -Germany was to surrender the Saar coal fields to France for
ships [through the U-boat campaign or submarine warfare]. 15 years.
 -Germany was forced to accept all these and was to suffer a  -German railway engines and wagons were to be handed
heavy penalty. over to the allies.
 -French flags captured in 1871 were to be returned.
 -The Kaiser and other officials were to be handed over for c] Disarmament Clause / The military Clause
trial.  -German army was reduced to 100000 men [it was reduced
to the size of the army of Greece].
b] The reparations Clause  -Conscription was forbidden. Thus soldiers were to be
 -Germany was forced to pay compensation for the damages recruited voluntarily.
she had caused to the allied powers.  -German soldiers were to serve for a period of less than 12
 -The compensation was also to cover the suffering incurred years.
by individual family members.  -The German General Staff of 1914 to 1918 was dissolved
and was not to be reformed.

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  -Germany was not allowed to have warships or submarines. QN: Were the Non Territorial Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
 -Germany was allowed to have only 6 battleships. fair to the Germans?
 -Germany was not allowed to have tanks.
 -Germany was not allowed to have an air force. Unfairness of the non territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles
 -Germany was allowed to have 6 cruisers [vessels].  -Germany did not cause the war alone.
 -Germany was to have 12 destroyers.  -Reduction of army and navy posed a threat to German
 -Germany was to have 12 torpedo boats. security,
 -Germany navy was reduced to 15000 men.  -The terms were dictated on Germany,
 -German naval base at Heligoland was demolished.  -The reparations were too high for German’s ability to pay.
 -Germany was banned from manufacturing heavy artillery  -Germany was forced to surrender the Saar coal fields yet
and heavy guns. she was to pay coal as reparations.
 -Germany was not allowed to have armoured cars.  -She had to build warships for allies yet Germany’s warships
 -Germany was demilitarised on the Rhineland. were destroyed.
 -Germany was forbidden to have an air force yet other
QN: To what extent did the allied powers weaken German countries possessed some.
military power?
 -Germany was not allowed rearm yet other countries were
-Germany army was left weak. She was left with a small sized army
allowed to do so.
and prohibited to conscript.
 -The treaty punished innocent people of Germany instead of
-She was left without an air force.
rulers.
-She was forbidden from having submarines [U-boats].
-The German High Command was disbanded.
Fairness of the non territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles
 -Germany was largely responsible for causing the war.
Other side
 -She had an aggressive foreign policy.
-Germany retained the capacity to rearm because of its industrial
 -She had a war plan showing her aggressive intentions.
capacity.
 -Germany’s army was to be reduced to prevent her from
-The demoralised soldiers were disgruntled and wanted to revenge.
starting another war.
 -German militarism needed to be checked hence the need for
disarmament.

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  -France and Belgium needed compensation for destruction.  -Austria was made a republic [Monarch was banned].
 -Demilitarisation of the Rhineland was meant to give France  -Her army was reduced to 30000 men.
security and safety.  -Austria was to pay reparations.
 -The banning of conscription in Germany would ensure  -Conscription was banned in Austria.
security and safety of France and Belgium.  -Austria was made a landlocked country and had to make a
 -It was Germany which had for years prepared for war 100km journey across Italy to reach the coast.
through arms and naval race.  -Up to 80% of her industries were now under foreign control
 -If the Germans wanted a fair treaty they should have shown and mainly under Czech control.
this by treating Russia fairly at the treaty of Brest-Litovsk in  -The best of her agricultural land was placed under Hungary.
1917.  -Her population was reduced from about 30 million to 6, 5
 -Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon, for million.
example, France was asked to pay reparations by Germany in
the treaty of Frankfurt after the Franco-Prussian war. QN: Were the terms of the treaty of St Germain fair to Austria?

2] Treaty of St Germain [September 1919] Unfairness of the terms of the treaty of St Germain
It was signed by Austria and allied powers.  -The union of Austria and Germany [Anschluss] was
forbidden yet the Austrians were Germany in origin.
Terms of the treaty of St Germain  -Her territories with strong German population were taken
 -The union of Germany and Austria [Anschluss] was away.
forbidden.  -Austria was made a landlocked country.
 -Austria and Hungary were to be separated.  -80% of her industries were now in Czechoslovakia.
 -She lost Bohemia, part of Silesia, the lower part of Austria  -Her best agricultural land was now in Hungary.
and Moravia to Czechoslovakia.  -Her population was reduced from 30million to 6, 5million.
 -Bosnia and Herzegovina were given to Serbia.
 -Bukovina was given to Romania.
 -Galicia was given to Poland. Fairness of the treaty of St Germain
 -South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Trieste and Dalmatia were -Austria had been too ambitious in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
given to Italy. -Her ultimatum to Serbia was calculated to cause war.

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-Payment of reparations was a European Phenomenon. -She had to pay reparations to the allies.
-Bulgaria had played a relatively small part in the war and was
QN: How far were the terms of this treaty influenced by treated les harshly than its allies.
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points?
Unfairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly
-Creation of new states like Poland and Czechoslovakia sympathised -Million Bulgars were under foreign rule.
with the principle of self determination. -Reduction of her army left the country insecure.
-The breakup of the Austrian Empire was in line with Wilson’s 14 -Her population was reduced.
points. -She lost her resources to other states.
-The restoration of Italian frontiers [boundaries] was part of the 14
points. Fairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly
-The covenant of the League was part of the 14 points. -Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.
-She had been part of the losing side.
Other factors
-The desire to punish the defeated powers and to weaken them was 4] The Treaty of Trianon [June 1920]
also a strong point. It was signed by Hungary and the allied powers.
-The restoration of Italian frontiers had to be matched with later
settlements. Terms of the treaty of Trianon
 -Hungary became independent from Austria.
3] The Treaty of Neuilly [November 1919]  -She lost Bosnia, Croatia, Slovenia and part of Banet to
It was signed by Bulgaria and the allied powers. Yugoslavia.
 -She lost Trentino to Italy.
Terms of the Treaty of Neuilly  -Burgenland was passed to Austria.
-Bulgaria lost Western Thrace to Greece.  -Transylvania was given to Romania.
-Bulgaria lost some border areas to Yugoslavia.  -She lost Ruthenia and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia.
-Bulgaria lost access to the Mediterranean Sea.  -She was to accept and recognise the newly formed states.
-Bulgaria lost some of her Aegean coastline.  -She lost nearly 66% of her pre-war territory to new states.
-Her army was reduced to 20000 men.  -Her population was reduced from 22million to 8 million.

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  -Conscription was banned in Hungary. -The States of Arabian peninsula [Saudi Arabia] became
 -She was to pay a war indemnity [reparations]. independent.
 -Her army was reduced to 35000 men. -Palestine was given to Britain.
 -She was to observe the covenant of the League of Nations. -Turkish straits were put under the League of Nations. She lost
control of the Black Sea.
Unfairness of the treaty of Trianon -The covenant of the League of Nations was to be accepted.
-New frontiers [boundaries] left a number of Magyars under foreign -Anatolia [Smyrna] was given to Greece.
rule, for example, Romania, Czechoslovakia and the like. -Her army was reduced.
-Reduction of the army left the country insecure. -She was to pay reparations to the allies.
-She lost resources to newly created states. Turks were outraged by this treaty. The treaty of Sevres was never
-Her population was reduced ratified and in 1923 it was replaced by the treaty of Lausanne. The
treaty of Sevres became a dead letter when a nationalist revolution
Fairness of the treaty of Trianon led by Mustafar Kemal broke out against Turkey and received
-Hungary was made an independent state. military assistance from Soviet Union. Turkey declared war on
-Hungary could freely determine its own affairs outside Austrian Greeks and drove them out of Smyrna [Anatolia]. The allies made a
influence. new treaty of Lausanne.
-She had failed to recognise the sovereignty of the Balkan states.
-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon. Unfairness of the treaty of Sevres
-She lost too many territories.
5] The Treaty of Sevres [August 1920] -The allies ignored Turkish national feeling.
It was signed by Turkey and the victors. -Occupation by foreign troops was unfair.
-The treaty was imposed on her.
Terms of the Treaty of Sevres -Reduction of her army left her insecure.
-Turkey lost Western Thrace and part of Aegean Islands to Greece.
-She lost Syria and Lebanon to France. Fairness of the treaty of Sevres
-She lost Transjordan and Iraq to Britain. -Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.
-Armenia became independent. -She had been part of the losing side.
-Adalia and Rhodes Islands were given to Italy. -It was fair as it resulted in the opening of the straits.

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-Non Turkish territories were made independent. -Adalia -Rhodes
-Turkey had aided Germany during the war. -Albania

6] The Treaty of Lausanne [1923] Weaknesses of the peace treaties signed after world war one
-It was signed by Turkey and the victors. It was a revision of the -The treaties were just imposed / dictated upon countries.
treaty of Sevres. -The treaties created a group of discontented revisionists like Hitler
and Mussolini.
Terms of the Treaty of Lausanne -Russia took no part at Paris peace settlement so it was not bound by
-Turkey recovered Anatolia / Smyrna from Greece. it.
-Eastern Thrace was returned to Turkey. The treaties created many weak unstable governments.
-The Straits and the Greco-Turkish frontiers were demilitarised.
-Italy kept Dodecanese Islands.
-Britain’s possession of Cyprus was confirmed. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
-Rhodes Islands were given to Italy.
-Adalia was given to Italy.
It was set up in 1920, in Geneva, in Switzerland. It was the
-Turkey was to pay reparations to the allies.
brainchild of Woodrow Wilson’s 14th point.Woodrow Wilson had
-Her army was reduced.
argued that Europe was exhausted with war. However USA did not
belong to the League of Nations.
Leaders involved in the formation of the League of Nations
-Woodrow Wilson of USA
-Lloyd George of Britain
-Georges Clemenceau of France
-Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando of Italy
-Jan Smuts of South Africa
Countries which Italy wanted at Paris Peace Conference in 1919
-Ikhali of Japan
-South Tyrol -Trentino
-Venizolos of Greece
-Istria -Dalmatia
-Trieste -Fiume

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Members of the League of Nations  -To guarantee frontiers.
-Britain -France  -To protect member states from aggression.
-Japan -South Africa  -To solve disputes by peaceful means.
-Greece -Australia  -To reduce armaments to the level consistent with domestic
-Canada -Holland safety.
-Serbia -Belgium  -To supervise mandated territories.
-Italy -China  -To prevent secret diplomacy and secret treaties.
-Spain -Ethiopia  -To safeguard the rights of minorities and refugees.
-Brazil -Germany  -To assist needy countries economically.
-Russia  -Respect and preservation of territorial integrity.
 -To impose economic sanctions on aggressors.
Members of the League of Nations to 1934  -To help refugees.
-Britain -Italy  -To control drug trafficking.
-Holland -Japan  -To promote the health of mankind.
-France -Belgium  -To improve living and working conditions of people in all
-China -Spain parts of the world.
-Ethiopia -Brazil  -To fight against the spread of diseases.
-South Africa -Greece  -To stop the selling of girls as prostitutes.

Permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations The Structure / Organs / Organisation of the League of
before 1930 Nations
-Britain -France
-Italy -Japan
Main Organs
-Germany
1] The General Assembly
Aims of the League of Nations -It was the main body of the League of Nations in which all
 -To maintain world peace and security. states had representatives.
 -To encourage international cooperation in solving social and -In 1920 it had 42 members. In 1924 it had 55 members.
economic problems. -It was the League’s debating Chamber.

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 -It met once a year. -It failed to stop the withdrawal of members from the League, for
-Each member had one vote. example, Germany, Italy and Japan.
-Each member had equal representation [3 delegates from -It failed to stop Germany from withdrawing from the Disarmament
each]. Conference organised by the League.
-All nations in this body were working on basis of equality.
-It discussed any matters relating to the peace or welfare of 2] The Council
the world and decided on appropriate course of action.  -It was the smaller body of four permanent members which
-All decisions had to be unanimous. became five after the admission of Germany in 1926.
-It prepared the League budget.  -The permanent members included Britain, France, Italy,
-It elected non permanent members of the Council. Japan and Germany. Russia joined the League in 1934 and
-It admitted new members and expelled members. became a permanent member to 1939.
-It was the League’s parliament.  -It also had non- permanent members, raised to 6 in 1926, to
-It elected the Secretary General. 9 in 1929 and to 11 in 1936.
-It proposed revision of peace treaties.  -Each of the permanent members of the council had a veto.
This meant one permanent member can stop the council from
QN: How successful was the League Assembly in carrying out acting even if all other members agreed.
the work of the League of Nations?  -It met more often, at least 3 times a year or whenever it was
necessary.
Successes  -Decisions were to be unanimous just like in the Assembly to
 -It was successful in preparing the League budget. prevent great powers from imposing their will on smaller
 -It admitted new members into the League, for example, states.
Germany in 1926 and Russia in 1934.  -It dealt with problems when the Assembly was not in
 -It succeeded in appointing the Secretary General. session.
 -It debated issues concerning the world peace.  -It organised sanctions against aggressors.
 -It raised peace keeping forces.
Failures  -It mediated between conflicting members.
-Since it met once a year, it failed to debate matters fully thus  -It enforced decisions of the Assembly.
referring issues to the council.

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QN: How successful was the Council in maintaining peace up to -The first Secretary General was an Englishman, Sir Eric
1939? Drummond.
-It implemented the decisions from the council.
Successes -It did most of the work of the League.
-It solved the problem of Vilna. -It looked after all paper work of the League.
-It settled the dispute between Greece and Bulgaria. -It carried out all administrative functions.
-It settled a dispute between Peru and Columbia. -It wrote down resolutions of the League.
-It settled a dispute between Turkey and Iraq. -It prepared reports for the Council and Assembly.
-It settled a dispute between Sweden and Finland. -It kept records of league meetings and debates.
-It settled a dispute between Germany and Poland. -It wrote down minutes during meetings.
-It settled a dispute between Serbia and Albania. -it carried out day to day activities of the league.
-It prepared the league agendas.
Failures -It had specialist sections covering areas such as health,
-It failed to stop Japanese invasion of Manchuria. disarmament and economic matters.
-It failed to stop Hitler’s acts of aggression, that is, over Austria, -It translated languages [it organised translators].
Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and Poland. -It collected information.
-It failed to stop Italian invasion Abyssinia [Ethiopia.
-It failed to prevent the outbreak of another world war [world war
two]. 4] International Court of Justice [CIJ]
-This body was meant to be a key part of the League’ job of settling
3] The Secretariat disputes between countries peacefully.
-The League was serviced by a permanent Secretariat that worked at -It comprised of 15 Judges from different countries at Hague in
the League’s headquarters in Geneva, in Switzerland. Holland [Netherlands] who were to decide all disputes submitted to
-It was a sort of a civil service. It was made up of civil servants from them.
member states. -It originally had four Judges and eleven deputies who were chosen
-It dispatched information or reports to member states. from various nations.
-It was a permanent body of officials drawn from all member states -The judges were appointed by the council and assembly.
and elected by the Secretary General. -It dealt with cases referred to it.

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-It had no way of making sure that countries follow its rulings. -It also aimed at enhancing employment opportunities for workers.
-It advised the assembly and country if asked. -It discouraged forced labour and monitored the situation.
-In practise only 32 cases were heard in 22 years as governments -It helped to bring cooperation between employers and employees.
were not willing to have judgements against them.
How successful was the ILO in improving the working
5] International Labour Organisation [ILO] conditions among member states?
-This body came into being in 1919.
-It distributed information on working conditions. Successes
-Its aim was to improve working conditions of people throughout the -It was successful in bringing about cooperation between workers
world. and employers across frontiers.
-It collected statistics and information about working conditions and -It created the 8 hour working day.
it tried to persuade member countries to adopt its suggestions. -Conditions of women increased [It brought maternity protection for
-Each member was to send 4 representatives to its Annual women].
Conference [2 from government, 1 employer and 1 worker]. -There was abolition of child labour and many countries stopped it.
-Its purpose was to deal with workers’ plight, for example, living -It helped in adoption of equal pay and benefit for work of equal
conditions, working hours and compensation. value.
-It regulated working hours. -It helped in crafting safety laws at the work place.
-It dealt with industrial and economic problems of the workers of the -It called for the introduction of minimum wages.
world. -Most member countries increased wages of workers.
-Its major task was to frame and apply international rules that -It recommended a system of international standards in all work
governed conditions of labour. related matters.
-It was concerned with such issues as child labour, women labour
and rights of agricultural labourers. Failures
-It discussed wages and work in different parts of the world. -Use of child labour continued in some countries.
-Where the conditions were bad the ILO urged the nations -Wages continued to be low for most workers.
concerned to pass laws to improve them but could apply no pressure -Some employees were still not allowed to form trade unions.
if the government concerned refused. -It had no mechanism to force desire for change on government and
-It was to create international labour standards. employers.

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 c] Germany joined in 1926 but left in 1933.
Commissions / Subsidiary Organs / Committees of the League of d] Italy and Japan left the League the moment it criticised their
Nations / Agencies of the League of Nations actionsin 1935.
6] Mandates Commission 7] e] Britain and France were the only great powers which remained
Minorities Commission members continuously throughout the 20 years [from 1920 to 1939].
8] Drugs Commission 9]  -The members signed treaties outside the League, for
Refugees Commission example, Anglo-German Naval treaty [1935] and Stressa
10] Disarmament Commission 11] Front.
Health Commission  -The League was associated with hated treaties like
12] Women Rights Commission 13] Versailles. Defeated powers felt the League was an
Slavery Commission instrument to oppress them.
14] Undeveloped Nations Commission 15]  -The Great Depression of 1929-1939 hindered its work.
Political Asylumists  -The League was dominated by European powers. Its policy
16] Military Affairs Commission 17] was mainly determined by Britain and France though
Transport & communication countries across the world belonged to it.
18] Labour Commission 19]  -The League Assembly did not have enough time to resolve
Child Welfare Commission conflicts which piled because it met once per year.
20] Reparations Commission 21]  -There was lack of cooperation among members, for
Economic and Finance instance, Britain and France followed the policy of
appeasement.
Weaknesses of the League of Nations / Problems faced by the  -The acts of aggression committed by Germany, Italy and
League of Nations in maintaining world peace up to 1939 Japan made the League to fail to maintain peace.
 -It lacked a standing army to enforce its decisions.  -The members were mainly interested in pursuing their own
 -The sanctions were not effective and were difficult to national interests and were not committed to the League.
enforce. Most countries were concerned with events affecting them,
-It had membership problem, for instance, for example, no country was prepared to impose sanctions on
a] USA [a major power] never joined the League. Japan because they felt such sanctions would destroy their
b] Russia was not a member until 1934 and left in 1939.

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 economies. Also half hearted sanctions were imposed on great industrial power had the same vote with
Italy because some countries like Britain wanted to benefit. Ethiopia.
 -There was favouritism, for example, Poland and Greece d] The need for unanimity on all Council and
received much favour during the 1920s. Assembly decisions made the League
 -The League attempt at general disarmament failed. inefficient in implementing decisions. It was
 -The League was viewed as a club of victors. Its work was impossible for all members to agree on the
biased towards the interests of the victorious powers and same issue.
their allies. The defeated powers were obliged not to respect
it. QN: To what extent did the structure of the League of Nations
 -There was also the problem of the Anglo-French differences contribute to its failure to maintain world peace?
on the role of the League. Britain did not want to give the -It had limited funds as there was no provision for this in the
League real authority and power while France wanted it to constitution of the League.
enforce the terms of the peace treaties. -The Assembly met only one a year and this was not
 -The League had limited financial resources. sufficient to deal with problems.
 -The rise of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini hampered its -The League had no army to enforce its decisions.
work. They were determined to reverse the peace treaties. -The League was closely tied with hated treaties like
 -Italy did not support the League fully because it did not gain Versailles and such it was viewed as the Victors’ club.
much from the peace settlement. -The unanimity clause meant that each member had a veto
 -The constitutional defects of the League hampered its over any decisions.
work. For instance, -It also depended too much on goodwill and good faith of its
a] The League Assembly met once a year. members.
b] Veto power made it impossible to make
decisions. Other factors which contributed to its failure
c] Many countries disagreed with the -The rise of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini.
constitution of the League which gave every -Failure of disarmament.
state one vote only. Thus China with 500 -Disagreements between France and Britain.
million people carried the same weight with -Absence of USA, which was one of the League’s key architects.
Latvia with 2 million people. Britain with its -The withdrawal of some powers such as Germany, Italy and Japan.

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-The policy of appeasement.  -When the Austrian economy was on the verge of collapse in
1922 the League rescued her. It gave loans to Austria to help
Successes of the League of Nations [1920-1939] her industrial development.
The League was largely successful when dealing with smaller states  -It helped with resettlement of prisoners of war and refugees.
and minor disputes. Homes were found for white Russians who fled after the
 -It settled a dispute between Sweden and Finland in 1920 Bolshevik revolution.
over the Aaland Islands. It ruled in favour of Finland.  -It gave assistance to needy states and provided famine
 -It settled a dispute between Turkey and Iraq in 1921 over reliefs.
Mosul.  -The health commission combated the typhus disease in
 -It settled a dispute between Hungary and Czechoslovakia in Russia.
1921.  -Valuable work was done during the epidemics that struck
 -It settled a dispute between Guatemala and Honduras. mankind in the post war years.
 -It settled a boundary dispute between Albania and  -The ILO improved on wages, unemployment benefits and
Yugoslavia. working hours throughout the world.
 -It settled a dispute between Serbia and Albania in 1921.  -It ensured that minority rights were respected, for example,
 -It settled a dispute between Peru and Columbia. Germans in Czechoslovakia got the right to practise their
 -It settled a dispute between Paraguay and Bolivia. own religion and to support their own language.
 -It settled a dispute between Columbia and Venezuela in  -It established international control over opium and other
1922. dangerous drugs.
 -It prevented a potential war between Greece and Bulgaria in  -It worked to abolish all forms of slavery.
1925.  -It rose the minimum age at which children could be
 -It settled a dispute between Chile and Peru in 1925. employed.
 -It settled a dispute between Poland and Lithuaniaover Vilna  -It stopped girls from being traded as prostitutes.
[through the Conference of Ambassadors which gave it to Failures of the League of Nations
Poland]. The League was largely a failure when dealing with major powers
 -It settled a dispute between Germany and Poland. It and major disputes.
confirmed the division of Upper Silesia between the two. -It failed to stop the Russo-Polish war.
 -It administered mandated territories like Danzig and Saar.

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-It failed to stop the Polish-Lithuanian conflict which it referred to -As a result an international commission had been sent to the
the Conference of ambassadors. Balkans to settle the Greece-Albanian boundary line.
-It failed to take a decisive action against Mussolini’s seizure of the -During the course of its work an Italian General, Tellin and four of
Greek Island of Corfu in 1923. his staff were ambushed and shot dead while mapping the Greek-
-It failed to deal with Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Albanian frontier on behalf of the Conference of Ambassadors.
-It failed to stop Hitler from withdrawing from the Disarmament -They were killed by unknown Greek assailants.
Conference 1933. -Mussolini resorted to revenge this insult.
-It failed to punish Hitler from rearming Germany since 1933. -He immediately issued an ultimatum to Greece demanding apology
-It failed to stop Hitler from withdrawing from the League of and a salute to the Italian flag, an enquiry by Greece with the
Nations in 1933. assistance of an Italian official and the payment of a large
-It failed to stop Hitler from invading Austria in 1934; instead it was reparation.
Mussolini who intercepted German soldiers. -Greece refused to accept the demands or the terms of the
-It failed to deal effectively with Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia / ultimatum, denouncing them as outrageous and violating the
Ethiopia in 1935. sovereignty of Greece.
-It failed to punish Hitler for remilitarising the Rhineland in 1936. -Mussolini who had been the Italian dictator for less than a year saw
-It failed to punish Hitler for seizing Memel from Lithuania. an opportunity to obtain glory and triumph of a Fascist regime.
-It failed to stop Hitler from annexing Sudetenland from -Mussolini in turn, ordered an Italian naval squadron to the Greek
Czechoslovakia in 1938. Island of Corfu to bombard the harbour.
-It failed to stop Hitler from invading Austria and completing the -This was a direct contravention of the League of Nations and the
Anschluss [union of Germany and Austria] in 1938. Paris Peace Settlement.
-It failed to stop Hitler from invading the whole of Czechoslovakia -Fifteen civilians were killed and many wounded.
in 1939. -The Italian marines landed and took possession of the port [Corfu].
-It failed to stop Hitler from invading Poland in 1939. -Greece appealed to the League for help.
-It failed to stop the outbreak of another world war [world war two] -The League failed to take decisive action against Mussolini’s
in 1939. seizure of Corfu.
-It could do nothing because Italy was a major power.
The Invasion of Corfu by Mussolini [1923]
-There occurred a border dispute between Greece and Albania.

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-The League left the issue to the Conference of Ambassadors which -This resulted from the tough tariffs which were imposed by China
persuaded the Greeks to apologise and pay the 50million Lira which and USA against Japan.
Mussolini demanded within a month. -This economic crisis was caused by the closure of the US markets.
-The amount was paid and Italian forces withdrew from Corfu. -Japan army leaders recommended the attack on Manchuria as the
solution to obtain wealth from her.
QN: How successful was the League of Nations in dealing with -The Japanese army controlled the South Manchurian Railway
the Corfu incident? which was sabotaged by the Chinese as claimed by Japan.
-Confronted by this defiance the League turned to the Committee of -In retaliation / revenge Japan invaded Manchuria, annexed it and
Ambassadors, a non League body. established a puppet government and renamed it Manchukuo.
-This body ordered a Commission of enquiry to investigate the -This invasion was a direct contravention of the League of Nations.
incident. -China appealed to the League for help.
-In September 1923 it presented its report without having discovered -Japan claimed it was not invading as an aggressor but it was simply
who was guilty of the murders. settling a local dispute.
-The Council of Ambassadors then ordered Greece to pay 50 million -The Committee sent by the League reported that Japan was the
Lira. aggressor.
-The amount was paid and Italian forces withdrew from Corfu. -The League condemned the invasion and ordered Japan to
*However war was avertedbut many members were indignant over withdraw but it refused to with draw from the Chinese province.
the handling of the whole affair. -The League then sent a Commission ender Lord Lytton to
-Some felt the League had allowed Italy to defy the body. investigate the affair.
-Others felt the evidence obtained by the Commission did not -The Commission suggested that Manchuria be governed by the
warrant imposition. League.
-The League took too long to solve the incident. -Japan disagreed with this verdict and later left the League [1935].
-The Commission included an Italian [It was unfair]. -Hence the League failed to effectively deal with Japan.

The Japanese Invasion of Manchuria [1931] Was the League successful in settling this dispute?
-In 1931 Japan invaded and annexed the Chinese province of -The League accused Japan as the aggressor.
Manchuria. -The League condemned the invasion.
-The economic hardships of Japan had caused this invasion. -It ordered Japan to withdraw from Manchuria.

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-Japan refused to withdraw from China. -Mussolini refused to withdraw troops from Ethiopia.
-The League failed to remove Japan from China. -Instead, Mussolini withdrew Italy from the League.
-Japan refused to accept the decision by the Lytton Commission that -The League ordered member states to impose sanctions on Italy.
Manchuria be governed by the League. -The sanctions were meant to starve Italy of necessities.
-Japan later withdrew from the League. -However, Britain and France imposed half hearted sanctions on
Italy.
The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia /Ethiopia [1935] -The sanctions were ineffective as they excluded vital resources like
-In October 1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia. coal, oil and steel, the very commodities Mussolini needed
-Ethiopia was also a member of the League of Nations just like Italy. desperately [for war].
-Mussolini invaded Ethiopia for various reasons. -Romania and other oil producing countries were ready to impose
-Mussolini thought that Abyssinia was rich in raw materials and sanctions but this was in vain.
would become a market for Italian goods. -USA and Germany continued to trade with Italy as usual. They
-Mussolini also wanted to avenge the defeat of Italy in 1896 at the were outside the League.
battle of Adowa by Ethiopians. -In May 1936 Italy completed her conquest.
-Mussolini also wanted to settle surplus Italian population. -The League withdrew sanctions and failed to stop Mussolini.
-He also wanted to create an empire for Italy.
-Mussolini also wanted to demonstrate that he was the true Caesar. Was the League successful in settling this dispute?
-Mussolini also wanted to cover up for the past humiliations and -The League accused Italy as the aggressor.
failures and to enhance Italian image and prestige. -It asked Mussolini to withdraw from Ethiopia.
-In 1935, Italy demanded compensation from Abyssinia after a -Mussolini refused to withdraw his troops from Ethiopia.
frontier incident on the border between Abyssinia and Somaliland. -The League asked members to impose sanctions on Italy.
-Abyssinian president Haile Selasie appealed to the League for help. -The sanctions were half hearted.
-Mussolini poured troops in Italian Somaliland and Eritrea preparing -USA and Germany who were not members of the League of
to invade Ethiopia. Nations continued to trade with Italy again pointing to failure.
-In October 1935 Mussolini attacked Abyssinia.
-Haile Selasie was removed from power and fled to Britain.
-The League condemned Italy as the aggressor and asked Mussolini DICTATORSHIP IN ITALY
to withdraw troops from Abyssinia.

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 -The standard of living was low -Less advanced
Problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922 education [78% illiteracy]
Although Italy emerged on the winning side of the First World War, -Strikes were rampant -The South was
she experienced serious economic, social and political problems primitive and poor
between 1919 and 1922. -Increase in crime rates -Brigandage or
lawlessness
Economic problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922 -Prostitution became the order of the day -Critical shortage of
-There was low industrial production in Italy. food
-Low agricultural production -Demonstrations were rampant -Diseases
-Unemployment especially in the industrial North. -There was no security in industries
-A huge war debt
-Inflation, for example, a loaf of bread which cost 120 Lira before Political Problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922
the war was by 1919 costing 600 Lira. -The Italians were disappointed with the Paris Peace Settlement.
-Strikes were rampant This is because Italy had not been given some promised territories
-There was lack of capital like Albania, Fiume and some Aegean Islands.
-Shortage of food -Weak governments / governments were unpopular
-Lack of raw materials -Political violence [Fascists frequently attacked socialists /
-Closure of banks communists].
-Decline in trade -Too many political parties
-There were lockouts of workers by employees. -Unstable coalition governments
-High taxation -Strikes and demonstrations were rampant
-Use of outdated machinery -Clash between the Church and the State
-Inefficient and corrupt civil service
Social problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922 -Fear of communism /Communist threat
-A lot of corruption in some place -Poverty *All these problems led to the rise of Mussolini to power.
-Hunger -Domestic violence was
the order of the day To what extent did the political problems contribute to the rise
of Mussolini to power in 1922?

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-Mussolini took advantage of political problems to win support. -Populari Party [Catholic party] -Socialist Party [Red
-There was a running quarrel between the government and the Pope. Guards]
-There were too many political parties which led to the formation of -Communist Party [Red shirts] -Liberal Party [Grey
weak and unstable coalition governments. shirts]
-The politicians and governments were not interested in solving the -Republican Party
problems in Italy.
-Weaknesses of the government made it to fail to deal with political Italian leaders before Mussolini
violence caused by Fascists and Communists. -Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando- [October 1917 to June 1919]
-Fear of Communism made the government to rely on the Black -Francisco Nitti-[June 1919 to June 1920]
shirts [Fascists]to suppress communists thus giving Mussolini -Giovanni Giolliti-[June 1920 to July 1921]
popularity. -IvanoeBonomi-[July 1921 to February 1922]
-Danger of a civil war forced the king to invite Mussolini to become -Luigi Facta-[February 1922 to October 1922]
Prime Minister.
Factors which led to the rise of Mussolini to power
Other factors which led to the rise of Mussolini  -Fear of communism led to the rise of Mussolini. The
-Inflation which affected the middle class and workers whose industrialists and land owners feared communism and began
savings were wiped out. to support Mussolini who was also against communism.
-Unemployment which swept the whole country They feared that if the communists seize power, their
-Mussolini’s ability to use propaganda property would be nationalised. So they supported Mussolini
-Poverty for protection. The Catholics were prepared to support
-Hunger Mussolini who was a strong hand to fight the communists.
-Strikes Fear of communism made the government to rely on Black
-Food shortages shirts [Fascists] to suppress communism thus giving
-War debts Mussolini popularity.
 -Propaganda made Mussolini to rise to power. He used
Political parties in Italy propaganda to appeal to all discontented groups. He knew
-Fascist Party [Black shirts] -Nationalist Party [Blue the demands of all sections in Italy and he used propaganda
shirts]

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 to win them. He deliberately distorted information to -Food shortages
discredit the government and other political parties. -War debts
 -Oratory led to Mussolini’s rise to power. His oratory
convinced many people in Italy. He promised a strong Stages in the rise of Mussolini to power / Steps taken by
government, to unite the church and the state, law and order, Mussolini in his rise to power up to 1922
adoption an adventurous foreign policy that would make -Mussolini’s rise to power was facilitated by various social,
Italy feared and respected. His oratory attracted many economic and political factors.
people. -These included a weak government, a general atmosphere of
 -Failure of socialist and communist parties [which were anti disillusionment and frustration, a weak economy and so on.
Fascist] to unite against the Fascists enabled Mussolini to -In 1919 Mussolini launched an organisation that was to
rise to power. become the Fascist party within the next two years.
 -Mussolini’s violent sermons against the government -Thus he formed the Fascist party in 1921.
received much sympathy. -The Fascist party members wore black shirts. They were
 -Use of intimidations led to his rise to power. named after their uniform / shirts.
 -Mussolini made conciliatory speeches about the Roman -The Fascist party was aggressive and believed in action.
Catholics. -As leader of the Fascist party, Mussolini initially
 -Personal abilities of Mussolini led to his rise. participated in the elections of May 1921.
 -The danger of a civil war made the king to invite Mussolini -They won 35 out of 535 seats.
to become Prime Minister. -Eventually Mussolini felt that parliamentary methods were
 -Use of attractive parades ineffective against the threat of socialism.
-A general atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration -He embarked on the use of force. In other words his party
-A weak economy adopted a policy of violence.
-Unemployment -Meetings of socialists and communists were attacked by the
-Inflation Fascists.
-Poverty -Workers’ movements were broken by the Fascists, wealthy
-Hunger industrialists and land owners supported Mussolini. The
-Diseases banks alone gave him 1, 5 million pounds.
-Social unrest

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 -His private army [Black shirts] went round beating and -On 28 October 1922, the Fascists staged the famous ‘March
intimidating opponents, at times forcing them to eat live on Rome’ from various parts of the country.
toads and to drink castor oil. -This posed a serious dilemma for the king Victor Emmanuel
-Sometimes they beat them with rubber hoses. III, the Italian army and the police.
-Occasionally they murdered their opponents in public. -The government appeared powerless to take action against
-He also adjusted his propaganda to appeal to all Mussolini.
discontented groups. -Neither the royal family nor the army and the police took
-He got support from almost every direction, from the rich any effective action to prevent the entry of the Fascist
and poor, monarchists and socialists, liberal idealists and column into Rome.
thugs, anti-clericals and priests. -Thus Mussolini met little resistance if any.
-A general strike in the summer of 1922 gave Fascists the -On 29 October 1922, the king, Victor Emmanuel III asked
opportunity to restore order. Mussolini to form a government with other anti-Socialist
-The government had been unable to prevent the strike. groups.
-As the government was too weak to deal with the strike, the -A coalition government was formed and Mussolini took the
illegal actions of the Fascists won them popular support. post of Prime Minister, Foreign Minister and Minister of
-Landlords and industrialists sympathised with a movement Home Affairs [Interior] at the same time.
which stood for strike breaking, lower wages and hostility to
communism. To what extent did the use of violence assist Mussolini’s rise to
-Eventually Mussolini was brought to power by the March power?
on Rome, October 1922. -Violence forced opponents to support the Fascist movement to
-In October 1922 Mussolini demanded representation in the avert death and injury.
government. -Violence was one the several methods used to gain power.
-The government refused to accept this demand. -Force eventually prevailed over other methods in 1922
-This refusal was one factor which determined Mussolini to
make a show of force. Other factors
-Mussolini had demanded that the country should be given a -Use of propaganda
strong government capable of restoring order. -Use of attractive parades
-Parliamentary methods like participating in elections

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-A general atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration
-A weak economy and a weak government Mussolini’s Domestic Policy from 1923 to 1939
 -Mussolini established dictatorship in Italy.
Government Posts held by Mussolini in Italy  -He banned all opposition political parties. He made Italy a
-Prime Minister -Minister of the one party state.
Interior [Home Affairs]  -He ruled by decree [command] starting from 1926.
-Minister of Foreign Affairs -Minister of  -Mussolini was opposed to democracy. In 1928 he banned
Corporations voting and members of parliament were to be chosen by the
-Minister of Army, Navy and Air force -Commander in Fascist Grand Council which was headed by Mussolini.
Chief of the Militia  -Mussolini made Italy a totalitarian state. All aspects of life
-Head / President of the Fascist Grand Council were controlled by the state.
 -In 1927 Mussolini formed a secret police called OVRA.
Aims of Mussolini’s Domestic Policy OVRA hunted for opponents in public places like cinemas,
-To create a very strong government -To make Italy funerals, wedding ceremonies, beer halls and playing
politically stable grounds. OVRA was thus meant to silence enmity.
-To create a strong economy -To establish  -In 1929 Mussolini bridged the gap between the church and
dictatorship in Italy the state through the Lateran Treaty. Through this treaty,
-To create a totalitarian state -To do away Italy recognised the Vatican City in Rome as a sovereign
with democracy state. Roman Catholic Church was made a state religion.
-To make Italy a great power once more -To increase the Religious education was surrendered to the church. In return,
population the Pope gave his blessing to Fascist dictatorship.
-To make Italy self sufficient [Autarky] -To provide  -All opponents were killed or exiled on the Lipuri Islands in
employment the Mediterranean. For example, GiacomoMatteotti was
-To establish friendly relations with the church -To ban strikes murdered after accusing the Fascists of corruption and
-To stop the spread of communism -To ban trade violence.
unions  -Mussolini was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon
-To ban elections -To revalue women. For him, women were to be good at home where
Italian currency

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 they were encouraged to bear as many children as possible, and the state were represented. The corporations were to
about 12 children per family on average. settle all matters relating to conditions of work. The ministry
 -Mussolini inaugurated the battle for births. People were of Corporations was introduced to supervise these
encouraged to bear many children. He imposed a tax on corporations. The aim of this was to make both workers and
childless marriages and bachelors. He gave incentives to employers support the interests of the state before their own.
women so that they bear many children. Divorce was  -Lockouts of workers by employers were forbidden.
forbidden.  -Mussolini created employment in Italy.He did so through
 -There was education for all and this was free education. launching a number of public workssuch as draining marshes
School teachers were to take an oath of allegiance to like Pontine Marshes nearRome, electrification, construction
Mussolini and his Fascist regime. In 1931 the same was of roads, railway lines, bridges, railway stations, dams and
required of University lecturers. They were to promise that sports stadiums. He also created employment through
they would teach according to the Fascist principles. In launching industries which manufactured air craft, motor
schools pupils were encouraged to criticise their teachers and vehicles and weapons for his foreign ventures.
were taught to repeat the Ten Commandments of Fascism,  -In 1926 Mussolini inaugurated the battle of wheat. He
including’ Mussolini is always right’. There was encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production
indoctrination of children. Teaching was to be Fascist and aimed at self sufficiency which he claimed to have been
justify the ethics of violence, obedience and intellectual achieved in 1932.
uniformity. Teachers had to wear uniforms. New textbooks  -Iron, silk and steel production increased.
were written toconform with Fascism.  -Mussolini inaugurated the battle of lira. The currency was
 -There was strict censorship. Anti-Fascist newspapers and revalued.
magazines were either banned or had their editors replaced  -Hydro electricity was doubled.
by Fascist supporters.  -Industry was encouraged with government subsidies.
 -Elected town councils and mayors were abolished and
towns were run by officials appointed from Rome. To what extent did Mussolini’s Domestic Policy benefit Italians?
 -Trade unions were banned and their offices were closed.
The trade unions had been built mainly under communist and Benefits / Positive effects
socialist leadership. This was followed by the establishment -Banning trade unions brought about order and progress in
of a system of ‘Corporations’ in which workers, employers industries.

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-Law and order was restored in Italy since brigands who terrorised -Although Mussolini restored law and order, however, this law and
the people in streets had disappeared. order applied only to non Fascists. The Fascists had the liberty
-A large number of people were employed through the public works. [freedom] to do what they wanted with their opponents.
-The battle of wheat made Italy self sufficient in terms of food.
-There was provision of good accommodation through flat
construction.
-There was improved transport for the people from one place to
another.
-The draining of marshes led to the increase in agricultural land.
-The Italian nation which had been for long divided into two, the Economic Policies of Mussolini
supporters of the state and supporters of the Pope was united by  -Industry was encouraged with government subsidies.
Mussolini.  -Mussolini introduced the battle of wheat.
-The creation of employment improved the standard of living.  -Land reclamation was launched, for example, draining of
marshes and planting trees.
Non benefits / Negative Effects  -Public works were introduced, for example, construction of
-The abolition of trade unions led to the exploitation of workers roads, bridges, railways, stadiums, dams and so on.
who lost their right to strike for better working conditions.  -Mussolini introduced the battle of the lira.
-Unemployment was not completely wiped out.  -Strikes were outlawed [banned].
-Censorship of the press led to lack of freedom of expression.  -Trade unions were banned.
-Italians lost their right to vote as members of parliament were to be  -There was expansion of silk, iron and steel production.
elected by the Fascist Grand Council headed by Mussolini.  -Hydro electric power was doubled.
-Italians lost their freedom and now lived in fear.  -There was creation of a corporate state to control
-The education system was blinkered. Pupils were being production, prices and working conditions.
indoctrinated instead of being educated.  -Lock outs of workers were outlawed.
-The battle of wheat was counter- productive and strained the  -There was high taxation, especially for single and unmarried
budget. workers.
 -Price controls were to make public life easy.
 -Transport was developed with government subsidies.

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  -Railways were electrified. -Wheat production damaged other forms of agricultural output.
 -An eight hour working day was enacted. Farmers concentrated on wheat at the expense of other crops.
 -Workers were assured of such benefits as free Sundays, -Overvaluing of the lira made exports more expensive.
annual holidays with pay, social security, sports and theatre -Although prices were stable, they however remained high.
to compensate for their loss of freedom. -Italy was still not self sufficient in food supplies.
 -The textile industry was expanded. -Motorways [Austrada] were planned but only a few were actually
 -There was development of synthetic rubber. started.

Benefits of Mussolini’s Economic Policy Mussolini’s Social Policy

-There was stability in prices through lowering wages and -He encouraged high birth rates.
suppression of strikes and Trade Unions. -There was strict censorship of the press.
-The government fixed rents and controlled food prices thus making -He introduced the Youth League.
up for low wages. -Education was made Fascist and was for all.
-The lira was revalued. -He signed the Lateran treaty with the Pope.
-There was development of infrastructure. -Roman Catholic Church was made the state religion.
-Hydro electric production increased. -He looked down upon women.
-Iron and steel production doubled. -Mussolini created employment in Italy.
-Draining Pontine Marshes provided hundreds of thousands of acres -He gave workers some benefits, for example, free Sundays, annual
of new farmland and eradicated Malaria. holidays with pay, social security, sports and theatre to compensate
-The public works created employment. for their loss of freedom.
-Banning of strikes led to an increase in production. -He banned strikes.
-Inflation was reduced. -Teachers were to wear uniforms.
-Pupils were encouraged to criticise their teachers.
Negative Effects of Mussolini’s Economic Policy
-Unemployment was not completely addressed. Measures taken by Mussolini to introduce dictatorship in Italy /
-There was shortage of basic goods. Measures taken by Mussolini to consolidate his power in Italy /
-There was rampant corruption and inefficiency. Measures taken by Mussolini to establish total control in Italy

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 -He passed the Arcebo law [1923] which enabled him to get -The Black Shirts perpetrated terror, for example, beating
majority seats in Parliament. opponents with rubber hoses, forcing them to drink castor oil
-He eliminated opponents, for example, in 1924 and to swallow live toads.
GiacomoMatteotti and Giovanni Amenda were murdered.
-In 1925 he introduced censorship as radios, films; Benefits of Mussolini’s dictatorship to Italians
newspapers and theatre were put under strict control. -Dictatorship ensured peace, order and stability in Italy.
-In 1926 Mussolini banned all opposition political parties. -Banning of strikes, lock outs and demonstrations promoted a
-In 1927 he created a secret police [OVRA] which he used to peaceful environment for economic development.
silence all enemies. -It promoted a sense of nationalism.
-In 1928, the Fascist Grand Council was set up to choose -The Lateran treaty ended the long standing misunderstanding
members of Parliament. Elections were banned. between the church and the state.
-In 1929 there was the signing of the Lateran Treaty.
-Sloganeering and indoctrination of the youth promoted the Negative effects of Mussolini’s dictatorship to Italians
notion that the Duce is always right. -Civil and political liberties were suppressed.
-Education was brought under state control and was meant to -People were living in perpetual fear.
glorify Fascism. -People could no longer freely express themselves.
-He banned trade unions, strikes, lockouts and -Some people lost their property and life due to violence.
demonstrations. -Workers were exploited under the corporate state.
-He controlled key ministries like Home Affairs and Foreign -Parliament was turned into a farce.
Affairs. -There was no more democracy.
-He created the Youth League.
-He established a corporate state and Mussolini was the Features of Fascism in Italy
Minister of Corporations. -Totalitarianism -Glorification of
-He adopted the title the II-Duce [the leader]. violence
-He ruled by decree [command]. -Extensive propaganda -Abolition of elections
-He created a totalitarian state. -Dictatorship -Banning of trade
-He suppressed democracy, for instance, people were denied unions
to vote for Members of parliament. -Rule by decree [command] -Militarism

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-One Party State -Corporate state  -In 1923 Mussolini recognised the Union of Soviet Socialist
-Extreme nationalism -A strong economy Republic.
-Suspension of human rights -Economic self-  -In 1924 Mussolini came to an agreement with Yugoslavia
sufficiency by which Italy gained Fiume.
-Strict censorship -Absence of democracy  -In 1924 Mussolini established friendly relations with
-Elimination of all opponents -Banning of strikes Greece, Hungary and Albania.
-Anti-Semitism -Anti-Communism  -In 1925 Mussolini signed the Locarno Pact with Britain,
-Banning of opposition political parties -National prestige France, Germany and Belgium. This treaty was meant to
-Glorification of the leader -Suppression of women promote a spirit of cooperation. It was Germany which
rights initiated this.
 -In 1928 Mussolini signed the Briand-Kellogg Pact.
Aims of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy  -In 1933 Mussolini signed a Non Aggression Pact with
 -To make a name for himself and his country Russia.
 -To pursue an adventurous foreign policy  -In 1933 Mussolini attended the Disarmament Conference at
 -To put Italy on the world map Geneva.
 -To make Italy great, feared and respected  -In 1934 Mussolini intercepted German forces at Brenner
 -To gain prestige Pass. The German forces wanted to invade Austria.
 -To make up for the lost past opportunities on earlier decades  -In 1935 Mussolini invaded Abyssinia [Ethiopia].
 -To civilise Africa and gain raw materials  -In 1935 Mussolini withdrew from the League of Nations.
 -To revive the greatness of the ancient Roman Empire  -In 1935 Mussolini signed the Stressa Front with Britain and
 -To make up for the past humiliations France guaranteeing the Eastern French border against
 -To create an empire as in the time of the Caesars German aggression.
 -To make Italy a bulwark against Bolshevism in Europe  -In 1936 Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Hitler.
 -To create enough living space for the Italians Mussolini came closer to Hitler because Hitler had refused to
impose sanctions on Italy after she invaded Abyssinia.
 -In 1936 Mussolini entered into the Spanish Civil War on the
Mussolini’s Foreign Policy [1922 to1939]
side of Germany and General Francisco Franco against the
 -In 1923 Mussolini invaded the Greek Island of Corfu.

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 Spanish Republican government. Franco was anti-communist -The Italians also began to sell their goods to Albania [market].
just like Italy and Germany. -There was creation of employment especially in the army.
 -In 1937 Mussolini signed the anti-Comintern pact with -There were some territorial gains.
Japan. -Foreign policy in general brought prestige.
 -In 1937 Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
[Pact] with Germany [Hitler] and Japan [Tojo] against Non Benefits / Negative Effects
international communism. -Mussolini’s foreign policy created more enemies than friends.
 -In 1938 Mussolini attended the Munich Conference. -Mussolini tended to ignore domestic issues and concentrated on
 -In 1939 Mussolini invaded and annexed Albania. foreign affairs. For instance, there was misallocation of resources in
 -In 1939 Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel with Hitler. They Italy.
agreed to help each other in the event of a war. -Many Italians lost their lives during battles
-Many children were orphaned.
-Many women became widows.
-Creation of an alliance with Germany and Japan led to the upset of
QN: To what extent did the Italians Benefit from Mussolini’s balance of power and to the breakdown of international peace.
Foreign Policy? -Mussolini plunged Italy into the Second World War [1939]
unprepared and lost many human lives.
Benefits / Positive Effects
-Italian trade prospered and her credit stood high. In his early days
To what extent was Mussolini’s Foreign Policy influenced by
Mussolini created friendly relations with other countries like Britain,
that of Hitler?
France and Germany by entering Locarno Pact. -Initially Mussolini’s foreign policy was determined by Italian
-Italy’s prestige was strengthened at home after Corfu Incident. interests and aims.
-Italy became more secure by entering agreements with powerful -The Corfu incident was designed to advance national greatness in
countries like Japan and Germany. foreign policy.
-Mussolini improved relations with Albania which became an Italian -The Fiume incident and Albanian invasion by Italy was aimed at
satellite in 1926. showing Italian greatness and to secure control over entry into the
-Mussolini reduced population pressure in Italy by settling some Adriatic.
Italians in Abyssinia and Albania.

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-Invasion of Abyssinia and Albania was meant to fulfil colonial Problems faced by the Weimar Republic [Germany] from 1919
interests. to 1933
-Germany’s attempted Anschluss with Austria in 1934 was strongly The Weimar Republic had serious problems from the beginning.
opposed by Mussolini. These problems helped in destroying it hence leading to the rise of
Adolf Hitler to power.
Other side
-After the Rome-Berlin Axis Mussolini became a protégé of Hitler. Economic Problems faced by the Weimar Republic [Germany]
-There was now mutual cooperation between the two countries [Italy -Payment of reparations
and Germany] leading to the signing of the following treaties--- -Hyper inflation. For instance, 1 billion marks bought a loaf of
-Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis [1937] bread. In November 1923,US $1 was equivalent to 4200000000000
-Anti- Comintern Pact [1937] marks.
-Pact of steel [1939] -Unemployment. This was largely due to the Great Depression
-Also the two entered into the Spanish Civil War on the side of [1929-1939].The population of the unemployed rose from 2258000
General Franco [1936]. in 1928 to 6000000 in 1932.
DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY [1919-1939] -Closure of factories.
-The Great Depression of 1929 to 1939 which further caused many
problems like unemployment, inflation and so on.
The Weimar Republic [1919-1933] -Shortage of food
Germany after the First World War was called the Weimar -Low agricultural production
Republic. It was also known as the Second German Reich. A -Low industrial production
republic is a state completely governed by elected representatives. It -Strikes were the order of the day, for example, the 1920 General
is also a nation ruled by a president and not by a king. The German strike in Berlin.
Empire which was created by Bismarck in 1871 and destroyed -Bankruptcy especially due to payment of reparations
during the First World War in 1918 was known as the First German -War debts
Reich. Hitler’s Germany from 1933 to 1945 was known as the Third -Shortage of raw materials
German Reich or the Nazi Reich. A Reich is a German state. -Low wages and salaries

Social Problems of the Weimar Republic

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-Critical shortage of food -Low living -Parliamentary paralysis
standards -Strikes and demonstrations
-Street fights -Burglary -Threat of Communism
-Brigandage / Lawlessness -Prostitution *NB All these problems led to the collapse of Weimar Republic and
-Demonstrations -Strikes and to the rise of Hitler.
food riots
-Sit ins -Lockouts QN: To what extent did the Economic problems of the Weimar
-Unemployment -Starvation Republic lead to the collapse of the Weimar Republic and to the
-Hunger -High crime rise of Hitler?
rates -Inflation made the middle class to lose confidence in the
-Diseases like tuberculosis -Theft government and began to support extremist parties like Nazi.
-Low wages -Domestic -Many of the unemployed joined the Nazi party which promised
violence them jobs.
-Homelessness -The Great Depression caused people to turn to extremist parties like
Political Problems of the Weimar Republic Nazi.
-The Weimar government was unpopular -Nazi and communist support increased during the time of the
-Socialist or Communist violence. They wanted to seize power. economic crisis.
-Unstable coalition governments. From February 1919 to January -The Great Depression made the parliament to be unstable resulting
1933 the Germans were ruled by 21 governments, each lasted an in chancellors resigning, for example, Von Papen and Von
average of about 7 months. Schleicher.
-Imposed democracy [inexperienced in democracy]
-Attempted coups, for instance, the 1919 Spartacist revolt, the 1920 Other factors
Kapp Putsch and the 1923 Munich Putsch. -Hitler’s ability to use propaganda
-Political assassinations [1920 to 1922]. Victims of such -Oratory
assassinations included the Jewish Foreign minister, Walter -Nazi violence
Rathenan and Gustav Erzberger. -Parliamentary paralysis
-Nazi violence -Fear of communism by industrialists
-Disappointment with the treaty of Versailles -Too many political parties

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 -Nazi violence
QN: To what extent did the political problems in Germany lead -Oratory
to the rise of Hitler and the collapse of the Weimar republic?
-Democracy gave way to the formation of many political parties. Political Parties in Germany between 1919 and 1933
-Too many political parties led to the creation of weak coalition -Social Democratic Party [Socialists]
governments. -German Nationalist People’s Party [Nationalists]
-Nazi violence forced opponents to support Hitler. -Catholic Centre Party [Catholics]
-The people resented the unpopularity of the Weimar government. -Communist Party [Communists]
-Attempts to overthrow the government also contributed. -Liberal Party [Liberals]
-Bavarian People’s Party
-Nazi Party
Other factors
-Unemployment Chancellors of Germany from 1918 to 1933
-Hunger -Ebert [Social Democrat 1918] -Gustav
-Starvation Stresemann
-Hitler’s personality -Franz Von Papen [Nationalist] -Herman
-Inflation Mueller
-Heinrich Bruning [Catholic Centre Party] -Von Schleicher
To what extent did the social problems in Germany led to the -Adolf Hitler [Nazi]
rise of Hitler to power?
-People resented the unrest due to closure of factories. Chancellors of Germany from 1923 to 1933
-Unemployment led to discontent in Germany. -Gustav Stresemann -Heinrich
-The Weimar republic promoted theft and brigandage. Bruning
-Hunger and starvation also led to discontent. -Von Papen -Von Schleicher
-Adolf Hitler
Other factors
-Inflation Attempts to overthrow the Weimar government between 1919
-Too many political parties and 1923

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 -In 1923 Hitler attempted to overthrow the Weimar government
a] The Spartacist Rising [1919] through the abortive Munich Putsch.
-This was the first of all the attempts to overthrow the government. -He was aided by General Ludendorff [the old war hero].
-Rosa Luxemburg [Red Rosa] and Karl Liebknecht made an attempt -They aimed to take over the state of Bavaria and then march to
to overthrow the government. Berlin to overthrow the government.
-The uprising was centred in Berlin. -This Putsch [coup] took place at the peak of inflation.
-It was inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution. -It was a failed attempt at revolution.
-They seized power in Berlin and major cities in Germany. -The French and Belgians had occupied the Ruhr and this angered
-The uprising was put down by only by the aid of the Freikorps [ex- most Germans.
soldiers]. -In 1923 [September] both the Chancellor Gustav Stresemann and
-However both leaders [Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht were the President Ebert had called for Germany’s passive resistance in
murdered before coming for trial. the Ruhr.
-Hitler thought that it was now the time to topple the government of
b] Bavarian Uprising [1919] Bavaria in Munich [it was a regional government].
-Communist Eisner also tried to seize power. -This was to be a prelude to the takeover of the national government
-He was also detected by the Freikorps. in Berlin.
-Eisner was murdered by political opponents. -Thus after the march on Munich, the Nazi were to embark on the
march on Berlin in a similar gesture to the march on Rome.
c] The Kapp Putsch [1920] -Thus the Putsch was inspired by Mussolini’s successful march on
-In March 1920 Wolfgang Kapp, a right winger attempted to seize Rome.
power in Berlin [Revolt in Berlin]. -However, the consequences were different from those in Italy.
-He revolted when the government wished to disband the Freikorps. -In November 1923, Hitler hijacked a local government meeting in
-The army refused to take action. Munich and announced that he was going to take over the
-A general strike paralysed the capital but the government managed government of Bavaria.
to gain control. -The Storm Troopers [SA] began to take over official buildings.
-On the next day the Weimar government police hit back.
d] The Munich Putsch / Beer hall Putsch [8 November 1923] -They surrounded the Nazi and killed 16 of them.

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-These 16 Nazi people were regarded as the first blood martyrs and -Ernst Rohm -Herman
were remembered by Hitler in the foreword of Mein Kampf. Goering
-Hitler had miscalculated the mood of Germans as they did not rise -Ernst Hanfs -Alfred
up to support him. Rosenberg
-Bavarian nationalists withdrew the support they had earlier -Rudolf Hess -Ulrich Graf
promised. -Johann Aigner -Max Amman
-Hitler escaped in a car with a dislocated shoulder. -Adolf Lenk -Wilhelm Adam
-Herman Goering badly wounded escaped to Austria. He was shot in -Ludwig Maximilian Erwin Von Scheubner-Richter
the groin.
-Scheubner Richter was killed by a bullet. People who died during the Munich Putsch [martyrs]
-The rest of the Nazi scattered or were arrested. -Felix Alfarth -Andreas
-Hitler and his followers were dispersed by few armed police. Bauriedl
-Hitler and other leaders were arrested, tried and imprisoned for -Theodor Casella -William
treason. Ehrlich
-He was given five years in prison and was fined 500 Rich marks. -Martin Faust -Anton
-He only served 9 months because he impressed the judges at his Hechenberger
trial and also because of influence from well placed Bavarians who -Oskar Korner -Karl Kuhn
sympathised with his right wing politics. -Karl Laforce -Kurt Neubauer
-At the trial Hitler condemned the Weimar government for its -Klaus von Pape -Theodor von
weaknesses. der Pfordten
-The Nazi Party headquarters were raided. -Johann Rickmers -Max Erwin
-Its newspaper [the People’s observer] was banned. von Scheubner-Richter
-While in prison Hitler wrote his book Mein Kampf [My Struggle] -Lorenz Ritter von Stransky -Wilhelm Wolf
in which he aired out his political and racial ideas.
Leaders and Commanders who participated in Munich Putsch Contribution of the Munich Putsch to the rise of Hitler to power
-Adolf Hitler -Erich Von -It convinced Hitler that the best way to seize power was through
Ludendorff legal means.

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-Hitler used his trial as an opportunity for propaganda against the and revival of Germany into the mightiest nation in Europe
government. and the world to the nationalists. This made him to discredit
-While in prison he wrote a book Mein Kampf which later became the government and rival parties, posing as the only saviour
the Nazi Bible. of the nation.
-He used his trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas. -The Reichstag fire. In March 1933, the Reichstag building
-Every word he spoke was reported in the newspaper the next day. was burnt just a week before the elections. The Nazi laid the
-At the trial he gained publicity for himself and his ideas hence blame on the communists in order to discredit them. Hitler
gaining popularity. declared that the fire was the beginning of a communist
Other Factors uprising. He demanded special emergence powers to deal
-Oratory with the situation and was given them by President
-Weimar political suicide Hindenburg. The Nazi used these powers to arrest
-Inflation communists, break up meetings and frightened voters. As a
-Too many political parties result Hitler won the majority votes he wanted. Most people
-Unemployment voted in favour of Hitler. It is highly probable that the fire
was caused intentionally by the Nazi agents.
Factors which led to the rise of Hitler to power -Mistake by the Weimar politicians to appoint Hitler as
-The Communist danger. The men of property, the Chancellor [Weimar political suicide]. In 1932 the Nazi had
industrialists and land lords as well as the rest of the German won 230 seats in the Reichstag. It had no majority seats. It
aristocracy supported Hitler who was a strong hand against had two thirds out of 577 seats, but there was no single party
communists. with as many seats. Von Papen became chancellor but the
-Unpopularity of the Weimar government Reichstag with such a number of Nazi seats was becoming
-Hitler’s ability to use propaganda led to his rise. He ungovernable. General Von Schleicher approached President
deliberately distorted the truth on a vast scale so as to gain Hindenburg and stressed that there was a danger of civil war
support. in Germany if Von Papen continued as Chancellor. The
-Hitler’s oratory. He promised every sector of the German President removed Von Papen from power and replaced him
community whatever needed most. He promised security to with Von Schleicher. Soon after his removal from power,
men of property, employment to the unemployed, glory, Von Papen began to conspire with Hitler and he suggested to
praise and honour to the generals and army, reconstruction Hitler that he and his friends would be prepared to support

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 his appointment as Chancellor provided that he himself -Unemployment
became his deputy Chancellor. He then turned to the -Elections [Manoeuvring of elections]
President, Hindenburg, making the same proposals. The -Rallies
assumption was that, as Hitler was not an experienced -General discontent with the Treaty of Versailles
politician, he would not succeed as chancellor. In the event -The Munich Putsch
of failure, the country would cry for Hitler’s removal and -Industrial unrest
Von Papen would become Chancellor again. With these -Inexperienced democrats
assurances, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor on 30 -The book, My Struggle, which became the Nazi bible
January 1933. Hitler however, did not fail and Schleicher -Hitler’s personality
was to lose his head in 1934. In 1934 Hindenburg died and -Hitler had extra ordinary political abilities
Hitler became both the Chancellor and President with the -Homelessness
title Fuhrer meaning leader. Thus the Weimar politicians had *NB All problems faced by the Weimar Republic led to the rise
committed political suicide by assisting Hitler to come to of Hitler.
power. Once Hitler was Chancellor, he called for elections so
as to complete Nazi take over. Ideas expressed by Hitler in his book Mein Kampf [My
-Impotence [weaknesses] of the Weimar government Struggle]
-Nazi violence -To bring back all lost German territories
-Low wages -To unify all Germans
-Use of force / coercion -To unify Germany and Austria
-The Great Depression -To expand Germany Eastwards
-Inflation -To expel Jews from Germany
-Hunger and starvation -To stop payment of reparations
-Parliamentary paralysis. The Great Depression made the -To expand territorial boundaries of Germany
parliament to become unstable resulting in Chancellors -To secure enough living space for the Germans
resigning. -To restore Germany to her dominant place in Europe
-The Storm Troopers [SA], Hitler’s private army was -He condemned the disarmament provisions of the treaty of
attractive to young people out of work. Versailles [100000 soldiers]
-Parades

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The rise of Hitler to power in Germany between 1920 and 1933 / -Hitler’s political position was strengthened as he won 13, 4 million
Stages in the rise of Hitler to power in 1933 votes against Hindenburg’s 19, 4 million.
-In 1920 Hitler joined the German Workers Party which later -In July 1932, the Nazi won 230 seats out of 577 in the Reichstag,
became the National Socialist German Workers’ Party [Nazi]. Nazi making Nazi the largest party but with no overall majority.
is the German pronunciation of the letters NS. -Hitler demanded to be appointed Chancellor but Hindenburg
-In 1921 Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party. refused.
-In 1921 the Storm Troopers [SA] was created as a private army to -The Nazi won 196 seats in the November 1932 elections.
deal with opponents. -Nazi terror increased.
-In 1923 at the peak of inflation, Hitler attempted to overthrow the -Von Papen persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor
Weimar government through the Munich Putsch or Beer hall Putsch. hoping that they would use him.
-Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in jail but he served -In January 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Weimar
9 months. Republic.
-While in prison he wrote his book, Mein Kampf [My Struggle].
-In 1924 Hitler re-founded the Nazi. Aims of Hitler’s Domestic policy
-Hitler created his personal body guards [the Schutzstaffel] SS -To create employment -To expel Jews
headed by Heinrich Himmler. By 1933 there were 5200 of them. from Germany
-Hitler set up party branches nationwide. -To assemble the strongest army in Europe -To create a
-In the 1924 general elections, the Nazi won 14 seats in the totalitarian state
Reichstag. -To create a strong economy] -To restore
-Nazi popularity declined during the age of prosperity in Germany order in Germany
[1924 to 1929]. -To make Germany a great power once more -To establish
-In 1928 the Nazi won only 12 seats. dictatorship in Germany
-The Great Depression tilted the scales in favour of Hitler. -To create a one party state -To ban strikes
-Hitler’s oratory appealed to many Germans and Nazi support grew. -To ban trade unions
-In the 1930 general elections Nazi seats rose from 12 to 107 making
Nazi Party the second largest political party in the Reichstag. Hitler’s Domestic Policy from 1933 to 1939
-In the March 1932 presidential elections, Hitler challenged -Hitler created employment in Germany, for example, through
Hindenburg. conscription.

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-He introduced a number of public works like the construction of -Hitler banned trade unions in May 1933.Their offices were raided
motorways, roads, bridges, hospitals and so on. by the SA and the SS. All German workers were to belong to the
-Rearmament programmes were put in place. Nazi run German Labour Front. Trade unions were banned because
-Hitler introduced conscription and developed the German air force they consistently opposed the Nazi party.
[Luftwaffe]. -In 1933 Hitler passed the Enabling Act in March which made
-Armament industries were incepted. Germany completely under his control and forced Von Papen to
-Education was put under Nazi control and it became Nazi in resign. This gave him power to govern without consulting the
orientation. Textbooks, especially, history books were re-written to parliament.
suit Nazi ideology. Children were indoctrinated. -Hitler banned elections in Germany.
-Boys were to join Hitler’s Youth League at the age of 14. -Hitler banned strikes in Germany.
-Girls were to join the League of German maidens and chanted -Hitler opposed democracy. In January 1934 the Parliament was
slogans, like, ‘The Fuhrer is always right’. dissolved and the Reich ratwas abolished.
-Concentration camps were established for all those who opposed or -In 1934, Hitler embarked on the Night of the Long Knives where
tried to criticise the Nazi government. he was killing opponents within the party, for example, Rohm and
-Hitler made Germany self-sufficient through his Four Year Plans other SA leaders who were homo sexual.
[Autarky]. -Joy organisations were formed and holidays were subsidised.
-Hitler established Nazi dictatorship as he ruled by decree. -All enemies were silenced, usually through the use of thugs,
-He banned all opposition political parties in Germany and arrested Gestapo and so on.
opposition leaders. He made Germany a one party state. -Hitler formed his secret police called Gestapo which hunted for
-In April 1933, the civil service came under Nazi control. Officials enemies in public places like cinemas, beer halls, soccer fields, and
who were not politically reliable or who could not prove they were wedding ceremonies under Himmler.
of pure Aryan race [descent] were dismissed. Judges were expected -Hitler created a totalitarian state.
to obey party instructions. They were to ignore crimes committed by -Children were encouraged to betray parents to Gestapo.
Nazi agents. -Mass rallies were organised throughout the country and ‘Hail
-In 1934 Hitler combined the post of President and Chancellor and Hitler’ became the compulsory German greeting.
became the Fuhrer after the death of President Hindenburg. -Hitler was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon women.
-There was no rule of law in Germany. Hitler himself was the law. -There was strict censorship in Germany. The press, radios,
newspapers and films were put under strict censorship.

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-There was elimination of opponents through purges and murders. -Creation of employment improved the standard of living.
-Germany was made a police state. -Rearmament made the country secure.
-Propaganda was increased and Goebbels was appointed Minister of -Wages were improved particularly in strategic industries like
propaganda. This worked to perpetrate and exaggerate the goodness engineering and building by 30%.
of the Nazi government. -Factories were reopened and steel mills and coal mines resumed
-Religion was put under state control. production as new soldiers needed uniforms, equipment and
-Hitler signed the Concordat with Roman Catholic Church which weapons.
promised to keep out of politics. -A degree of nationalism was asserted.
-Hitler adopted the policy of Anti-Semitism, a deliberate policy to
exterminate the Jews. Non Benefits / Negative Effects of Hitler’s Domestic Policy to
-Local government was brought under the control of the Nazi. Germans
-There was control of food prices. -The Jews did not benefit as they were slaughtered, removed from
jobs and discriminated against.
Benefits of Germans from Hitler’s Domestic Policy -Education standards fell because of Nazification.
-Hitler created employment which pleased many Germans. -Women did not benefit as they were looked down upon and denied
-Germany’s dependence on imports was reduced by improving employment opportunities even if they had qualifications.
production in farms and industries. -People lost their freedom of speech and expression.
-Businessmen were happy as they were making profits because -Property and wealth of the Jews was taken.
workers were well disciplined. -Workers were denied their right to strike for better wages.
-Expulsion of Jews and anti Nazis from the civil service created jobs -Education system of the Jews was destroyed.
for ordinary Germans. -People were deprived of their civil and political rights through
-Production of steel increased thereby reducing importation of steel. banning of opposition parties, trade unions, press, introductionof
-Rearmament created employment for many, for example, in violence and murder.
armament industries. -Many Germans lived in perpetual fear.
-Inflation was reduced. -Church leaders were also critical of the Nazi as religion was
-Workers benefited from luxurious holidays. brought under state control.
-The country developed due to construction of roads, bridges,
hospitals and schools.

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Hitler’s Policy towards Jewsin Germany up to 1939 -Germans filled up vacancies in employment left by the Jews, at
-Hitler was against Jews. He hated the Jews. universities, in schools, in the Judiciary and so on.
-Persecution of Jews was a policy with many Germans initially. -Germans took over enterprises and businesses abandoned by the
-Jews were members of the Semitic race [Semites]. Jews as a result of Hitler’s policy.
-The Jews were used as a scapegoat for everything from Versailles -Nationalist feelings were satiated especially those of Germans who
onwards [depression, unemployment, communism and so on]. blamed everything on Jews.
-The anti-Jewish campaign was given legal status by the 1935 Other side
Nuremberg Laws. -Germany lost several skilled Jews such as teachers, doctors,
-These laws deprived Jews of German citizenship. lawyers and so on.
-It forbade them to marry non Jews. -Citizenship of some innocent Germans and other opportunities were
-It ruled that a person with even one Jewish grandparent must be lost as a result of the Nuremberg laws.
classified as a Jew. -Families were separated.
-Jews were harassed in every possible way. Groups of people that were victims of Hitler in Germany
-Their property was attacked and burnt. -Jews -Communists
-Their shops were looted. -Trade unionists -Women
-Their homes were destroyed. -Youths -Lesbians
-A number of them were sent to concentration camps. -Homosexuals -Gypsies
-They were not allowed to join formal schools and universities. -Blacks -Industrialists
-Jews were not allowed to join the civil service. -Catholics -Disabled
-They were excluded from special public places like hotels. -Jehovah’s Witness [Watch tower] -Professionals
-Jews were put into exile. [teachers, doctors, lawyers]
-The Jews were put into gas chambers.
-The Jews were blamed for the defeat of Germany in world war one. Hitler’s Economic Policy in Germany
-By 1939 about 6000000 Jews lost their lives in Germany. -He introduced public works like construction of roads, bridge and
so on.
Did the Germans benefit from Hitler’s policy towards Jews? -Industry was expanded to meet the needs of rearmament.
-Production of synthetic fuel, rubber and other products was
Benefits increased.

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-Wages were strictly controlled. -The 1935 Nuremburg laws were passed which denied Jews their
-Prices were also controlled. civil rights.
-Peasants’ debts amounting to 12 billion were suspended in October -Jews were stripped off their German nationality.
1933. -Marriage between Jews and Germans was forbidden.
-Imported food staffs were subjected to high tariffs. -Boys were to join Hitler’s Youth at the age of 14.
-The Hereditary farm Law of October 1933 gave smaller farmers -Girls were to join the League of German maidens and chanted
security of tenure by forbidding confiscation and division. However, slogans like, ‘The Fuhrer is always right’.
the law militated against the development of larger farm units and -Joy organisations were formed and holidays were subsidised.
even against new farming methods. -The civil service was brought under Nazi control.
-He created employment through conscription. -Hitler was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon women.
-He made Germany self sufficient through his Four Year Plan. -Religion was put under state control.
-He banned trade unions in Germany. -Hitler signed the concordat with the Roman Catholic Church.
-Strikes for better wages were outlawed. -Hitler adopted a policy of anti-Semitism directed against Jews.
-He created the German Labour Front. -People lost their right to vote.
-Factories were reopened.
Measures taken by Hitler to consolidate his power in Germany /
Hitler’s Social Policy in Germany Steps taken by Hitler to achieve total control or establish
-Hitler encouraged high birth rates by offering marriage loans, tax dictatorship in Germany
allowances for dependent children and other benefits for mothers. -He passed the Enabling Law [1933] which made him a complete
-There was strict censorship of the press. dictator.
-He introduced the Hitler Youth Organisation which was -He forced Von Papen to resign.
compulsory for those between 10 and 18 years. -He created a totalitarian state.
-The youth were indoctrinated. -He banned all opposition political parties in Germany.
-Children spied on their teachers and parents. -He banned elections.
-Education was brought under Nazi control. -He purged the civil service and all Jews and other suspected
-Strikes were banned. enemies were removed from civil service.
-Trade unions were banned. -He abolished trade unions.
-Religion was put under state control.

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-He banned strikes. -He remained in power for 12 years [1933-1945].
-He abolished the parliament. -Nazi was the only political party remaining. All opposition political
-Education was put under Nazi control and children were parties were successfully suppressed.
indoctrinated. -Use of violence by Gestapo and SS enabled Germans to submit to
-Teachers, lecturers and professors were closely watched. Hitler’s demands.
-He created the Hitler’s Youth. -Jews, Hitler’s potential challengers were completely silenced,
-He created the League of German maidens. exiled or murdered.
-He encouraged children to betray their parents to Gestapo. -Communists were suppressed.
-He introduced strict censorship on newspapers, radios, magazines
and so on. Failures of Hitler in consolidating his rule in Germany
-There was intimidation of opponents, for example, killing them in -His rule continued to be resisted by the Catholic Church, for
public. example, Bonheoffer and some members of the armed forces.
-He made use of spies to identify and report opponents. -Some young people did not join the Hitler Youth Movement.
-Propaganda was increased. -Some nationalists resisted his rule.
-He used the secret police [Gestapo] to hunt for enemies in public -Socialists and communists continued to exist.
places. -Opposition was driven underground and not completely eroded.
-He used violent sermons. -It was not that people submitted to Hitler but, that people lived in
-He made use of posters and rallies. fear.
-He appointed Nazi leaders to top posts, for example, Goering. -Not all communists were killed on the Night of the Long Knives.
-He appointed Nazi governors in all states. -Hitler infringed on the human rights of the Germans.
-He embarked on the Night of the Long Knives [1934] where he
killed enemies within the party. Features of Nazism in Germany
-He combined the post of president and chancellor to become the -Totalitarianism -Dictatorship
Fuhrer after the death of president, Hindenburg. -Economic self-sufficiency -Glorification of
-School text books were re-written to suit with Nazi ideology. violence
Successes of Hitler in consolidating his power in Germany -Strict censorship -Extensive propaganda
-He became a complete dictator. -Absence of democracy -Abolition of elections
-No one could oppose him.

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-Elimination of all opponents -Glorification of the -To bring back all lost Germans who lived outside, for example, in
leader Poland and Memel
-Banning trade unions -Banning strikes -To conquer Russia as a way of destroying communism there
-Rule by decree or command -Anti Semitism -To put Germany on the world map
-Militarism -Anti Communism -To make Germany a great power once more
-One Party State -Extreme nationalism Hitler’s Foreign Policy [1933 to 1939]
-A strong economy -National prestige *Hitler’s foreign policy was the major cause of world war two of
-Suppression of women rights -Suppression of human 1939 to 1945.
rights -In 1933 Hitler pulled Germany out of the Geneva Disarmament
-Banning of opposition political parties -Purity of Aryan race Conference.
-Reversing the treaty of Versailles -Creation of enough -In 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations.
living space -In 1933 Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by ordering German
-Supremacy of the state -Imperialism rearmament and the creation of the German air force [Luftwaffe].
-Anti- women -Uniting all German- -In 1934 Hitler made a failed attempt to invade Austria. He was
speaking people thwarted by Mussolini.
-In 1934 Hitler signed a Non Aggression Pact with Poland. Poland
Nazi Leaders was to remain neutral when Germany was to attack Austria and
-Adolf Hitler -Herman Goering Czechoslovakia.
-Joseph Goebbels -Heinrich Himmler -In 1935 Hitler signed a secret naval agreement with Britain.
-Rudolf Hess -Martin Bormann Germany was allowed to rebuild her navy as long as it was
-Ernst Rohm -Ludendorff maintained at about 35% the size of the British navy.
-Albert Speer -Rommel -In 1935 Hitler publicly announced German rearmament.
-In 1935 the Saar was reunified with Germany. 90% of the
Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policy Saarlanders voted for reunification with Germany.
-To create enough living space for the Germans [Lebensraum] -In 1936 Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland.
-To stop payment of reparations -In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini entered into the Spanish Civil War on
-To bring back all lost German territories the side of General Franco.
-To assemble the strongest army in Europe -In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin Axis.

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-In 1937 Hitler signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. -Moravia -Bohemia
-In 1937 Hitler [Germany], Mussolini [Italy] and Tojo [Japan]
signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis or Pact. This alliance became Benefits of Germans from Hitler’s Foreign Policy
more powerful than the League itself. -Germany became a powerful state once more.
-In 1938 Hitler annexed the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. -There was creation of employment due to conscription, rearmament
-In 1938 Hitler attended the Munich Conference. and invasions.
-In 1938 Hitler invaded Austria and completed the Anschluss -Hitler created enough living space for the Germans by annexing
[Union of Austria and Germany] states like Czechoslovakia, Memel and other states.
-In 1939 Hitler signed the Pact of Steel with Mussolini. They agreed -Security of the Germans was enhanced as a result of rearmament
to help each other militarily. and conscription.
-In 1939 Hitler seized Memel from Lithuania. -German soldiers became experienced due to invasions.
-In 1939 Hitler and Stalin [of Russia] signed the Molotov- -Hitler united all Germans who were previously not under Germany,
Ribbentrop Treaty / Non aggression pact. Hitler had seen the danger for example, some were in Austria and Sudetenland.
of war breaking out in 1939 and Germany being forced to fight on -The humiliations that Germany had suffered due to the treaty of
two fronts as what happened in the First World War. So the two Versailles were removed, for example, disarmament and payment of
countries agreed not to resort to war against each other. They also reparations.
agreed to invade Poland and partition it between themselves. By this -Their pride was restored by violation of the treaty of Versailles.
alliance and the invasion of Poland Germany wanted to frighten -Industry obtained raw materials from occupied territories like Saar
Britain and France from coming to the aid of Poland. Also in the basin and Czechoslovakia.
event of a war between France and Germany, Russia would keep out Non Benefits / Negative Effects of Hitler’s Foreign Policy to
of the war so that Germany would defeat France.
-On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and Germans
France knocked into the conflict on the side of Poland as they had -Many German soldiers died during wars or invasions.
promised. Hence theSecond World War broke out. -German soldiers did not have time to rest because of endless
Countries occupied by Germany between 1935 and 1939 campaigns.
-Rhineland -Sudetenland -Both human and material resources were wasted.
-Austria -Czechoslovakia
-Poland -Memel

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-Hitler created more enemies than friends, for example, France,
Britain, Poland and USA which combined their forces against
Germany during world war two.
-Many children were orphaned.
-Many women became widows due to invasions.
-Germany’s aggressions led to the outbreak of world war two which
was costly to the Germans.

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