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Technical Writing and communications skills

Definition of technical writing

Technical writing is a type of writing where the author is writing about a particular subject that
requires direction, instruction, or explanation. This style of writing has a very different purpose and
different characteristics than other writing styles such as creative writing, academic writing or
business writing.

Uses for Technical Writing

Technical writing is straightforward, easy to understand explanations and/or instructions dealing
with a particular subject. It is an efficient and clear way of explaining something and how it
works.
The subject of technical writing can either be:
• Tangible - Something that can be seen or touched, such as a computer or software program, or
information on how to assemble a piece of furniture.
• Abstract - Something that involved a series of steps that aren't related to a tangible object. One
example of this might be steps required to complete an office process.
Some examples of technical writing include:
• Instruction manuals
• Policy manuals
• Process manuals
• User manuals
• Reports of analysis
• Instructions for assembling a product
• A summarization of a long report that highlights and shortens the most important elements
•

Tips for Good Technical Writing

Regardless of the type of document, which is written, technical writing requires the writer to
follow the properties of knowing their audience, writing in a clear, non-personal style and doing
extensive research on the topic. By including these properties, the writer can create clear
instructions and explanations for the reader.
• Know your audience. An expert in the field will understand certain abbreviations, acronyms, and
lingo that directly applies to such a field. The novice will not understand in the same manner and,
therefore, every detail must be explained and spelled out for them.
• Use an impersonal style. Write from a third person perspective, like a teacher instructing a
student. Any opinions should be omitted.
• The writing should be straightforward, to the point, and as simple as possible to make sure the
reader understands the process or instruction. This at times may appear as simply a list of steps to
take to achieve the desired goal or may be a short or lengthy explanation of a concept or abstract
idea.
• Know how to research. Gather information from a few sources, understand the information
gathered so that it can be analyzed thoroughly, and then put the information into an easy-to-
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understand format to instruct those who read it. The more inexperienced your audience, the more
information you will need to gather and explain.
• Be thorough in description and provide enough detail to make your points; but, you also have to
consider that you need to use an economy of words so that you do not bore your reader with
gratuitous details.
A good technical writer can make a difficult task easy and can quickly explain a complex piece of
information.

Characteristics of Technical Writing

Technical writing is an important part of everyone's career. Writing well is difficult and time consuming
and writing in a technical way about technical subjects even makes it more difficult. People write to
propose projects, to document their own actions, to help other understand the research, to analyze and
solve problems, to describe procedures and objects. If done well, technical writing is an exciting,
fulfilling experience but if done poorly, it is frustrating, even harmful to career development.
Technicality in writing is based upon the following points

There are six basic properties of technical writing

1. Clarity
2. Accuracy
3. Comprehensiveness
4. Accessibility
5. Conciseness
6. Correctness

1. Clarity

Technical document must convey a single meaning that the reader can understand. Unclear
Technical writing is expensive. They vital communication link among the various
employees is usually the report, if this link is weak, the entire project may be jeopardized.
Unclear technical writing can be dangerous e.g. unclear instruction on how to operate
machinery.

2. Accuracy

Unclear writing can cause many problems and even inaccuracy in the report. If you mean
to write 40,000 don’t write 400,000. If you mean to refer to fig 3.1 don’t refer to fig 3.2.
Slightest error can confuse or even annoy the reader of the report. If the reader suspects
that you are slanting information, they have the right to doubt the entire document.

3. Comprehensiveness:

When writing technically, all the information should be provided, its background must be
described and clear description of any process, or method of carrying out a specific work,
should also be given. It also includes results, conclusions, and recommendations.

4. Accessibility:

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It means the ease with which the readers can locate the information they seek.

To increase Accessibility, include headings and lists in the report. A table of contents, list
of illustrations glossary and index are preferred.

5. Conciseness:

Technical writing is meant to be useful. The longer a document is, the more difficult it gets
to use it. Even it takes more of the user's time.

Conciseness works against clarity and comprehensiveness. Solution to this conflict is to

create a balance between the requirements of clarity, conciseness and comprehensiveness.
In short, in T.W every aspect of the subject is discussed in optimized detail. Document
must be long enough to be clear. It must give the audience purpose and object but no extra
details. Technical writing can be shortened 10-20% by eliminating unnecessary phrases
and choosing short words and sentences.

6. Correctness

Qualities of technical report writing also includes correctness. Good technical report
must also be correct. It. Must be free from grammatical errors, punctuation mistakes, and
should have appropriate format standard. If a report contains grammatical errors, the reader
will doubt the accuracy of the information in the report. Technical writing is meant to
convey information and to persuade the audience. To accomplish these goals, it must be
clear accurate, easy to access and must be economical and correct.

If you mean to write "the three persons: person 1, person 2 and person 3 attended a session" but
you use commas instead of the colon, your readers might think 6 people attended the session, not 3.

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Class-3: The writing process

What is prewriting?

Prewriting is the planning phase of the writing process. During this phase, writers may plan for
writing by drawing pictures, making lists, brainstorming, using graphic organizers, or
conferring with a peer as they anticipate writing on a topic for a particular audience. The Idea
and Organization Traits are important in the prewriting phase as writers consider narrowing or
expanding the writing focus and select an organizational structure that will most effectively
showcase their ideas.

What is drafting?

The drafting phase of the writing process entails the actual composing of the text. During this
phase, writers use prewriting activities to generate a piece of writing in rough form. The goal
is translated ideas into a written organization without being constrained by word choice,
sentence structure, conventions, and presentation. Informal conferences with teachers or peers
can occur during this phase to provide focused feedback to the writer.

What is revising?

During the revision phase of the writing process, writers examine the content of their writing.
Writers review their text for clarity and craft and consider changes that would improve the
piece. The first five traits are essential for effective revision of the content: Ideas, Organization,
Voice, Word Choice, and Sentence Fluency. Based on their own critical review and feedback,
writers may keep elements of the writing as well as make revisions as they add, delete, move,
or change elements.

o Ideas – add, delete, or change details, develop the topic

o Organization – change the lead or conclusion, add smooth transitions, move sentences
or paragraphs
o Voice – talk right to the reader
o Word Choice – change weak verbs to strong verbs, change vague language to precise
language

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o Sentence – add words and phrases to expand sentences, change sentence beginnings to
vary beginnings, move words and phrases within a sentence to vary sentences, combine
sentences to vary sentences.

What is editing?

Writers attend to correctness in conventions when they enter the editing phase of the writing
process. Editing should be undertaken when all revisions to the content are complete. Writers
may edit independently or engage in peer editing. Editing requires that writers proofread to
find errors in grammar, usage, mechanics, and spelling and then make appropriate corrections.
Writers then edit to correct the errors before preparing the final draft for publication. The
Conventions Trait is most prominent at this phase of the writing process.

What is publishing?

Publication entails the final preparation of a piece of writing for the intended audience and may
involve preparing a neatly handwritten or word-processed copy of the final draft and the
addition of illustrations or other graphic elements. Publication may extend to a multimedia
presentation or lead to a public performance such as a speech or a debate. The Presentation
Trait is emphasized during this phase of the writing process as the writer works to make the
piece appealing and inviting to the audience.

Planning and Producing Documents

Effective technical documents do not just happen; they are the result of a deliberate and
comprehensive design and production process. Although writers may vary some of the steps,
they use to create a document, effective technical and scientific writing typically follows the
same general procedures. First, establish basic criteria. Identify the specific purpose of the
document by clarifying both the reasons for its creation and its specific objectives. Often,
technical and scientific documents are written as answers to a specific problem, which is
articulated in a problem statement. Once you have identified the document's purpose, you
should be able to determine the document's general type. Technical documents are tools
designed to be used by their readers. Accordingly, define your audience – the person or persons
who will be reading the document. Then determine your audience's level of expertise and their
purpose in using the document. It is also important to assess the attitude of the audience toward
both you and the document's subject matter. Once you have defined the purpose, the problem
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and the audience, collect, create, and assemble your information. Sketch out a preliminary
outline to organize it. Keeping purpose and audience in mind, sketch out graphics and tables to
display your important data. Using your outline and preliminary graphics, write a first draft, a
rough working version in which you get your ideas on paper. At this point in the process, do
not be overly concerned about grammar, style, or usage. If possible, put your first draft away
for a day or two. Then revise your document in stages, saving stylistic changes for the last
stage. Revise for organization; then revise the content for accuracy and appropriateness.
Finally, edit your paragraphs and sentences to improve their clarity, conciseness, and
coherence, and to fix any problems in grammar, spelling, punctuation, mechanics, or usage.
The last major step for most technical documents is one or more reviews. You may be too
familiar with your document to see such things as gaps in information and inappropriate
language. In addition, you may lack certain technical or managerial knowledge necessary for
the document to achieve its purpose. For these reasons, writers of technical and scientific
documents may ask peers to review their manuscripts for accuracy, clarity, coherence, and
appropriateness. In many cases, a technical expert will review the document for technical
content. A technical editor may review the
document to ensure that it conforms to the organization's style and to correct any remaining
problems. There may be legal reviews as well. Finally, a supervisor or a manager may review
the document to ensure that it achieves the organization's purpose and is appropriate to the
audience. Just as most technical documents are reviewed by several persons, many documents
are written collaboratively--that is, by several individuals. Collaborative writing often involves
additional steps in document planning and management, drafting, and revision.

How to search about what you need? (Electronic search)

1. Type in your search terms

o You can search by author, title or subject.
o For more specific results use AND, OR, or NOT to separate your search terms.
o For unit materials, type in your unit code.
2. Refine your results using filters
o Target your results by using the filter settings to make preferences like full text
(online), source types (i.e., book, e-book, dissertations/theses, newspaper), year of
publication, and database provider.
3. Once you find the title, you're looking for you can:
o borrow or request your book
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o view e-books
o access full text articles
references:www.deakin.edu.au/library

Class-4: Types of documents

Agenda
An agenda is a simple list of topics to be discussed (in order of listing), along with
the names of individuals who have agreed to lead discussion of those topics. An
agenda helps focus a meeting on a core of topics and allows you to control the pace
and flow of a meeting and identify important items to be acted upon. Meetings
without published agendas generally seem unfocused and unproductive.

Prepare and circulate an agenda of items to be discussed for each meeting.

Circulation of an agenda before a meeting will allow your audience to consider their
responses to items listed and will help stimulate discussion. Agendas may be
circulated by e-mail or hard copy. The advantage of hard-copy agendas is that they
may be brought to a meeting to facilitate the taking of notes during discussion.
Experienced meeting leaders recognize that both hard-copies and electronic copies
of agenda are usually misplaced, so they bring enough copies for everyone present
at the meeting.

Here is an example of an agenda.

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Memoranda

Memoranda are brief, informal reports used to establish a record. They generalize
the communication process by transmitting the message from one or more authors
to one or more recipients. E-mail messages typically take the form of memoranda.

The memorandum is among the most versatile of organizational documents. From

brief research reports and progress reports to trip reports and thumbnail proposals,
the memo form is widely used to communicate technical and administrative
information. Memoranda are written for numerous internal purposes--for example,
to request information, to make announcements, to outline policies, and to transmit
meeting minutes. Thus, in most organizations, memos play a crucial role in
establishing a record of decisions, requests, responsibilities, results, and concerns.

The Memo Heading

The distinctive element of the memorandum is its heading, which is used to frame
the message in a very accessible and transparent manner.

The Memo Body

Generally, organize the topics of the memorandum in order of importance, with the
key statements first and the details further on. The memorandum should normally
begin with a brief summary statement, in one or two sentences, identifying the key
topic and the scope of the memorandum.

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Reports
Reports are standard documents in all organizations. A report is a stand-alone
document that relays the results of a factual inquiry to other parties who have a
professional interest in the results, expert opinions, laboratory tests, policy issues,
trips, and administrative details--anything of importance to the professional
organization. Because a report typically circulates as an independent document, it
will typically follow a standard format that begins with a front matter section that
orients the reader to the main purpose and content of the report. This section is
followed by a report body, which contains the factual content of the report, and the
body is followed by a section of end matter, which contains
various references and secondary material.

Reports may be internal or external, informal, or formal. The informal report

circulates within the local environment and is generally not written about externally
funded research. The material of an internal report often takes the form of
a memorandum, which is a stripped-down version of the internal report, using a
standard header. Informal reports are often short and concern administrative and
policy issues or perform the function of keeping others informed about your work.
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Formal reports are generally tightly structured and extensively reviewed before they
are released. Report structure may vary according to the intended audience. For
example, the same material may be organized for peer specialists or for a managerial
audience.

Letters
Use letters to communicate outside your organization. Whereas the memorandum is
the primary vehicle for communication within an organization, letters are often used
to communicate to individuals outside it, especially in formal and semiformal
contexts.

Letters are an essential part of all business and technical communication because
they are more formal and reliable than electronic mail and more precise and
permanent than telephone or face-to-face conversations.

Types of Letters

Like memoranda, letters perform many functions in scientific and technical

communication. The following are some of the most common types of letters written
by people in technical fields.

Job application letters

Acceptance letters

Transmittal letters

Inquiry letters

Technical-information letters

Letters of recommendation

Format of a Letter

If your organization has a specific style for business letters, follow that format.
Otherwise, follow the guidelines provided here.

Business letters are commonly either full-block formatted, with every line starting
at the left margin and usually a business letterhead at the top of the page, or modified-
block formatted, with the heading and the closing aligned at the center of the page.

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Elements of a Letter

Business letters have the following elements:

• Heading

• Date
• Recipient's address
• Salutation
• Body
• Closing
• End notations
• Heading

If you are using letterhead stationery, include only the date two lines below the
bottom of the letterhead. Spell out the name of month.

If you are not using letterhead stationery, begin with your full address (city, street,
and zip code) 1 to 1½ inches from the top of the page. Spell out address designations,
such as Street, Avenue, and West. The state name may be abbreviated using the two-
letter, all-capitals U.S. Postal Service designations. Include the date aligned at left
with the address, spelling out the name of the month.

Recipient's Address

Two to four lines below the date, place the following items:

• The recipient's title (such as Mr., Ms., or Dr.) and full name (address a woman
who does not have a professional title as Ms. unless you know she
prefers Miss or Mrs.; if the recipient does not have a title and you are unsure
of his or her gender, omit the title).
• The recipient's job title, if appropriate.
• The name of the company or institution, if appropriate.
• The full address, following the same format as for the address in the heading.

The recipient's address is always aligned on the left margin.

Salutation

Place the salutation two lines below the recipient's address. The salutation begins
with the word Dear, continues with the recipient's title and last name, and ends with
a colon. If you are unsure of the recipient's gender and the recipient does not have a
professional title, omit the title and, instead, use both the first and the last names in
the salutation (Dear Leslie Perelman:). If you do not know the name of the recipient
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of the letter, refer to the department you are writing to (Dear Technical Support:).
Avoid salutations such as Dear Sir or Madam:

Body

Start the letter two lines after the salutation. Body paragraphs should be single
spaced with a double space between paragraphs. (Indenting the first line of each
paragraph is acceptable but is more informal than the unindented style.)

Be concise, direct, and considerate. State the letter's purpose in the opening
paragraph. Include supporting information in a middle paragraph or two, and
conclude your letter with a brief paragraph that both establishes goodwill and
expresses what needs to be done next.

If a letter requires more than one page, make sure there are at least two lines of body
text on the final page. Never use an entire page for just the closing. The second page
and all subsequent pages must include a heading with the recipient's name, the date,
and the page number.

Closing Phrase

Write a complimentary closing phrase two lines below the final body
paragraph. Yours truly, Sincerely, or Sincerely yours are common endings for
professional letters. Capitalize the first letter of the first word of your complimentary
closing and end the complimentary closing with a comma.

Four lines below the closing phrase, write your full name. If you are writing in an
official capacity that is not included in the stationery's letterhead, write your title on
the next line. Your signature goes above your typed name.

End Notations

At the bottom of the last page of a business letter, end notations may show who typed
the letter, whether any materials are enclosed with the letter, and who is receiving a
copy of the letter.

The typist's initials, in lowercase letters, follow the initials of the author, in capital
letters, and a colon or a front-slash (LCP:ecb or LCP/ecb).

An enclosure notation--Enclosure, Encl., or Enc.--alerts the recipient that additional

material (such as a résumé or a technical article) is included with the letter. You can
either identify the enclosure or indicate how many pieces there are.

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Job application letter

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Acceptance letter

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Transmittal letter

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Inquiry letters

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Technical-Information Letters and Memoranda

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Proposals
In a proposal, identify a specific problem and state how you will solve that problem.

Most organizations rely on successful proposal writing for their continued existence.
You will most likely spend a major part of your professional life writing proposals.
Proposals are carefully prepared and just as carefully reviewed by granting agencies.
Proposals fail on the strength of a name or because of flashy rhetoric. Rather,
successful proposals demonstrate that you understand the scope of the problem (its

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background, theory, and application) and, furthermore, that you have developed a
valid and well-focused approach for reaching proposed objectives.

All proposals develop a plan of action in response to a specific need or problem.

Some proposals are external, written in response to a request for proposals or an
invitation to bid that has been published by an external organization. Other proposals
are internal, written in response to a need within your own organization. In either
case, your proposals must show that you understand the nature of the problem and
that you have a specific and well-developed plan for arriving at a solution. Most
proposals share a general structure for identifying the motivating problem, the
objectives, and the proposed course of action.

Specifications
Specifications are design outlines. They describe the structure, parts, performance,
packaging, and delivery of an object or process in enough detail to enable a second
party to construct the object or process. Specifications are widely used by
contracting organizations as procurement documents. In this role, they legally bind
the subcontractor to produce and deliver the object or process within the described
guidelines. In general, it is better to design with and buy proven off-the-shelf
technology, which is easy to order and test, than to go into the specification and
custom-building situation.

Specifications often include details of designs, dimensions, materials, performance,

schedules, methods, and tests. The level of detail in a specification will vary
according to how much freedom the specifier wants the maker to have in making
design decisions. The writer of a specification must carefully study the requirements
of a situation to determine what the key performance requirements for the specified
technology should be. Specifications must be very detailed in calling out the exact
way in which key items should be constructed and tested. However, the more
specific the specifier is, the fewer options the builder has and the more expensive
the item to be produced. Hence, detail and performance must carefully be weighed
against cost.

A specification could be a plan for

a manufactured implement, such as a telephone

the subsystem of an industrial product, such as an airplane

a military item, such as a helmet

a computer program for maintaining a physician's records

a commercial contract, such as a house fire alarm system

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Specifications generally contain requirements for many of the following items:

Purpose and scope

Design overview

Functional description

Parts

o Dimensions
o Materials

Performance requirements

Testing

o Method and equipment

o Test procedure

Delivery

o Packaging
o Schedule
o Documentation

Troubleshooting

The spec sheet is a very brief specification that identifies key standards followed in
the design of a tool or process. Spec sheets accompany many electrical items and are
useful for repairing and replacing parts of the item.

Theses
The thesis or dissertation is an extended research report on a theoretical,
experimental, or design project. The thesis seeks to make some original contribution
to the writer's field of specialization. Written by college seniors, and by master's and
Ph.D. candidates, theses are long, sometimes immense--from 30 to 250 pages and
more--a once-in-a-career effort. Although the immediate audiences are mainly thesis
committees, prospective employers also read theses. Thesis work is good evidence
of how you work on problems. The quality of a thesis indicates the quality of an
individual's thinking, organization, and powers of expression. Thesis work at the
master's and Ph.D. levels may be cited by other researchers, and some thesis work
is condensed and published in journal articles and reports.

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Oral Presentations
Oral presentations can be formal or informal, depending upon their explicit and
implicit purposes and the delivery situation. An oral presentation can be almost
any report type, such as a design review, a proposal, or a conference talk. Whatever
the specific type, however, an effective oral presentation is carefully planned with
your objectives in mind and pays close attention to the demands of your audience.

Oral presentations differ significantly from written documents in several ways.

Written Documents Oral Presentations

Publication permits potentially unlimited Audience generally limited to time and

audience over time and place. place of delivery.

High level of audience interaction is

No direct audience interaction.
possible.

Refined argumentative structure. Simple presentation of main points.

Large volume of detailed information can be

Limited information transfer.
communicated.

Precise syntax and diction. Conversational syntax and diction.

Emphasis on text. Emphasis on visuals.

Reader controls pace of presentation. Speaker controls pace of presentation.

Effective oral communication is a combination of many skills: outlining and

planning, preparing overheads or other display media, rehearsing and delivery.

Class5: Elements of Technical Documents

The elements that make up the many kinds of technical documents are often similar
in form and function. These elements, collectively called the format,
include titles, abstracts, introductions and the like. Writers use formats to establish
the order of content in the document's front matter, body, and end matter. The format
is generally followed by a professional community because the standardization of
the document form makes it easier for readers to establish the purpose of the
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document, to understand how the document is organized, and to compare the

document's content with that of other documents.

The following list identifies some standard elements that may appear in technical
documents. Most documents, whether memorandums, proposals, research
articles, research reports, or design reports, are composed of a selection of these
elements.

Front Matter

The front matter is the "envelope" of your document. The elements that make up the
front matter introduce the reader to the body of your document. They help the reader
understand a document's who, what, why, where, and how--the author, problem,
argument, organization, and method. This first part of a document is, from the
reader's standpoint, the most important. It tells him or her what your topic
and purpose are, how your material is arranged, and where to locate items of interest.
The front matter of reports, including theses, is enumerated in lowercase roman
numerals.

The following table lists some typical elements contained in the front matter of
various documents (y=yes; n=no; s=sometimes).

Title page

Begin every technical document except a memorandum with a clear and specific
title. Prospective readers may judge whether your document will be worth their time
just be reading the title. The subject line of a memo serves as the title.

Long formal documents have a separate title page. For shorter documents, a title
page may be required, optional, or unnecessary, depending on the specific context
and conventions in your field.

A title page should include the title, the author or authors, their affiliation (if
appropriate), and the date. It may also include additional information, such as a
specific grant or project number.

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Abstract

n abstract is a brief summarizing statement, usually between 75 and 150 words long.
It gives the reader a synopsis of the problem, method, results, and conclusions of
your document. The abstract takes the form of a paragraph, usually with 5-10
sentences. It appears at the top of a journal article, just under the title, or on the page
following the title page of a report. In the latter instance, the abstract appears on a
page by itself.

Abstracts are often collected into volumes and must be able to stand alone. They are
read by parties who are trying to decide whether to read the main document.
Sometimes they are read by people who want to get the big picture before reading
the main document. Abstracts can save readers an immense amount of time.

An abstract includes these elements:

1. Problem. Note the key topic or problem of your document.

2. Method. State your main approach to solving the problem.
3. Results. Provide one or two important results.
4. Conclusion. Note your main conclusion.

Table of contents

Documents longer than ten pages use a table of contents to help the reader
move around in the material. Tables of contents are widely used
in reports, proposals, and other longer administrative and research documents. They are not
used in articles that appear in periodicals. A table of contents is a list of the main subject
headings and subheadings of the document. Hence, a table of contents not only helps readers
find materials in the report but also outlines the topics of the report. The table of contents is
often prepared from the document's outline. A table of contents is an excellent way for the
prospective reader to get an overview of the document. The most useful tables of contents are
made up of descriptive subject headings. List of figures

Readers use the list of figures to locate visual information. The list of figures
identifies the titles and locations of visuals (figures, drawings, photos, maps) in
administrative or research documents. Articles in periodicals do not use lists of
figures. Figures concentrate information in unusual ways and show critical details,
configurations, and evidence. Readers often review them independently of other
sections of a report. If figures do not accompany your report or article, look for ways
to include them.

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Figure titles are capitalized, and figures are numbered consecutively in arabic
numbers through the report. In a larger document, the figure number may be in two
parts, the first part referring to the section number--for example, "Figure 3-5" for the
fifth figure in Chapter 3.

Be sure the figure captions are descriptive. Rather than "Experimental Setup," say
"Experimental Setup of the Model High Pressure Injection Pump."

List of tables

The list of tables names and locates any tables in a report or similar
document. Figures and tables are not listed together, but the lists follow the same
guidelines and use the same format. If the list of tables is short, it can simply be
added at the bottom of the page that listst he figures. Like figure titles, table titles
are numbered inconsecutive order within the report and capitalized.

List of terms

Some documents use a significant amount of new terminology, or

many acronyms or abbreviations. In such instances, you can make the material
easier to read by including a nomenclature list or list of terms in the front matter, on
its own page, just after the abstract (for research articles) or just after the lists of
figures and tables (for reports and other documents). Sometimes the nomenclature
list is a list of frequently used but uncommon acronyms. One useful effect of
nomenclature lists is that they help the writer use terminology in a consistent way.

Acknowledgments

An acknowledgments section is sometimes included in the front matter of a

longer report, thesis, or collection to note the assistance of people whose help was
crucial but not extensive enough to warrant their being listed as co-authors. Thesis
advisors, technicians, and colleagues who gave advice or time are all candidates for
the acknowledgments section.

This section is often placed just after the list of tables. In articles and shorter reports,
acknowledgments may be made in the end matter at the very beginning of the list of
references.

Body
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The body of a document consists of all material necessary for the document to fulfil
its explicit and implicit goals of informing or convincing the reader, establishing
trust, and documenting actions or procedures.

The body of a document may include the following sections:

Introduction

The introduction to your document should lead your readers into your paper and give
them an idea of what to expect (also see Forecasting). It should not be simply a
restatement of the abstract even though it will contain some of the same material.

Introductions often do the following:

• State the subject of your document as clearly as possible

• Define the problem you are addressing, your approach to the problem, and
why this problem is important
• State the purpose of your document
• Define the scope of your document
• Provide necessary and relevant background information

Because the introduction leads your reader into your document, try to begin with a
general statement about the topic before moving on to specific issues. This strategy
will help make the topic accessible to your readers, especially those who are not
specialists in the field.

Background

Provide enough information in a technical document to allow your reader to

understand the specific problem being addressed and to provide a context for your
own document. This background information may include (1) a historical summary
of the problem being addressed; (2) a summary of previous work on the topic,
including, if appropriate, relevant theory; and (3) the specific reasons the document
is being written.

In short documents, include background information in the introduction. In longer

documents, however, putting some or all of the background information in a
separate section with a heading may be more effective. Long and fairly complex
reports, especially experimental reports where the purpose of the documents to

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verify, evaluate, illustrate, or apply one or more theories, often include a

separate theory section.

Theory

In long and fairly complex reports and articles, especially theoretical and
experimental reports where the purpose of the document is to apply, verify,
or illustrate one or more theories, include a separate section presenting
relevant theoretical formulae and the techniques by which any experimental results are
predicted. When introducing equations, be sure to define all symbols used in them.

Design criteria

Include design and decision criteria in feasibility reports, recommendation

reports, proposals, and other documents that are concerned with the possible design
of a product or, in some cases, a future course of action.

Design criteria are the explicit goals that a project must achieve to be successful.
In recommendation and feasibility reports, especially, the design and decision
criteria determine the document's final recommendation for action. Managers use
these criteria as their basic tool in evaluating a project's potential for success and
how well it fits into the goals of the organization. Experts need explicit design and
decision criteria to evaluate recommended designs of devices and test procedures.

Design criteria can be divided into primary and secondary criteria. Primary criteria
are those that constitute a successful project; the project will be unsuccessful if it
does not meet these goals. Secondary criteria are those features that are highly
desirable but not essential. Separating primary and secondary criteria establishes a
clear hierarchy in design choices. Often, implementing one criterion makes the
implementation of another infeasible or costly, or a secondary criterion may be
sacrificed in favor of a primary criterion.

Make your design criteria short but as specific as possible. Avoid vague language.
List your primary criteria first; then list the secondary criteria. Often design criteria
are best displayed in bulleted lists, with short titles preceding the explanation. These
titles may then be used later in the document to refer to the specific criteria being
discussed. If you number your criteria, avoid referring to them later solely by
number, a practice that often confuses readers. Use tables to show and summarize
the relative effectiveness of different implementations in comparison with your
design criteria.
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Materials and apparatus

In documents that describe an experiment or other procedure, list all hardware and
software in sufficient detail for the reader to reproduce the process.

Describe equipment and software specific to the procedure. If appropriate, give the
model or version numbers of major items of equipment. In many cases, essential
information on materials and apparatus can be most effectively presented in a table.

In short documents, describe materials and apparatus as part of the procedures

section. If appropriate, mark the description with its own subheading. In longer
documents or in documents reporting studies where the materials were a crucial
element, put the description in a separate section with its own heading.

Make descriptions of apparatus in the body of your document relatively brief. Put
lengthy descriptions of materials and apparatus in one or more appendixes, referring
to these descriptions in the main text.

Procedure

Describe in detail experiments or other methods of collecting data. The purpose of

the procedure section is to allow a reader of the report to reproduce the experiment
or data collection process.

The procedure section should be written in narrative form with illustrations of all
test setups and procedures included within the text(see Integrating Graphics and
Text).

As in all narratives, organize the material to follow the actual sequence of events.
Separate each group of actions into one or more paragraphs and describe each
discrete action in one or more sentences.

List all materials and apparatus used in the procedures in sufficient detail that a
reader could reproduce the experiment.

Workplan

Include a work plan, sometimes called a project plan, as a separate section in all
lengthy proposals. Preliminary project plans are also sometimes appropriate
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in feasibility and recommendation reports. In addition, most progress reports refer

to all or part of previously existing project plans.

A project plan outlines in specific detail how a project will be conducted, who will
work on which part, and when and in what order each part will be accomplished. It
is similar to a procedure section but differs in that it describes future rather than past
actions. Most project plans include the following elements:

• A short description of the project's objective

• A list of personnel participating in the project
• A list of all equipment and facilities to be used in the project
• A breakdown of the project into specific tasks, with indications of which tasks
are dependent upon the completion of others.
• A schedule indicating when each task will be started and when it will be
completed and who will perform it; this information may be represented as an
annotated bar chart.
• A budget

Results

In the results section of a report, describe all appropriate information produced by

the research procedures. Simply present data and estimates of their accuracy. Save
the explanation and interpretation of these findings for the discussion section, which
usually follows the results section. In short documents, however, the results and
discussion sections may be combined into a single section.

Results sections make extensive use of graphs and figures to present data effectively.
Order information by its importance to your audience's purpose in reading the
document. State all significant findings in the text, referring to tables and graphs
displaying all significant data. If the study has produced a large amount of raw data,
do not present all of it in the results section. Instead, present only the information
most appropriate to your audience's purpose in reading the document, summarizing
other key information in graphs and figures. If appropriate, include your raw data in
an appendix, referring to them within your text.

Discussion

Explain in the discussion section of your document information presented in

the results section, commenting on significant data produced by the study. In writing
a discussion section, keep the following points in mind.
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• Identify significant patterns in the data and relationships between variables.

Offer tentative explanations for these patterns and relationships.
• Compare the actual data produced with any predictions or questions posed in
the introduction or theory section of the document.
• If any of the results differ from the expected results, offer possible
explanations for the discrepancies. Present the most probable explanations
first and the least probable last.
• Consider how well the data answer any questions posed in the
document's introduction. Do the results answer the questions completely? If
not, explain what questions still need to be addressed and give possible
explanations why the results may be inconclusive.
• Qualify the scope of your explanations, discussing in what cases your
explanations apply and in what cases they may not.
• Organize your material in order of importance to your reader's purpose in
using the document.

Conclusion

Include a conclusion as the final part of the body of your document. Because some
readers of documents, particularly managers, will sometimes not read the entire
document but, instead, focus on the conclusion, this part of the document should
summarize all essential information necessary for your audience's purpose. In your
conclusion:

• Relate your findings to the general problem and any specific objectives posed
in your introduction.
• Summarize clearly what the report does and does not demonstrate.
• Include specific recommendations for action or for further research.
Sometimes these recommendations will constitute a separate section of a
document.

Sample Short Conclusion: Biology

Recommendations

Include appropriate and specific recommendations as part of your conclusion or,

in feasibility and recommendation reports, as a separate section preceding the
conclusion.
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Many types of scientific and technical documents conclude by pointing to further

action. Research reports often recommend further studies to confirm tentative
explanations or to answer questions presented in the discussion section. Feasibility
and recommendation reports always have one or more specific recommendations as
the principal aim of the document.

Recommendations should always be specific and appropriate to the

document's audience. Separate each specific recommendation. Often authors present
recommendations in bulleted or numbered lists. Organize recommendations either
in the order of importance or in the logical order of development.

End matter

End matter consists of material outside the main body of the document that may
furnish useful references to the reader. Three of the most common types of end
matter are

References

Appendixes

Indexes

References

Include as part of the end matter a list of sources used in your report.

Scientific and technical documents include a list of outside sources used in a report.
The title of the section, its exact form, and selection criteria for materials differ from
discipline to discipline. For more information, see Citing Sources and Listing
References.

Appendixes

In one or more appendixes, include materials that are not essential parts of your main
text but that will provide useful reference information to readers seeking more detail.

The following list presents some typical material that is often included in an
appendix.

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Detailed explanations and elaborations too technical for the main text

Additional diagrams

Additional tables summarizing data

Long lists

Experimental protocols or survey questions

Selected computer code directly relevant to discussions in the main body

Guidelines for Appendixes

• Avoid using appendixes as dumping grounds for raw data that you will be
unable to incorporate in the body of the paper.
• If you have more than one appendix, use letters to label them (Appendix
A, Appendix B, and so forth).
• Give each appendix an appropriate title.
• Place one specific kind of information in each appendix.
• Begin each appendix on a new page.
• If appropriate, identify and summarize the contexts of an appendix in a short
summary paragraph.
• Refer to each appendix in the body of the document.

Index

Use well-structured indexes to make material in long documents accessible to

your audience.

Indexes are extremely useful tools for allowing a reader to retrieve all important
information. Construct an index that will be helpful for all your
audience's purposes in using the document and that will be appropriate for their level
of expertise.

Guidelines for Constructing an Index

• When writing a document, use features available in most word processors to

mark items that should be included in an index.
• Include every important subject, topic, subtopic, and proper name in the
index.
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• Most indexes consist of two levels of entries, a main heading, and a

subheading:

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Class6: citation and referencing

Why do you cite your documents?

It's important to cite sources you used in your research for several reasons:

• To show your reader you've done proper research by listing sources you used to get
your information
• To be a responsible scholar by giving credit to other researchers and acknowledging
their ideas
• To avoid plagiarism by quoting words and ideas used by other authors
• To allow your reader to track down the sources you used by citing them accurately in
your paper by way of footnotes, a bibliography or reference list

Citing a source means that you show, within the body of your text, that you took words,
ideas, figures, images, etc. from another place.
Citations are a short way to uniquely identify a published work (e.g., book, article, chapter,
web site). They are found in bibliographies and reference lists and are also collected in
article and book databases.
Citations consist of standard elements, and contain all the information necessary to identify
and track down publications, including:

• author name(s)
• titles of books, articles, and journals
• date of publication
• page numbers
• volume and issue numbers (for articles)

Citations may look different, depending on what is being cited and which style was used to
create them. Choose an appropriate style guide for your needs.

Here is an example of an article citation using four different citation styles. Notice the
common elements as mentioned above:

Author - R. Langer

Article Title - New Methods of Drug Delivery

Source Title - Science

Volume and issue - Vol 249, issue 4976

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Publication Date - 1990

Page numbers - 1527-1533

American Chemical Society (ACS) style:

Langer, R. New Methods of Drug Delivery. Science 1990, 249, 1527-1533.

IEEE Style:

R. Langer, "New Methods of Drug Delivery," Science, vol. 249, pp. 1527-1533, SEP 28,
1990.

American Psychological Association (APA) style:

Langer, R. (1990). New methods of drug delivery. Science,249(4976), 1527-1533.

Modern Language Association (MLA) style:

Langer, R. "New Methods of Drug Delivery." Science 249.4976(1990): 1527-33.

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