RE UNIT 1 and 2

1) Explain the term ethics from varying perspectives.

Ethics is the philosophical study of morality, focusing on what is right and wrong. It encompasses
various perspectives:

Philosophical Perspective:

 Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, systematizes, defends, and recommends concepts of
right and wrong behavior.

 Aristotle defined ethics as the proper course of action for humans, considering virtues like
honesty and fairness.

Social Perspective:

 Ethics in society establishes moral obligations towards others, ensuring justice, fairness, and
equality.

 Ethical norms guide professional conduct, including respect for individuals and collective
responsibility.

Scientific Perspective:

 Ethics in research ensures credibility and integrity by enforcing truthfulness, transparency,

and responsibility.

 Scientific ethics includes principles such as objectivity, honesty, and accountability in

conducting research.

Professional Perspective:

 Different fields adopt ethical guidelines, such as business ethics, medical ethics, and
engineering ethics, to uphold integrity.

 Professionals must follow ethical codes specific to their discipline to maintain public trust.

Example:

In biomedical research, ethics requires informed consent and protection of human subjects, as
outlined in the Nuremberg Code and Belmont Report.

2) Key Features of Scientific Research

Scientific research is characterized by specific principles that ensure credibility, reliability, and
validity. These include:

1. Universality and Objectivity:

o Research should be designed in a way that any competent researcher can replicate
the study and obtain the same findings.
 o It follows explicit rules and systematic procedures to eliminate biases.

2. Scientific Rigor:

o Research findings are accepted only if there is sufficient evidence supporting the
claims.

o Results should withstand repeated testing and scrutiny by the scientific community.

3. Generalisability of Findings:

o The research sample must be representative of a broader population, ensuring

applicability of results beyond the specific study.

4. Originality and Innovation:

o Research must contribute new knowledge or improvements to existing knowledge.

o Originality is assessed through unique methodologies, novel insights, or innovative

applications.

5. Ethical Considerations:

o Ethical principles such as honesty, respect for participants, and avoidance of harm
should be upheld throughout the research process.

Example:

A study on vaccine effectiveness should be objective, generalizable, and follow ethical standards
like informed consent and data accuracy.

3) Define the term research ethics with the help of examples.

Research ethics refers to the moral principles and guidelines that govern scientific inquiry, ensuring
responsible and fair practices.

Definition:

 It is a code of conduct that helps researchers uphold the integrity and standards of scientific
knowledge.

 Research ethics ensures that studies are conducted honestly, fairly, and without harm to
participants.

Key Ethical Principles in Research:

1. Informed Consent:

o Participants must be fully informed about the purpose, risks, and benefits before
agreeing to participate.

o Example: In medical trials, patients must sign consent forms detailing the risks
involved.

2. Honesty and Integrity:

 o Researchers must report findings truthfully without data manipulation or
fabrication.

o Example: A scientist altering results to favor a hypothesis violates ethical research

principles.

3. Confidentiality and Privacy:

o Participants' personal data must be protected and anonymized to prevent misuse.

o Example: Medical records should be stored securely to prevent unauthorized access.

4. Avoidance of Harm:

o Research should not cause physical, psychological, or social harm to participants.

o Example: A psychological study inducing extreme stress without proper debriefing is

unethical.

Conclusion:

Research ethics is essential to maintain trust, credibility, and validity in scientific work. Institutions
enforce ethical guidelines to prevent misconduct and protect subjects.

4) Ethical Considerations in the Research Process

Ethical concerns arise at different stages of research:

1. Conceptualization & Design:

o Ensure the study is scientifically valid and minimizes risks.

2. Participant Recruitment:

o Obtain informed consent and protect vulnerable groups.

3. Data Collection:

o Minimize harm and avoid deception.

4. Analysis & Reporting:

o Ensure accuracy and honesty in data interpretation.

5. Publication & Dissemination:

o Avoid plagiarism, authorship disputes, and duplicate publications.

6. Post-Publication:

o Ensure findings benefit the community and are not misused.

5) What is Unethical Research Conduct? Explain Various Unethical Practices.

Definition of Unethical Research Conduct:
Unethical research conduct refers to violations of ethical principles in research, leading to
dishonesty, harm to participants, or damage to scientific integrity. Unethical practices distort
scientific knowledge, mislead the public, and can have severe consequences on individuals and
society.

Common Unethical Research Practices:

1. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s ideas, words, or research findings without giving proper
credit. It can occur in various forms:

 Direct Plagiarism: Copying text word-for-word without citation.

 Self-Plagiarism: Republishing one’s own work as new without disclosure.

 Patchwriting: Slightly rewording someone else's work without citation.

Example:

If a researcher copies sections from a published paper and presents them as their own in a thesis, it
is plagiarism.

2. Fabrication and Falsification

 Fabrication: Inventing or making up data that does not exist.

 Falsification: Manipulating research data to fit a desired conclusion.

Example:

A scientist who creates fake survey responses or alters lab test results to match their hypothesis is
engaging in fabrication and falsification.

3. Deception

Deception occurs when researchers withhold information or mislead participants about the study’s
true purpose. While some deception may be acceptable in controlled psychological studies (if
justified), it must be minimized.

Example:

The Milgram Experiment (1961) involved participants believing they were administering electric
shocks to others, causing psychological distress due to deception.

4. Lack of Informed Consent

Informed consent is a fundamental ethical requirement where participants must be fully aware of
the risks, procedures, and objectives of a study before agreeing to participate. Unethical practices
include:

 Not informing participants of potential harm.

  Forcing or coercing individuals into participation.

Example:

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) involved African American men being denied treatment for
syphilis without their knowledge, violating informed consent.

5. Breach of Confidentiality

 Researchers must ensure that personal data collected during a study is kept confidential and
secure.

 Unethical practices include revealing participant identities or sharing sensitive data without
permission.

Example:

If a medical researcher publishes patient data without anonymization, it breaches confidentiality

and can lead to legal consequences.

6. Exploitation of Vulnerable Populations

Certain groups, such as children, prisoners, the elderly, and the mentally ill, require special ethical
protections in research.

 Conducting studies on vulnerable populations without proper safeguards is unethical.

 Such groups may be unable to provide informed consent or resist coercion.

Example:

Performing high-risk drug trials on prisoners without their full consent violates ethical research
principles.

7. Misrepresentation of Findings

 Publishing results that exaggerate or misinterpret data is unethical.

 This can mislead policymakers, doctors, and the public.

Example:

A pharmaceutical company hiding negative drug trial results while promoting only the positive
outcomes misleads doctors and patients.

Conclusion:

Unethical research practices undermine scientific credibility, public trust, and participant safety.
Ethical research follows guidelines such as the Nuremberg Code and Belmont Report to ensure
integrity and fairness.
6) Elaborate Various Principles of Research Ethics.
Introduction:

Research ethics ensures that scientific studies maintain integrity, respect participants, and
contribute positively to society. The fundamental principles of research ethics include:

1. Respect for Persons

 Researchers must respect the autonomy, dignity, and rights of participants.

 Individuals should have the freedom to choose whether to participate.

Example:

A researcher conducting clinical trials must obtain voluntary informed consent from participants.

2. Beneficence (Maximizing Benefits, Minimizing Harm)

 Researchers should design studies to benefit participants or society.

 Any potential risks should be minimized.

Example:

A medical trial must ensure that new drug testing does not cause unnecessary harm and follows
strict safety measures.

3. Justice (Fair Distribution of Risks and Benefits)

 No group should be exploited for research while another reaps the benefits.

 Participants should be selected fairly and treated without bias.

Example:

Using poor communities as research subjects without providing them access to the final treatment
is unethical.

4. Integrity and Honesty

 Researchers must report findings truthfully and transparently.

 Data fabrication, falsification, and selective reporting violate research integrity.

Example:

If a scientist manipulates lab results to show a drug is effective when it is not, it is a violation of
integrity.
5. Confidentiality and Privacy

 Personal data collected from participants must remain private.

 Researchers should store data securely and avoid unauthorized sharing.

Example:

A university study on mental health should anonymize responses before publishing results.

6. Responsibility Toward Society

 Research should contribute to scientific progress and societal welfare.

 Harmful research, such as studies that promote misinformation, is unethical.

Example:

A study claiming vaccines cause autism, without valid evidence, can spread fear and
misinformation.

Conclusion:

The core principles of respect, beneficence, justice, integrity, and responsibility guide ethical
research. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines such as those by the Belmont Report and
Declaration of Helsinki to ensure responsible scientific inquiry.

7) Deductive and Inductive Reasoning in Research

Definition of Reasoning in Research:

Scientific research relies on two main reasoning approaches: deductive and inductive reasoning.

1. Deductive Reasoning (Top-Down Approach)

 Deductive reasoning starts with a general theory or principle and applies it to specific cases.

 It follows a structured process: Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → Conclusion.

 Deductive reasoning is commonly used in experimental research.

Example:

1. Theory: All metals expand when heated.

2. Hypothesis: Iron is a metal.

3. Observation: Heated iron expands.

4. Conclusion: Iron follows the universal metal property.

Advantages:

 Logical and structured.

  Provides strong conclusions if premises are true.

Disadvantages:

 Does not generate new knowledge.

2. Inductive Reasoning (Bottom-Up Approach)

 Inductive reasoning begins with observations and develops a general theory.

 It follows a pattern: Observation → Pattern → Hypothesis → Theory.

 Inductive reasoning is useful for qualitative research and exploring new theories.

Example:

1. Observation: Many plants die without water.

2. Pattern: Every plant observed needs water to survive.

3. Hypothesis: Plants require water for growth.

4. Theory: Water is essential for all plant life.

Advantages:

 Helps discover new patterns and theories.

 Useful for exploring new scientific fields.

Disadvantages:

 Findings are not always universally applicable.

Conclusion:

Both deductive and inductive reasoning play crucial roles in research. Deductive reasoning tests
existing theories, while inductive reasoning generates new theories. Researchers often use a
combination of both approaches to ensure robust scientific conclusions.

8) What are the Six Norms of Scientific Research?

Scientific research must adhere to ethical and methodological standards to ensure its validity and
reliability. The six key norms of scientific research, as outlined in ethical research guidelines, are:

1. Valid Research Design

 The study must follow an appropriate methodological framework.

 Research should be planned based on existing theories, prior findings, and reliable
methods.

 A poorly designed study can lead to misleading conclusions.

Example:
A clinical trial testing a new drug should follow a controlled study design with proper randomization
to eliminate bias.

2. Competence of the Researcher

 The researcher must possess adequate skills, knowledge, and training in the subject matter.

 Institutions should ensure that researchers are qualified and capable of conducting ethical
and rigorous research.

Example:

A genetics study should be conducted by trained biologists, not individuals with no expertise in
molecular biology.

3. Identification of Consequences

 Researchers must assess and balance the risks and benefits of their study.

 Ethical review boards (IRBs) often evaluate whether potential risks are justified by expected
benefits.

Example:

A study involving psychological stress must ensure that participants do not suffer long-term harm
and should provide counseling if necessary.

4. Selection of Research Subjects

 Participants should be selected fairly and without bias.

 Researchers should ensure inclusivity and diversity in sampling to avoid discrimination.

Example:

Medical trials should include both men and women rather than focusing only on one gender,
ensuring results are applicable to the broader population.

5. Voluntary Informed Consent

 Researchers must obtain explicit, voluntary, and well-informed consent from participants.

 Participants should have the right to withdraw from the study at any time.

Example:

A researcher conducting an experimental cancer treatment study must explain the risks, side
effects, and expected outcomes to patients before obtaining their consent.
6. Compensation for Injury

 If participants suffer any harm due to the research, they should be compensated.

 Federal laws require that subjects be informed about compensation policies before
participation.

Example:

If a vaccine trial results in unexpected side effects, the pharmaceutical company must cover medical
expenses for affected participants.

Conclusion:

These six norms—valid design, researcher competence, risk assessment, fair subject selection,
informed consent, and compensation—help ensure ethical, reliable, and responsible research.

9) Why and to Whom Should Researchers Owe the Truth?

Why Do Researchers Owe the Truth?

The primary responsibility of researchers is to uphold scientific integrity by reporting honest,

accurate, and unbiased findings. Misrepresentation can lead to misinformation, public distrust, and
harm.

To Whom Do Researchers Owe the Truth?

1. The Public

 Many research projects are funded by taxpayers, meaning researchers owe transparency
and accountability to the public.

 Unethical practices damage public trust in science.

Example:

A fraudulent medical study falsely claiming a link between vaccines and autism misled the public,
leading to vaccine hesitancy.

2. Research Participants

 Ethical research demands honesty in explaining risks, benefits, and research goals.

 Misleading participants violates their rights and autonomy.

Example:

Informed consent in clinical trials ensures participants fully understand the treatment they are
receiving.

3. Fellow Researchers and Scientific Community

  False research findings waste other researchers' time and resources.

 Scientists must ensure that their published work is reproducible and credible.

Example:

If a study on renewable energy efficiency reports exaggerated success rates, it could mislead further
research investments.

4. Funding Institutions

 Many researchers receive funding from government agencies, universities, or private

organizations.

 Misreporting findings to satisfy funders violates professional integrity.

Example:

A pharmaceutical company manipulating drug trial data to gain regulatory approval could face legal
consequences.

5. Journals and Publishers

 Researchers must disclose conflicts of interest, avoid plagiarism, and ensure originality in
their publications.

Example:

A scientist submitting the same paper to multiple journals without disclosure is engaging in
redundant publication, which is unethical.

Conclusion:

Researchers have a moral and professional duty to uphold honesty and transparency for the benefit
of society, participants, peers, and funding organizations. Violating this duty can lead to severe
consequences such as retraction of studies, legal action, and loss of credibility.

10) Explain the Various Collaboration Issues Leading to Questionable

Practices.
Introduction:

Collaboration in research allows experts from different fields to work together; however, it also
creates ethical and practical challenges. Poor collaboration practices can lead to questionable
research integrity.

1. Authorship Disputes
  Disagreements over who should be credited as an author can lead to unethical authorship
practices.

 Common unethical authorship issues:

o Gift Authorship: Adding individuals who did not contribute.

o Ghost Authorship: Excluding key contributors.

Example:

A senior professor demanding authorship on a paper despite contributing nothing is unethical.

2. Intellectual Property Theft

 One researcher might steal ideas, methodologies, or unpublished data from another
without credit.

Example:

If a reviewer rejects a research paper but later publishes the same idea as their own, it is
intellectual property theft.

3. Data Mismanagement

 Poor collaboration can lead to incorrect data recording, loss of critical information, or
inconsistent results.

 Proper data sharing agreements should be established in multi-author projects.

Example:

A lab technician failing to properly record experimental procedures can make it impossible to verify
results later.

4. Conflict of Interest in Multi-Disciplinary Research

 In large collaborations, researchers may have conflicting professional or financial interests.

Example:

A corporate-sponsored research team might feel pressured to report favorable results even if data
suggests otherwise.

5. Unequal Work Distribution

 In some cases, junior researchers do most of the work, while senior researchers take credit.

Example:
A PhD student conducting extensive research while the supervising professor takes sole credit is a
case of unethical collaboration.

6. Disputes Over Data Ownership and Access

11) Explain the Meaning of Publication Ethics.

Introduction:

Publication ethics refers to the standards and guidelines that ensure integrity, transparency, and
fairness in academic publishing. Ethical publication practices prevent misconduct such as plagiarism,
duplicate publication, and authorship disputes.

Key Aspects of Publication Ethics:

1. Honesty and Accuracy in Reporting

Researchers must report accurate, unbiased, and reproducible findings.

Any fabrication, falsification, or manipulation of data is a serious violation.

Example:

A researcher altering experimental results to fit a hypothesis is engaging in unethical behavior.

2. Plagiarism Prevention

Authors must give proper credit to sources and avoid copying ideas or text without citation.

Self-plagiarism (reusing one’s previously published work without citation) is also unethical.

Example:

Submitting the same research paper to multiple journals without informing the editors is a breach of
publication ethics.

3. Fair Authorship and Credit Allocation

All listed authors should have made a significant contribution to the study.

Researchers should avoid gift authorship (including names without contribution) and ghost
authorship (excluding key contributors).

Example:

A professor demanding authorship on a paper without contributing to research violates ethical

guidelines.
4. Conflict of Interest Disclosure

Authors, editors, and reviewers must disclose any financial, professional, or personal interests that
may influence objectivity.

Example:

A drug company sponsoring research on its own product must disclose potential bias in reporting
results.

5. Fair and Transparent Peer Review Process

Peer reviewers must evaluate submissions objectively and maintain confidentiality.

Editors must ensure fair selection of reviewers and avoid bias.

Example:

If a reviewer rejects a competitor’s paper to favor their own research, it violates ethical standards.

6. Avoidance of Duplicate and Redundant Publication

Researchers should not submit the same study to multiple journals or publish overlapping data.

Example:

Publishing the same dataset in multiple papers without proper citation is considered redundant
publication.

Conclusion:

Publication ethics ensures that scientific knowledge remains credible, unbiased, and accessible.
Organizations like COPE (Committee on Publication Ethics) provide guidelines to prevent misconduct
and maintain high ethical standards.

12) Explain Fabrication and Falsification of Data.

Introduction:

Fabrication and falsification are two major forms of research misconduct that involve manipulating
data to mislead the scientific community.

1. Fabrication (Making Up Data)

Fabrication occurs when researchers create or invent data that was never actually collected.

Example:
A scientist claiming to have conducted a large-scale human trial without actually doing the
experiment is fabricating data.

2. Falsification (Manipulating Existing Data)

Falsification happens when researchers modify or manipulate experimental data to fit a desired
outcome. This includes:

 Altering measurements

 Deleting or excluding unfavorable results

 Changing values in datasets

Example:

A medical researcher modifying patient test results to show a drug is more effective than it actually is
commits falsification.

3. Consequences of Fabrication and Falsification

 Retraction of publications

 Loss of funding and professional credibility

 Legal action and employment termination

Example:

A famous case is Dr. Hwang Woo-Suk, a South Korean scientist who fabricated stem cell research
data, leading to global controversy and career ruin.

Conclusion:

Fabrication and falsification compromise scientific integrity and can have severe real-world
consequences, such as misleading medical treatments. Ethical research should always be based on
honest and verifiable data.

13) What is Plagiarism? Explain Its Various Types.

Definition:

Plagiarism is using another person’s work, ideas, or text without giving proper credit. It is one of
the most serious ethical violations in research.

Types of Plagiarism:

1. Direct Plagiarism
  Copying someone else’s work word-for-word without citation.

Example:

A student copying entire paragraphs from a research paper and submitting them as their own.

2. Self-Plagiarism

 Reusing one’s previously published work without proper citation or disclosure.

Example:

A scientist publishing the same study in multiple journals without acknowledgment.

3. Patchwork (Mosaic) Plagiarism

 Combining content from multiple sources without citation or proper rewording.

Example:

A researcher taking sentences from various papers and merging them into one article without
citations.

4. Paraphrasing Plagiarism

 Slightly changing words or sentence structure without acknowledging the source.

Example:

Rewriting someone’s research findings in different words but failing to cite them.

5. Accidental Plagiarism

 Forgetting to cite sources properly or using incorrect citation formats.

Example:

A student unintentionally forgetting to include a reference for a quoted section in a thesis.

Conclusion:

Plagiarism violates academic integrity and can lead to severe penalties, including paper retraction,
loss of credibility, and legal action. Researchers must always credit original sources to maintain
ethical standards.

14) Define With Example Duplicate and Redundant Publication.

Definition:
  Duplicate publication occurs when the same research is submitted or published in multiple
journals without acknowledgment.

 Redundant publication involves publishing overlapping or minor variations of the same

study to increase publication count.

Examples:

1. Duplicate Publication Example:

 A researcher submits the same article to two different journals to increase visibility.

2. Redundant Publication Example:

 Publishing a study with slightly modified datasets across different journals without
disclosing the prior publication.

Case Study:

A scientist who publishes the same cancer research findings in two journals without
acknowledgment is guilty of duplicate publication.

Consequences:

 Retraction of papers

 Reputational damage

 Journals banning the author from future submissions

Conclusion:

Researchers should cite their previous work and avoid duplicate or redundant publications to
maintain credibility.

15) What Do You Mean by Salami Slicing?

Definition:

Salami slicing refers to splitting a single research study into multiple smaller papers to artificially
increase the number of publications.

Why is Salami Slicing Unethical?

 It misleads the scientific community by making minor studies appear as separate

discoveries.

 It wastes journal space and resources.

 It distorts meta-analyses by making one study appear multiple times.

Example:

A researcher conducts a five-year study on heart disease and instead of publishing one
comprehensive paper, splits it into five separate papers, each covering only one aspect of the
study.

Consequences:

 Rejection of papers by journals

 Loss of credibility

 Violation of publication ethics

Conclusion:

Salami slicing is considered a form of redundant publication and should be avoided. Researchers
should publish comprehensive, well-integrated studies rather than artificially splitting data.

 Research teams should clarify who has access to raw data and who can publish results.

Example:

A postdoctoral researcher leaving a lab and taking confidential unpublished data without
permission is unethical.

Conclusion:

Collaboration should be based on trust, transparency, and mutual respect. Research teams must
clearly define authorship, intellectual property rights, and responsibilities before starting a project
to prevent disputes.

16) What Are the Consequences of Research Misconduct?

Introduction:

Research misconduct—such as plagiarism, falsification, and fabrication—has severe consequences

for individuals, institutions, and society. It undermines the credibility of scientific research, leads to
misinformation, and can cause real-world harm.

1. Consequences for Researchers

 Retraction of Published Work: Journals may withdraw published studies due to ethical
violations.
  Loss of Professional Reputation: Researchers lose credibility, making it difficult to secure
funding or future collaborations.

 Legal Penalties: Some misconduct cases result in lawsuits or criminal charges.

Example:

Dr. Andrew Wakefield’s fraudulent study linking vaccines to autism was retracted, leading to a
medical license ban and public backlash.

2. Consequences for the Scientific Community

 Wasted Resources: Funding, time, and effort spent on fraudulent research are lost.

 Hindrance to Scientific Progress: Misinformation can mislead future research and delay
important discoveries.

 Distorted Meta-Analyses: If fraudulent studies are included in systematic reviews, it skews

overall scientific conclusions.

Example:

If falsified data suggests a new drug is effective, other scientists may waste years trying to replicate
false findings.

3. Consequences for Institutions

 Universities and research centers face reputational damage.

 Loss of research grants and funding from agencies.

 Legal consequences if found complicit in covering up misconduct.

Example:

If a university is involved in data manipulation scandals, it may lose government research funding
and suffer public distrust.

4. Consequences for Society

 Public Harm: Misinformation in health research can lead to unsafe treatments.

 Loss of Public Trust in Science: Scandals reduce faith in research institutions and scientific
discoveries.

 Economic Losses: Fraudulent studies can mislead investors, leading to financial losses.

Example:

Fake cancer cure studies can mislead desperate patients into wasting money on ineffective
treatments.
Conclusion:

The consequences of research misconduct are severe and far-reaching, affecting scientists,
institutions, and society. Ethical research is crucial to maintain public trust, scientific progress, and
integrity.

17) State the Reasons for Misconduct and Unethical Behaviour.

Introduction:

Research misconduct often stems from pressures, ignorance, or intentional fraud. Understanding
the causes can help prevent unethical practices.

1. Pressure to Publish ("Publish or Perish" Culture)

 Researchers face extreme pressure to publish frequently for career advancement.

 Universities and funding bodies value quantity over quality, leading to cutting ethical
corners.

Example:

A researcher fabricates data to quickly publish multiple papers and secure promotions.

2. Financial & Career Incentives

 Winning research grants, promotions, or industry partnerships often depends on producing

"positive" results.

 Some researchers falsify results to please corporate sponsors.

Example:

A drug company suppressing negative trial data to ensure its medicine gets FDA approval.

3. Lack of Awareness of Ethical Standards

 Many young researchers and students are unaware of proper citation rules, leading to
accidental plagiarism.

Example:

A student fails to cite sources properly in their thesis due to ignorance of plagiarism guidelines.

4. Competitive & Multidisciplinary Research

  Collaborations across different fields lead to authorship disputes and intellectual property
theft.

Example:

A senior scientist takes credit for a junior researcher's unpublished work.

5. Weak Institutional Oversight

 Some institutions lack strict policies or ignore misconduct for financial and reputational
reasons.

Example:

A university covering up plagiarism in a high-profile faculty member’s work to protect its reputation.

Conclusion:

The main causes of research misconduct include pressure to publish, financial incentives, lack of
ethics training, weak oversight, and competitive research environments. Addressing these issues
can help prevent unethical behaviour.

18) Explain in Detail the Seven Deadly Sins in Research Publication.

The Seven Deadly Sins in Research Publication refer to common unethical practices that violate
publication ethics.

1. Carelessness

 Failing to properly review literature, check data accuracy, or cite sources correctly.

Example:

A researcher misquotes previous studies, leading to misleading conclusions.

2. Redundant Publication

 Submitting the same study to multiple journals or publishing slightly modified versions of
previous work.

Example:

A scientist splitting one study into multiple minor papers to increase their publication count.

3. Unfair Authorship

 Adding names of individuals who did not contribute (gift authorship).

  Excluding key contributors (ghost authorship).

Example:

A professor demands co-authorship despite not contributing to the research.

4. Undeclared Conflict of Interest

 Failing to disclose financial, professional, or personal biases.

Example:

A researcher receiving funding from a tobacco company but not disclosing it while publishing studies
downplaying smoking risks.

5. Human/Animal Subject Violations

 Conducting research without ethical approval or causing unnecessary harm to participants.

Example:

Performing painful experiments on animals without following ethical guidelines.

6. Plagiarism

 Copying others' work without proper citation.

Example:

Submitting a paper with copied content from previous studies without attribution.

7. Fraud (Fabrication & Falsification)

 Making up or manipulating research data.

Example:

A scientist modifying clinical trial results to make a drug appear more effective.

Conclusion:

These seven unethical practices undermine scientific integrity. Ethical publishing requires honesty,
transparency, and adherence to best practices.

19) What Are the Issues Related to Citations?

Introduction:
Citations are critical for crediting sources, avoiding plagiarism, and supporting research arguments.
However, citation practices are often misused.

1. Citation Bias

 Selectively citing studies that support a specific conclusion while ignoring contradictory
evidence.

Example:

A researcher cites only positive results of a drug trial while ignoring studies that show side effects.

2. Self-Citation & Citation Stacking

 Excessively citing one’s own previous work to increase impact scores.

Example:

An author includes unnecessary self-citations in every paper to boost their citation count.

3. Misattribution & Inaccurate Citations

 Citing sources incorrectly or misrepresenting the original study's findings.

Example:

A researcher misquotes a study’s results to fit their argument.

4. Excessive or Irrelevant Citations

 Including too many citations to impress reviewers or boost journal rankings.

Example:

A paper on biology citing unrelated physics papers just to increase references.

Conclusion:

Proper citation practices ensure transparency, credibility, and academic integrity. Researchers must
cite ethically and avoid citation manipulation.

20) Write a Detailed Note on Authorship Disputes and Dilemmas.

Introduction:

Authorship disputes are one of the most common ethical issues in research. Disagreements occur
when contributors disagree on credit allocation, inclusion, or exclusion of authors. Clear authorship
guidelines can prevent these disputes.
1. Criteria for Authorship (ICMJE Guidelines)

The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) states that an author must:

1. Substantially contribute to the research (concept, design, execution, or interpretation).

2. Draft or critically revise the manuscript.

3. Approve the final version before submission.

4. Be accountable for the work’s accuracy and integrity.

2. Common Authorship Issues and Dilemmas

a) Gift Authorship (Honorary Authorship)

 Adding individuals who did not contribute to the study.

 Often done to gain favors or because of seniority pressures.

Example:

A professor demands co-authorship without participating in research just because they head the
department.

b) Ghost Authorship

 Excluding real contributors, usually junior researchers, technicians, or statisticians.

Example:

A research assistant who analyzed data is left out of the author list, violating ethical authorship
standards.

c) Pressured Authorship

 A senior researcher forces their name onto a paper despite minimal contribution.

Example:

A supervisor pressures a PhD student to add their name as first author, even though the student did
most of the work.

d) Disputes Over Authorship Order

 Who should be the first or last author?

 First author = major contribution; Last author = supervising or senior researcher.

Example:

Two researchers disagree over who should be listed first, leading to conflict.
3. How to Prevent Authorship Disputes?

 Discuss authorship roles early in the project.

 Follow ICMJE criteria strictly.

 Use written authorship agreements.

 Resolve conflicts with mediation (journal editors or institutions).

Conclusion:

Authorship disputes can damage careers and research integrity. Clear guidelines and transparent
communication help prevent misunderstandings and ensure fair credit allocation.

21) Write a Detailed Account on Violation of Human and Animal Subjects.

Introduction:

Research involving humans and animals must follow strict ethical guidelines to prevent harm.
Violations can result in legal consequences, public backlash, and unethical scientific practices.

Violations of Human Subject Research

1. Lack of Informed Consent

 Participants must be fully informed about the study’s risks and benefits before
participating.

 Research without consent violates human rights.

Example:

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) withheld treatment from Black men without their
knowledge, violating informed consent and ethics.

2. Physical or Psychological Harm

 Experiments must minimize distress and harm.

 Some studies cause unnecessary pain, stress, or trauma.

Example:

The Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) exposed participants to psychological distress, violating
ethical research guidelines.

3. Deception Without Debriefing

  Some research misleads participants about the study’s true purpose.

 Deception must be justified and participants should be debriefed afterward.

Example:

The Milgram Obedience Experiment (1961) deceived participants into believing they were
administering real electric shocks.

4. Exploitation of Vulnerable Populations

 Children, prisoners, disabled individuals, and economically disadvantaged people must be

given special ethical considerations.

 Researchers must ensure voluntary participation and protect their rights.

Example:

Testing untested drugs on poor communities without proper consent is unethical.

5. Breach of Privacy and Confidentiality

 Personal data should be kept anonymous and secure.

 Unethical research exposes personal information without consent.

Example:

Publishing patients' medical records without anonymization is a violation of privacy.

Violations of Animal Research Ethics

1. Unjustified Animal Experimentation

 Animals should only be used when absolutely necessary.

 Researchers must apply the 3Rs principle:

o Replacement (use alternatives instead of animals).

o Reduction (use the smallest number of animals possible).

o Refinement (minimize suffering).

Example:

Testing cosmetic products on animals when alternative methods exist is unethical.

2. Pain and Suffering Without Justification

 Research must minimize animal pain using proper anesthesia and humane treatment.

Example:
Experimenting on live animals without pain relief violates ethical guidelines.

3. Poor Living Conditions and Care

 Animals must be housed in clean, comfortable, and humane conditions.

 Neglecting proper care violates animal welfare laws.

Example:

A laboratory keeping animals in overcrowded, unsanitary cages is unethical.

4. Killing Animals Unnecessarily

 If euthanasia is required, it should be done humanely.

 Some researchers dispose of animals in cruel ways after experiments.

Example:

Drowning test subjects instead of euthanizing them humanely violates research ethics.

Guidelines for Ethical Human and Animal Research