Sociology CSS (Chapter 3)

Society: Meaning and Characteristics

Community: Meaning and Characteristics
Individual and Society, Relationship between Individual and Society,
Two main theories regarding the relationship of man and society
1. The Social Contact Theory and
2. The Organismic Theory.
Social and Cultural evolution of Society (Hunting and Gathering Society, Herding and Advance
Herding Society, Horticultural Society, Agrarian Society, Industrial Society, Post modern Society).

Society: Meaning and Characteristics

Introduction:
The central concept in the study of sociology is society. A society is any group of people who have lived and worked
together long enough to get themselves organized and to think of themselves as a social unit with well defined limits
(Linton). A society is that group within which men share a total common life (Bertrand) or a system of usage and
procedures, of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of contests, of human behavior, and of
liberties (Maciver and Page). Generally, a society is an aggregate of people living in a limited geographical boundary
having a common way of living.
Definitions:
1. “A relatively independent, self perpetuating, human group which occupies a territory and, shares a culture, and
has most of its associations within this group” (Horton and Hunt)
2. “Society refers to people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture.” (John J Macionis)
3. “Society is a large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside
it and participate in a common culture” (R.T. Schaefer)
Meanings:
The term “Society” has been derived from Latin word “Socious” that means ‘association or companionship’ thus society
means a larger group of individuals, who are associates with each other
Origin and Usage:
The term society emerged in the 15th century and is derived from French “Societe.” The French word, in turn, had its
origin in the Latin Societas, friendly associations with others,” from “Socius” meaning “Companion, Associate, Comrade,
or Business Partner.” Essential in the meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or interest, a
common objective or common characteristics, often a common culture. The word society may also refer to an organized
voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes.
Characteristics of Society:
A comprehensive understanding of society requires a thorough analysis of its characteristics. But the term Society could
be understood both from a narrower and broader sense. In a narrower sense, society refers to a group of people but in
broader sense, it refers to the whole human society. However society has the following characteristics:
1. Population: A society must have a population. Without a group of people, no society could be formed. Society
refers not to a group of people but a system of social relationships. But for the establishment of social
relationships, a group of people is necessary. This population is a self-perpetuating individual who reproduces it
through some sort of mating relationship.
2. Likeness: likeness is the most important characteristic of society. Robert Morrison Maclver opines that society
means likeness. Without a sense of likeness, there could be no mutual recognition of belonging together and
therefore no society. This sense of likeness was found in early society on kinship in modern societies, the
conditions of social likeness have broadened out into the principles of nationality. Societies consist of like bodied
and like-minded individuals. Friendship intimacy and association of any kind would be impossible without
likeness. It also helps in understandings of one by the other. Franklin Henry Giddings opines that society rests
on the ‘Conscious of Kind.’
3. Differences: Along with likeness differences are another important characteristic of society. Maclver opines that
primary likeness and secondary differences creates the greatest of all institutions. Differences are
complementary to social relationships. If people will be alike in all respect society cannot be formed and there
would be little reciprocity and relationships become limited. Family as the first society based on biological
 differences and differences in aptitude, interest and capacity. Through differences are necessary for social
differences by themselves do not create society.
4. Interdependence: Interdependence is another important characteristic of society. This fact of interdependence
is visible in every aspect of present-day society. Man is a social animal and is dependent on others. The survivals
of well-being of each member are very much dependent on this interdependence. No individual is self-sufficient.
He has to depend on others for food, shelter and security and the fulfillment of many of his needs and
necessities. With the advancement of society, this degree of interdependence increases manifold. Family is the
first society based on biological interdependence of the sexes. Not only individuals are interdependent but also
groups, communities and societies.
5. Cooperation and conflict: Both cooperation and conflict are two other important characteristics of society.
Maclver once remarked that “Society is cooperation crossed by conflict”

Community: Meaning and Characteristics

Introduction:
Man cannot live in isolation. He cannot live alone. He keeps contact with his fellow beings for his survival. It is not
possible for him to keep contact with all the people or to belong as a member of all the groups existing in the world. He
establishes contact with a few people who live in close proximity or presence to him in a particular area or locality. It is
quite natural for people living in a particular locality for a longer period of time to develop a sort of likeness or similarity
among themselves. They develop common ideas, common customs, common feelings, common traditions etc. They also
develop a sense of belonging together or a sense of we-feeling. This kind of common social living in a specific locality
gives rise to the community. The examples of community include a village, a tribe, a city or town. For example in a village
community, all the villagers lend each other hand in the event of need in agriculture and in other occupations. They take
part in all important occasions which occur in a neighbor’s home. They are present when marriages, deaths, births take
place in any family. They celebrate the festivals together, worship common deities and jointly face all calamities. In this
way the sense of belongingness in generated among the villagers which creates village community.
Meaning of Community:
The word community has been derived from two words of Latin namely ‘com’ and ‘munis.’ In English ‘com’ means
together and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus, community means to serve together.
It means, the community is an organization of human beings framed for the purpose of serving together. Community is a
people living within a geographical area in common inter-dependence. It exists within the society. It is bound by the
territorial units. It is a specific group while society is abstract. Community living is natural to man. He is born in it and
grows in the community ways. It is his small world. Men, we have seen began with group life. Over the time, they
occupied a habitat and while in permanent occupation of it; they developed likeness, common habits, folkways and
mores, interdependence and acquired a name.
They developed amongst themselves a sense of togetherness and an attachment to their habitat. A community thus has
a habitat, strong community sense, and a manner of acting in an agreed and organized manner.
Definitions:
There are various definitions of community.
1. Osborne and Neumeyer write, “Community is a group of people living in a contiguous geographic area, having
common centres of interests and activities, and functioning together in the chief concerns of life.”
2. According to Kingsley Davis, “Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social
life.”
3. As Sutherland points out, “It is a local area over which people are using the same language, conforming to same
mores, feeling more or less the same sentiments and acting upon the same attitudes.”
4. Maclver defines community as “an area of social living, marked by some degree of social coherence.
5. For Bogardus it is a social group with some degree of “we feeling” and “living in a given area.
6. Mannheim describes community as “any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a way
that they do not share this or that particular interest only but a whole set of interest.

Basic Elements of Community:

According to Maclver and Page, there are two main bases or essential elements on the basis of which community is
formed.
1. Locality: Locality implies a particular or territorial area unless a group of people live in a particular locality; they
cannot establish relations and generate the we-feeling among themselves. Living together facilities people to
develop social contacts, give protection, safety and security. Locality continues to be a basic factor of community
life. Maclver says, though due to the extending facilities of communication in the modern world the territorial
bond has been broken, yet “the basic character of locality as a social classifier has never been transcended.
2. Community Sentiment: Community can be formed on the basis of community sentiment. It is extremely
essential. It implies ‘a feeling of belonging together.’ It is a ‘we-feeling’ among the members of a community.
People living in a community lead a common life, speak the same language, conform to the same mores, feel
almost the same sentiment and therefore, they develop a feeling of unity among themselves.
In other words, it can be said that community feeling has the four important aspects such as we-feeling,
interdependence, participation and community control. The community sentiments are developed by we-feeling. The
members of community develop we-feeling by their mutual interdependence. They contribute to the progress of the
community by participating in its activities. Community controls the behaviour of its members. The obedience to
community rules brings uniformity among the members.
Other Elements of Community:
Some other elements of community are as follows:
1. Group of people: Fundamentally, a community consists of a group of people. A solitary individual cannot form a
community when a group of people share the basic conditions a common life, they form community.
2. Naturality: A community is not deliberately or purposively created. It is a spontaneous or natural growth. An
individual is born in a community. It is my virtue of community that he develops.
3. Permanence: A community is generally not temporary or short-lived like a crowd or a revolutionary mob. It is a
permanent organization or durable social group. This durability is evident from the age-old communities existing in
modern times. A community continues as long as members are there.
4. Likeness: In a community there is a likeness or similarity in language, custom, mores, traditions etc. among the
members. So A. W. Green has rightly said, “A community is a cluster of people living within narrow territorial
radius who share a common way of life.”
5. A Particular Name: Every community is always known with a particular name, their immediate bases of origin give
such community a particular name. For example based on the linguistic condition people living in Orissa are called
Oriyas; living in Kashmiri culture are called Kashmiris.
6. Spontaneity: Every community grows itself spontaneously. A community is not deliberately or purposively created.
A kind of natural force acts behind the origin and development of communities. Various factors like customs,
conventions, and religious beliefs bind the individuals together.
7. Common Life: Some sociologists like Elwood says that the life of the people in a community is near about the same.
There is no epochal difference between the way of life of the individuals. Their eating pattern, dressing style,
language etc. are found to be similar. Due to their inhabitation on a particular geographical area, they develop a
kind of emotional and cultural uniformity. Community is never formed with a particular aim. But they are the
outcome of social uniformity among the individuals.
8. Common Interests: In community, all the members have common and collective interests. People live in community
and work together to fulfill these interests. Thus, Newmeyer says, community is a group of people living in a
delimited geographic area, having common interests and activities and functioning together in their concern of life.

Characteristics of Community:
1. Shared values and beliefs: Members of a community share common values and beliefs, which guide their
behavior and decision-making. These values may be rooted in religious, cultural, or social traditions and are
often passed down from generation to generation.
2. Interconnectedness: Members of a community are connected to each other through social, economic, and
political ties. They rely on each other for support and mutual aid and work together to achieve common goals.
3. Sense of identity and belonging: A community provides its members with a sense of belonging and identity.
Members identify with the community and feel a sense of pride in being a part of it.
4. Shared language and communication: Members of a community often share a common language and means of
communication, which allows them to interact and collaborate effectively.
5. Geographic proximity: Communities are often defined by their physical location, such as a neighborhood, town,
or city. Members may share a sense of attachment to the physical space and environment of the community.
6. Cultural diversity: A community may be composed of individuals from different cultural backgrounds, providing
a rich and diverse range of perspectives and experiences.
7. Shared history and traditions: Communities often have a shared history and set of traditions that are passed
down from generation to generation. These traditions may include cultural events, festivals, and other
celebrations that bring members together.
8. Collective decision-making: Communities often make decisions through a collective process, with members
working together to reach a consensus. This may involve formal decision-making structures, such as a governing
body, or informal processes such as community meetings.
9. Shared resources: Members of a community often share resources such as land, water, and other natural
resources, as well as community facilities such as schools, hospitals, and parks.
10. Social support: A community provides its members with social support, including emotional and practical
assistance during times of need. This support may come from family, friends, or other members of the
community.

Types of Community:
Communities can be categorized in different ways based on their characteristics, such as their size, purpose, geography,
and level of interaction. In this response, we will discuss some common types of communities and their characteristics.
I. Rural Communities:
Rural communities are geographic communities that are characterized by a low population density and a predominantly
agricultural economy. These communities are often located outside of urban areas and are typically composed of
smaller towns and villages. Here are some of the key characteristics of rural communities:
 1. Low Population Density: Rural communities are characterized by a low population density, with fewer than
2,500 residents in most cases. This is due to the fact that rural areas have a lower availability of employment
opportunities, resulting in fewer people living in these areas.
2. Agricultural Economy: Rural communities rely heavily on agriculture and related industries for their economic
well-being. Farming, ranching, and forestry are some of the primary industries in rural communities. The
agricultural economy is often a major part of the community's identity and way of life.
3. Close-Knit Community: Rural communities are often characterized by a strong sense of community and social
cohesion. Residents know each other well, and they often have strong bonds and a shared sense of identity. This
is often due to the fact that the population is smaller, which allows residents to build closer relationships with
their neighbors.
4. Traditional Values and Culture: Rural communities often have strong ties to traditional values and culture.
Residents may be more likely to participate in traditional activities such as hunting, fishing, and agriculture.
These activities are often passed down through generations and help to preserve the community's culture and
way of life.
5. Natural Environment: Rural communities are often located in areas with significant natural resources, such as
forests, lakes, and rivers. These natural resources provide opportunities for outdoor recreation and tourism. The
natural environment is often an integral part of rural communities, and residents may have a deep connection to
the land and its natural resources.
6. Limited Access to Services: Rural communities often have limited access to essential services, such as
healthcare, education, and transportation. This can create challenges for residents, particularly those who are
elderly, disabled, or living in poverty. Due to the distance between rural communities and urban areas, it can be
difficult for residents to access these services.
7. Strong Work Ethic: Rural communities are often characterized by a strong work ethic. This is due in part to the
fact that many residents work in agriculture or related industries, which require a significant amount of hard
work and dedication. Residents may also take pride in their work and in contributing to their community's
economy.
8. Self-Sufficiency: Rural communities often have a high degree of self-sufficiency. Residents may grow their own
food, make their own clothes, and build their own homes. This self-sufficiency is often due to the fact that rural
communities are located far from urban areas and may have limited access to resources.
9. Sense of Community Pride: Rural communities often have a strong sense of community pride. Residents may
take pride in their community's traditions, history, and culture. This sense of community pride can help to bring
residents together and foster a strong sense of community.
10. Family-Centered: Rural communities are often family-centered. Families may have deep roots in the
community and may be involved in many aspects of community life. This can include volunteering for
community events, participating in local government, and contributing to the local economy.
11. Dependence on Natural Resources: Rural communities often depend heavily on natural resources for their
livelihood. These resources may include land, water, and wildlife. Residents may have a deep respect for these
resources and may work to protect them for future generations.
12. Lower Cost of Living: Rural communities often have a lower cost of living compared to urban areas. This can
make it easier for residents to afford housing, food, and other essentials. However, it can also make it more
difficult for rural communities to attract businesses and industry.
13. Strong Sense of Place: Rural communities often have a strong sense of place. Residents may feel a deep
connection to the land and the community's history and culture. This sense of place can help to foster a strong
Examples of Rural Communities:
1. Farming Communities: Communities that rely on agriculture as their primary economic activity fall under this
category. These communities are often characterized by small, family-run farms that grow crops such as wheat,
corn, and soybeans. Examples include the rural communities of the Midwest region in the United States, such as
towns in Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska.
2. Coastal Communities: Rural communities located along coastlines often rely on fishing and related industries
for their economic well-being. Examples include fishing villages in Newfoundland, Canada, and coastal towns in
Maine, United States.
3. Mountain Communities: Rural communities located in mountainous areas are often characterized by small,
isolated communities that rely on forestry, mining, and tourism. Examples include towns in the Rocky Mountains
in the United States and the Alps in Europe.
 4. Tribal Communities: Many indigenous peoples live in rural communities that are located on ancestral lands.
These communities often have a unique culture and way of life, and they rely on traditional practices such as
hunting, fishing, and gathering for their subsistence. Examples include Native American reservations in the
United States and Maori communities in New Zealand.
Examples of Rural Communities in Pakistan:
1. Tharparkar: Located in the southern province of Sindh, Tharparkar is a rural community known for its rich
culture and history. The community is predominantly made up of Hindu residents and is known for its colorful
traditional attire and handicrafts.
2. Chitral: Chitral is a rural district in the northern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It is known for its scenic
beauty and is home to many indigenous communities, including the Kalash people. The Kalash are known for
their unique culture and traditions, including their music, dance, and festivals.
3. Hunza: The Hunza Valley is a rural community located in the northern region of Gilgit-Baltistan. The valley is
known for its stunning mountain scenery and is home to a diverse range of cultures and communities, including
the Ismaili Muslim community.
4. Thar Desert: The Thar Desert is a vast rural region located in the eastern province of Sindh. The region is home
to many indigenous communities, including the Sindhi and the Rajputs. The Thar Desert is known for its unique
ecosystem, including a variety of desert wildlife and plants.
5. Swat Valley: The Swat Valley is a rural district located in the northern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The
valley is known for its stunning natural beauty and is home to many indigenous communities, including the
Pashtun people. The region is also known for its rich history, with archaeological sites dating back to the
Gandhara civilization.
II. Urban Communities:
An urban community refers to a group of people living in a city or town, typically with a high population density and
complex social and economic structures. Urban communities are characterized by a diverse mix of individuals, lifestyles,
cultures, and traditions, all living in close proximity to each other. In this context, let's discuss the characteristics of an
urban community in detail.
1. Population Density: Urban communities are densely populated areas, with a large number of people living in
a relatively small area. This high population density creates unique challenges for urban communities, including
increased competition for resources such as housing, transportation, and public space.
2. Economic Activity: Urban communities are often characterized by a high level of economic activity, with
businesses and industries concentrated in the city center. This economic activity can create job opportunities for
residents, but also leads to issues such as traffic congestion, pollution, and high levels of noise.
3. Diversity: Urban communities are often more diverse than rural or suburban areas, with people from different
cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds living in close proximity to each other. This diversity can create
a rich tapestry of cultural experiences, but can also lead to social tension and conflict.
4. Infrastructure: Urban communities are characterized by a dense network of infrastructure, including roads,
public transportation, and utilities such as water and electricity. This infrastructure is essential for supporting the
high population density and economic activity of urban areas.
5. Social Dynamics: Urban communities often have unique social dynamics, with people living in close proximity
to each other and interacting frequently. This can lead to the formation of tight-knit communities, but can also
create social isolation and a lack of privacy.
6. Cultural Offerings: Urban communities often have a rich array of cultural offerings, including museums,
theaters, music venues, and art galleries. These cultural offerings contribute to the vibrancy and diversity of
urban communities, but can also create issues such as noise and traffic congestion.
7. Crime: Urban communities are often associated with higher levels of crime than rural or suburban areas. This is
partly due to the high population density of urban areas, which can create opportunities for criminal activity.
However, it is important to note that crime rates can vary widely within urban areas depending on factors such
as neighborhood socioeconomic status and the effectiveness of law enforcement.
8. Housing: Urban communities often have a wide range of housing options, including apartments, condos, and
townhouses. However, housing costs in urban areas can be very high, making it difficult for low-income
residents to find affordable housing.
9. Public Space: Urban communities often have a shortage of public space, with parks and other public areas in
high demand. This can create issues such as overcrowding and a lack of access to green space, which can
negatively impact the health and well-being of urban residents.
 10. Education: Urban communities often have a wide range of educational opportunities, including public and
private schools, community colleges, and universities. However, urban schools often face unique challenges,
including a lack of resources and high levels of student diversity.
11. Health Care: Urban communities often have a wide range of health care options, including hospitals, clinics,
and specialty medical providers. However, access to health care can be an issue for low-income residents,
particularly in areas with a shortage of health care providers.
12. Transportation: Urban communities often have a dense network of transportation options, including public
transit, taxis, and ridesharing services. However, transportation can be a major issue for low-income residents,
particularly in areas with limited access to public transportation.
Examples of Urban Communities:
1. New York City, USA: New York City is the largest city in the United States, with a population of over 8 million
people. It is a global center of finance, culture, and entertainment, with many famous landmarks such as the
Statue of Liberty, Central Park, and Times Square.
2. Tokyo, Japan: Tokyo is the capital of Japan and is the most populous city in the country, with over 13 million
people. It is known for its high-tech infrastructure, fashion, and food.
3. Mumbai, India: Mumbai is the financial capital of India and has a population of over 20 million people. It is a
hub for the entertainment industry and is known for its street food, bustling markets, and diverse culture.
4. London, UK: London is the capital of England and the UK and has a population of over 9 million people. It is a
global center for finance, fashion, and the arts and is home to many famous landmarks such as Buckingham
Palace, the Tower of London, and the British Museum.
5. Shanghai, China: Shanghai is the largest city in China and has a population of over 24 million people. It is a
center for finance, trade, and innovation, with many modern skyscrapers and historical landmarks.
Examples of Urban Communities in Pakistan:
1. Karachi: Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan and has a population of over 16 million people. It is a center for
trade, finance, and industry, with a bustling port and many modern skyscrapers. It is also known for its diverse
culture, beaches, and food.
2. Lahore: Lahore is the second-largest city in Pakistan and has a population of over 11 million people. It is a
center for education, arts, and culture, with many historical landmarks such as the Lahore Fort and Badshahi
Mosque. It is also known for its traditional cuisine and bustling markets.
3. Islamabad: Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan and has a population of over 1 million people. It is a planned
city with modern infrastructure and is home to many government institutions and foreign embassies. It is also
known for its greenery and natural beauty, with many parks and scenic views.
4. Rawalpindi: Rawalpindi is a city located near Islamabad and has a population of over 2 million people. It is a
center for trade and industry and is home to many military installations. It is also known for its historical
landmarks such as the Rawalpindi Fort and Ayub National Park.
5. Faisalabad: Faisalabad is the third-largest city in Pakistan and has a population of over 7 million people. It is a
center for textile industry and is known as the "Manchester of Pakistan". It is also home to many historical
landmarks such as the Clock Tower and the Faisalabad Museum.
 Distinction between Community and Society:

The constituent elements and behaviour patterns of both community and society are distinctive. We may describe the
distinction between community and society as follows:
1. Society is a web social relationship. But community consists of a group of individuals. It is a specific group.
2. Society is abstract. Community is concrete.
3. A definite geographical area is not necessary for society. But a definite geographical area is essential for a
community. It is bound by the territorial units.
4. There can be more than one community in a society. Most societies consist of more than one community,
varying in size, physical appearance, organization and specialized functions. But there cannot be more than one
society in a community.
5. Society is an intangible artifact. But community is a natural entity.
6. In the society, the group is merely means to an end. But in the community, the group has a life of its own,
superior to that of its temporary members. The group is an end in itself.
7. Community sentiment or a sense of unity is not essential in a society. But community sentiment is indispensable
for a community.
8. In a society the common objectives are extensive and coordinated. But in a community, the common objectives
are comparatively less extensive and coordinated.
9. In a society, the common interests and common objectives are not necessary. But in a community, a common
agreement of interests and objectives are necessary.
10. In the society, members have doctrine, public opinion, contractual solidarity and individual will. But in the
community, members have faith, customs, natural solidarity and a common will.
11. A community may be big or small. A big community, such as a nation, contains within it a number of small
communities and groups with more close, numerous common qualities. Small communities like village or
 neighborhood are the examples of the primitive world. Both the types of communities, big or small, are essential
to the full development of life.

Individual and Society, Relationship between Individual and Society:

Introduction:
Sociology is one of the social sciences studies group behaviors in human society. What happens when a man meets
man? Which type of group products anyone anticipates and what you actually observe? How the groups act and react
toward one another and with what results; are all the questions in the subject matter of sociology.
Furthermore, groups in interaction develop society. In a society not one or two types of groups are joined together but
huge network of various groups is interwoven in this way one may assume that a society is an aggregate of individuals
may be right but with an essential conceptual addition of “interdependence among the individuals.” To be clear more
society is building, it its bricks are its individuals. This interdependence of man is a web of social relationship and this is
the real subject matter of sociology. The method of joining together into social groups depends upon culture of that
society. Hence culture is backbone of society and its individuals.

Human is a part of Society:

Here remains the individual out of sociological study. But he is a part of social groups and hence a part of society. His
nature of behavior, habits and attitudes are directly related with society. Group life is the source from which he derives
all his behaviors by being interrelated with the people. Therefore, the study of individual lies in the domain of sociology
to the extent that his behavior is affected by group life of society. Sociology does not, on the other hand, study the
individual separately as an entity. It focuses its attention on the study of society as an entity. In the language of
chemistry, if society is a compound, the group is a molecule the individual is like an atom, keeping away from the views
of electron and proton in atomic structure. It is evident that without atoms the molecules cannot exist, and without
molecules compound cannot be formed. Similarly, ‘social groups’ cannot develop without mutual interrelationship of
individuals, and ‘society’ again, is a product of these very social groups joined together.

Social life of Human:

Human behavior is widespread along a continuum of various needs. Variety of human need extends variety in human
behavior. Variety of human needs extends variety in human behavior. Economic, political, religious, educational, familial,
and marital and so many other basic and derivate needs are fulfilled through social relationship. i.e., group participation.
All such behaviors cooperative and conflicting in which people participate with mutual recognition are termed as social.
Any sociologists study both the conditions that unite and those that separate human being.
Besides human societies, there are other among the animals of the same species as lions, jackals, dogs and other insects,
of various kinds like bees, ants, wasps and other. Social organization is there with in the same species because they
have a life which means heredity and the social contact, if it exists, of lowest degree.

Patterns of Grouping on the basis of likeness and differences:

Within a society there are patterns and groupings ion the basis of likeness and differences. Likeness creates chain of
relations among individuals having similarity in one or more conditions like same profession, same residence, same
caste, same family and kinship, college, age, sex and so on. ‘Consciousness of kind’ is developed and the people of
similar interest are joined together resulting in the formation of various groups and categories. Differences in the
conditions, nature and extent of the things, individuals and situations, produce reciprocity in human behavior. Without
difference in cultural conditions of society the human life would have been monotonous and probably limited to the
bees and ants, life in which little change is predictable. The system of give and take relationship creates reciprocal roles
in human life. Due to these differences there is variety in human behavior and hence a social division of labor is
developed.
So human is depend upon society for food, protection, education, comfort, and various other services which the society
provides. Man satisfies his aspirations, sentiments, thoughts and maladies. All forms of basic needs are satisfied while he
is a member of society. Hence man is a social animal.
Two main theories regarding the relationship of man and society
1. The Social Contact Theory and
2. The Organismic Theory.

The Social Contact Theory: (Manzoor Elahi Laskar LLM Symbiosis Law School, Pune, India)
The concept of social contract theory is that in the beginning man lived in the state of nature. They had no government
and there was no law to regulate them. There were hardships and oppression on the sections of the society. To
overcome from these hardships they entered into two agreements which are:-
1. Pactum Unionis; and
2. Pactum Subjectionis
By the first pact of Unionis, people sought protection of their lives and property. As, a result of it a society was
formed where people undertook to respect each other and live in peace and harmony. By the second pact of
Subjectionis, people united together and pledged to obey an authority and surrendered the whole or part of their
freedom and rights to an authority. The authority guaranteed everyone protection of life, property and to a certain
extent liberty. Thus, they must agree to establish society by collectively and reciprocally renouncing the rights they
had against one another in the State of Nature and they must imbue some one person or assembly of persons with
the authority and power to enforce the initial contract. In other words, to ensure their escape from the State of
Nature, they must both agree to live together under common laws, and create an enforcement mechanism for the
social contract and the laws that constitute it. Thus, the authority or the government or the sovereign or the state
came into being because of the two agreements.

1. Theory of Social Contract by Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes theory of Social Contract appeared for the first time in Leviathan published in the year 1651
during the Civil War in Britain. Thomas Hobbes legal theory is based on Social Contract. According to him, prior to
Social Contract, man lived in the State of Nature. Man’s life in the State of Nature was one of fear and selfishness.
Man lived in chaotic condition of constant fear. Life in the State of Nature was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and
short. Man has a natural desire for security and order. In order to secure self protection and self-preservation, and
to avoid misery and pain, man entered into a contract. This idea of self-preservation and self-protection are inherent
in man’s nature and in order to achieve this, they voluntarily surrendered all their rights and freedoms to some
authority by this contract who must command obedience. As a result of this contract, the mightiest authority is to
protect and preserve their lives and property. This led to the emergence of the institution of the ruler or monarch,
who shall be the absolute head. Subjects had no rights against the absolute authority or the sovereign and he is to
be obeyed in all situations however bad or unworthy he might be. However, Hobbes placed moral obligations on the
sovereign who shall be bound by natural law.
Hence, it can be deduced that, Hobbes was the supporter of absolutism. In the opinion of Hobbes, law is
dependent upon the sanction of the sovereign and the Government without sword are but words and of no
strength to secure a man at all. He therefore, reiterated that civil law is the real law because it is commanded and
enforced by the sovereign. Thus, he upheld the principle of Might is always Right.
Hobbes thus infers from his mechanistic theory of human nature that humans are necessarily and exclusively
self-interested. All men pursue only what they perceive to be in their own individually considered best interests.
They respond mechanistically by being drawn to that which they desire and repelled by that to which they are
averse. In addition to being exclusively self-interested, Hobbes also argues that human beings are reasonable. They
have in them the rational capacity to pursue their desires as efficiently and maximally as possible. From these
premises of human nature, Hobbes goes on to construct a provocative and compelling argument for which they
ought to be willing to submit themselves to political authority. He did this by imagining persons in a situation prior to
the establishment of society, the State of Nature.
Hobbes impels subjects to surrender all their rights and vest all liberties in the sovereign for preservation of
peace, life and prosperity of the subjects. It is in this way the natural law became a moral guide or directive to the
sovereign for preservation of the natural rights of the subjects. For Hobbes all law is dependent upon the sanction of
the sovereign. All real law is civil law, the laws commanded and enforced by the sovereign and are brought into the
world for nothing else but to limit the natural liberty of particular men, in such a manner, as they might not hurt but
to assist one another and join together against a common enemy. He advocated for an established order. Hence,
Individualism, materialism, utilitarianism and absolutions are inter-woven in the theory of Hobbes.
 2. Theory of Social Contract by John Locke
John Locke theory of Social Contract is different than that of Hobbes. According to him, man lived in the State of
Nature, but his concept of the State of Nature is different as contemplated by Hobbesian theory. Locke’s view about
the state of nature is not as miserable as that of Hobbes. It was reasonably good and enjoyable, but the property
was not secure. He considered State of Nature as a Golden Age. It was a state of peace, goodwill, mutual
assistance, and preservation. In that state of nature, men had all the rights which nature could give them. Locke
justifies this by saying that in the State of Nature, the natural condition of mankind was a state of perfect and
complete liberty to conduct one’s life as one best sees fit. It was free from the interference of others. In that state of
nature, all were equal and independent. This does not mean, however, that it was a state of license. It was one not
free to do anything at all one pleases, or even anything that one judges to be in one’s interest. The State of Nature,
although a state wherein there was no civil authority or government to punish people for transgressions against
laws, was not a state without morality. The State of Nature was pre-political, but it was not pre moral. Persons are
assumed to be equal to one another in such a state, and therefore equally capable of discovering and being bound
by the Law of Nature. So, the State of Nature was a State of liberty, where persons are free to pursue their own
interests and plans, free from interference and, because of the Law of Nature and the restrictions that it imposes
upon persons, it is relatively peaceful.
Property plays an essential role in Locke’s argument for civil government and the contract that establishes it.
According to Locke, private property is created when a person mixes his labour with the raw materials of nature.
Given the implications of the Law of Nature, there are limits as to how much property one can own: one is not
allowed to take so more from nature than oneself can use, thereby leaving others without enough for themselves,
because nature is given to all of mankind for its common subsistence. One cannot take more than his own fair share.
Property is the linchpin of Locke’s argument for the social contract and civil government because it is the protection
of their property, including their property in their own bodies that men seek when they decide to abandon the State
of Nature.
John Locke considered property in the State of Nature as insecure because of three conditions; they are:-
1. Absence of established law;
2. Absence of impartial Judge; and
3. Absence of natural power to execute natural laws.
Thus, man in the State of Nature felt need to protect their property and for the purpose of protection of their property,
men entered into the Social Contract. Under the contract, man did not surrender all their rights to one single
individual, but they surrendered only the right to preserve / maintain order and enforce the law of nature. The
individual retained with them the other rights, i.e., right to life, liberty and estate because these rights were considered
natural and inalienable rights of men.
Having created a political society and government through their consent, men then gained three things which they
lacked in the State of Nature: laws, judges to adjudicate laws, and the executive power necessary to enforce these laws.
Each man therefore gives over the power to protect himself and punish transgressors of the Law of Nature to the
government that he has created through the compact.
According to Locke, the purpose of the Government and law is to uphold and protect the natural rights of men. So
long as the Government fulfils this purpose, the laws given by it are valid and binding but, when it ceases to fulfill it,
then the laws would have no validity and the Government can be thrown out of power. In Locke’s view, unlimited
sovereignty is contrary to natural law.
Hence, John Locke advocated the principle of a State of liberty; not of license. Locke advocated a state for the general
good of people. He pleaded for a constitutionally limited government.
Locke, in fact made life, liberty and property, his three cardinal rights, which greatly dominated and influenced the
Declaration of American Independence, 1776.

3. Theory of Social Contract by Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher who gave a new interpretation to the theory of Social Contract in his
work “The Social Contract” and “Emile”. According to him, social contract is not a historical fact but a hypothetical
construction of reason. Prior to the Social Contract, the life in the State of Nature was happy and there was equality
among men. As time passed, however, humanity faced certain changes. As the overall population increased, the means
by which people could satisfy their needs had to change. People slowly began to live together in small families, and then
in small communities. Divisions of labor were introduced, both within and between families, and discoveries and
inventions made life easier, giving rise to leisure time. Such leisure time inevitably led people to make comparisons
between themselves and others, resulting in public values, leading to shame and envy, pride and contempt. Most
importantly however, according to Rousseau, was the invention of private property, which constituted the pivotal
moment in humanity evolution out of a simple, pure state into one, characterized by greed, competition, vanity,
inequality, and vice. For Rousseau the invention of property constitutes humanity fall from grace out of the State of
Nature. For this purpose, they surrendered their rights not to a single individual but to the community as a whole which
Rousseau termed as general will.
According to Rousseau, the original freedom, happiness, equality and liberty which existed in primitive societies prior to
the social contract was lost in the modern civilization. Through Social Contract, a new form of social organization- the
state was formed to assure and guarantee rights, liberties freedom and equality. The essence of the Rousseau’s theory
of General Will is that State and Law was the product of General Will of the people. State and the Laws are made by it
and if the government and laws do not conform to general will, they would be discarded. While the individual parts with
his natural rights, in return he gets civil liberties such as freedom of speech, equality, assembly, etc.
The General Will, therefore, for all purposes, was the will of majority citizens to which blind obedience was to be given.
The majority was accepted on the belief that majority view is right than minority view. Each individual is not subject to
any other individual but to the general will and to obey this is to obey him. His sovereignty is infallible, indivisible,
unrepresentable and illimitable.
Thus, Rousseau favored people’s sovereignty. His natural law theory is confined to the freedom and liberty of the
individual. For him, State, law, sovereignty, general will, etc. are interchangeable terms. Rousseau’s theory inspired
French and American revolutions and given impetus to nationalism. He based his theory of social contract on the
principle of Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.

COMPARISION OF THE THEORY OF SOCIAL CONTRACT OF THOMAS HOBBES, JOHN LOCKE AND JEAN
JACQUES ROUSSEAU
1. Hobbes asserts that without subjection to a common power of their rights and freedoms, men are necessarily at
war. Locke and Rousseau, on the contrary, set forth the view that the state exists to preserve and protect the
natural rights of its citizens. When governments fail in that task, citizens have the right and sometimes the duty
to withdraw their support and even to rebel.
2. Hobbes view was that whatever the state does is just. All of society is a direct creation of the state, and a
reflection of the will of the ruler. According to Locke, the only important role of the state is to ensure that justice
is seen to be done. While Rousseau view is that the State must in all circumstance ensure freedom and liberty of
individuals.
3. Hobbes theory of Social Contract supports absolute sovereign without giving any value to individuals, while
Locke and Rousseau supports individual than the state or the government.
4. To Hobbes, the sovereign and the government are identical but Rousseau makes a distinction between the two.
He rules out a representative form of government. But, Locke does not make any such distinction.
5. Rousseau’s view of sovereignty was a compromise between the constitutionalism of Locke and absolutism of
Hobbes.

CRITICAL APPREHENTION
1. Rousseau propounded that state, law and the government is interchangeable, but this in present scenario is
different. Even though government can be overthrown but not the state. A state exists even there is no
government.
2. Hobbes concept of absolutism is totally a vague concept in present scenario. Democracy is the need and
examples may be taken from Burma and other nations.
3. According to Hobbes, the sovereign should have absolute authority. This is against the rule of law because
absolute power in one authority brings arbitrariness.
4. Locke concept of State of nature is vague as any conflict with regard to property always leads to havoc in any
society. Hence, there cannot be a society in peace if they have been conflict with regard to property.
5. Locke concept of laissez-faire is not of welfare oriented. Now in present scenario, every state undertake steps to
form a welfare state.
The Organismic Theory:

Organismic theory is another vital theory of the origin of human society. Plato, Aristotle, Herbert Spencer, Spengler
and Novico were the main exponents of this theory. They have compared the society with a living human body or
organism. According to them, society is nothing but a kind of living organism, biological organism. In other words,
the organismic theory video society is a living organism possessing organs, which perform functions analogues to
these of a plant or animal. Among ail these scholars Herbert Spencer has occupied unique place, because of this
significant contribution in the field of organismic theory or society.

According to Spencer, society is not merely a collection of individuals, it is more than that, just as an organism is
mere than a mere collection of ceils. Spencer developed the organismic theory by making an elaborate comparison
between the society and the organism. He thinks that society is like a biological system a greater organism, a like in
its structure and functions. Like an organism, society is also subject of the same process of gradual growth or
development from a simple to complex “state. Like an organism, society is also exhibits differentiation in functions
and integration in structure”. Thus according to the organismic theory of society, society is an organism whose
structure and function resemble those of the human beings and which also develops according to the same laws.

Herbert Spencer indicates that society resembles an organism in the following important respects.

1. Society like organism grows or develops gradually. The human organism goes through the laws of
development, maturation and decline. Similarly society also passes through some taws such as the laws of
birth, growth and change or decay.”
2. Both society and organism begin germs.
3. Society and organism both exhibit differential structure functions. .
4. Both society and organism are composed of units. Society is composed of the individuals and thus,
individuals are considered as the units of society. Similarly, organism is also composed of different organs
such as eyes, ears, hands, legs, head etc., and these are regarded as the units of an organism.
5. In both society and organism there exists close integration or interdependence of parts. Just as the different
parts of the organism are mutually interdependence and on the whole, also the individuals in a dependant
are mutually interdependent like the cells in an organism dependent in the whole.
In spite of these similarities, Spencer also draws number of structural analogies between the society and organism. A
living organism possesses sustaining system and distributing system and regulative system corresponding
respective to system of production of industry and agriculture, the means of transportation and communication
and the government, in society in the industrial and agricultural systems the circulatory system with the heart
arteries and veins correspond to the communication and transportation system of nation the nervous system to
the government and so on. An individual cell of an organism may die with, little effect on its life, similarly the
death of an individual.
According to P.A. Sorokin society passes through the organic process of birth, youth, maturity, old age and death.

On the basis of the above resemblances Spencer concluded that society is an organismic and it is a special organism.
The individuals are limbs of the society and behave as the cells of the body whose activity and life are meant for
the sake of the whole. Just as the limbs separated from the body have no life, similarly individuals separated from
the society have no. life. The individuals exist in and within the society.

In addition to the above points of similarities, there are however, certain points of dissimilarities also.
According to Spencer society differs from human organism in the following important respects.
1. In organic growth, nature plays a dominant and organismic naturally grows. On the other hand, social growth
may be checked or stimulated by man himself.
2. The units of a society are not fixed in their respective positions like those of the individual organism.
3. In an organism, consciousness is concentrated in the small part of the aggregate, that is, in the nervous
system while in a society it is diffused throughout whole aggregate.

Social and Cultural evolution of Society:

The term Socio-Cultural Evolution, was first used by Gerhard Lenski. John J Macionis defines it as “Changes that
occur as a society gains new technology”
John J Macionis in his book Sociology 16 th Ed explains “With only simple technology, societies such as the Tuareg (a
member of a Berber people of the western and central Sahara, living mainly in Algeria, Mali, Niger, and western Libya,
traditionally as nomadic pastoralists.) have little control over nature, so they can support just small number of people.
Societies with complex technologies such as cars and cell phones, while not necessarily “better,” are certainly more
productive so they can support hundreds of millions of people with far more material affluence.”
 Macionis further defined “Inventing or adopting new technology sends ripples of change throughout a
society.” According to him “when our ancestors first discover how to make sail so, that the power of the wind could
move a boat, they created new form of transportation that eventually would take them to new lands, greatly expand
their economy, and increase their military power. In addition, the more technology a society has, the faster it
changes.”
Technology simple societies change very slowly; Siddi Ag Inaka says he lives “the lives of my ancestors.”
“How many people in US society can say that they live the way their grandparents or great grandparents did?
Because modern, high technology societies such as our own changes so fast, people usually experience major social
changes during a single life time. Imagined how surprised your great grandmother would be to hear about Googling
and text messaging, replacement hearts and test tube babies, or 4G phones and iPads .

Gerhard Lenski defines types of societies which are given below:

1. Hunting and Gathering Society:
In simplest of all societies, people lived by hunting and gathering, making use of simple tools to hunt animals,
and gather vegetation for food. From the time that our species appeared 3 million years ago until about 12000 years
ago, all humans were hunters and gathers. Even in 1800, many hunting and gathering societies could be found around
the world. Hunting and Gathering societies including the Aka and Pygmies of central Africa, The Bushmen of South
western Africa, the Aborigines of Australia, the Kaska Indians of Northwestern Canada, The Batek and Semai of Malaysia,
and isolated native people living in the Amazon rain forest. (According to education.nationalgeographic.org Over the
last 500 years, the population of hunter-gatherers has declined dramatically. Today very few exist, with the Hadza
people of Tanzania being one of the last groups to live in this tradition.)
 Eating of Hunting and Gathering Society:
With little ability to control their environment, hunters and gatherers spend most of their time looking for game and
collecting plants to eat. Only in lush areas with lots of food do hunters and gatherers have much chance for leisure.
Because it takes a large amount of land to support even a few people, hunting and gathering societies have just a few
dozen members. They must also be nomadic, moving on to find new sources of vegetation or to follow migrating
animals. Although they may return to favored sites, they rarely form permanent settlements.
 Family of Hunting and Gathering Society:
Hunting and gathering societies depend on the family to do many things. The family must get and distribute food,
protect its members, and teach their way of life to the children. Everyone’s life is much the same; people spend most of
their time getting their next meal. Age and gender have some effect on what individuals do. Healthy adults do most of
the work, leaving the very young and the very old to help out as they can. Women gather vegetation—which provides
most of the food—while men take on the less certain job of hunting. Although men and women perform different tasks,
most hunters and gatherers probably see the sexes as having about the same social importance (Leacock,1978).
Hunting and gathering societies usually have a shaman, or spiritual leader, who enjoys high prestige but has to work to
find food like everyone else. In short, people in hunting and gathering societies come close to being socially equal.
 Weapons and Defence of Hunting and Gathering Society:
Hunters and gatherers use simple weapons—the spear, bow and arrow, and stone knife—but rarely do they use them to
wage war. Their real enemy is the forces of nature: Severe storms and droughts can kill off their food supply in a short
span of time, and there is little they can do for someone who has a serious accident or illness. Being constantly at risk in
this way encourages people to cooperate and share, a strategy that raises everyone’s chances of survival. But the truth
is that many die in childhood, and no more than half reach the age of twenty.
 End of Hunting and Gathering Society:
During the past century, societies with more powerful technology have closed in on the few remaining hunters and
gatherers, reducing their food supply. As a result, hunting and gathering societies are disappearing. Fortunately, study of
this way of life has given us valuable information about human history and our basic ties to the natural world.
2. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies:
Some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, as the timeline inside the back cover shows, a new technology began to change the
lives of human beings. People developed horticulture, the use of hand tools to raise crops. Using a hoe to work the soil
and a digging stick to punch holes in the ground to plant seeds may not seem like something that would change the
world, but these inventions allowed people to give up gathering in favor of growing food for themselves. The first
humans to plant gardens lived in fertile regions of the Middle East. Cultural diffusion spread this knowledge to America
and Asia and eventually all over the world.
Not all societies were quick to give up hunting and gathering for horticulture. Hunters and gatherers living where food
was plentiful probably saw little reason to change their ways. People living in dry regions (such as the deserts of Africa or
the Middle East) or mountainous areas found little use for horticulture because they could not grow much anyway. Such
people (including the Tuareg) were more likely to adopt pastoralism, the domestication of animals. Today, societies that
mix horticulture and pastoralism can be found throughout South America, Africa, and Asia.
Growing plants and raising animals greatly increased food production, so populations expanded from dozens to
hundreds of people. Pastoralists remained nomadic, leading their herds to fresh grazing lands. But horticulturalists
formed settlements, moving only when the soil gave out. Joined by trade, these settlements formed extended societies
with populations reaching into the thousands. Once a society is capable of producing a material surplus—more
resources than are needed to feed the population—not everyone has to work at providing food. Greater specialization
results: Some make crafts, while others engage in trade, cut hair, apply tattoos, or serve as priests. Compared to hunting
and gathering societies, horticultural and pastoral societies are more socially diverse. But being more productive does
not make a society “better” in every sense. As some families produce more than others, they become richer and more
powerful. Horticultural and pastoral societies have greater inequality, with elites using government power—and military
force—to serve their own interests. But leaders do not have the ability to travel or to communicate over large distances,
so they can control only a small number of people rather than rule over vast empires. Religion also differs among types
of societies. Hunters and gatherers believe that many spirits inhabit the world. Horticulturalists, however, are more
likely to think of one God as the creator of the world. Pastoral societies carry this belief further, seeing God as directly
involved in the well-being of the entire world. The pastoral roots of Judaism and Christianity are evident in the term
“pastor” and the common view of God as a shepherd (“The Lord is my shepherd,” says Psalm 23) who stands watch over
us all.
3. Agrarian Societies:
About 5,000 years ago, another revolution in technology was taking place in the Middle East, one that would end up
changing life on Earth. This was the emergence of agriculture, large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals
or more powerful energy sources. So important was the invention of the animal-drawn plow, along with other
breakthroughs of the period—including irrigation, the wheel, writing, numbers, and the use of various metals—that this
moment in history is often called the “dawn of civilization.”
Using animal-drawn plows, farmers could cultivate fields far bigger than the garden-sized plots planted by
horticulturalists. Plows have the added advantage of turning and aerating the soil, making it more fertile. As a result,
farmers could work the same land for generations, encouraging the development of permanent settlements. With the
ability to grow a surplus of food and to transport goods using animal-powered wagons, agrarian societies greatly
expanded in size and population. About 100 C.E., for example, the agrarian
Roman Empire contained some 70 million people spread over 2 million square miles (Nolan & Lenski, 2010).
Greater production meant even more specialization. Now there were dozens of distinct occupations, from
farmers to builders to metalworkers. With so many people producing so many different things, people invented money
as a common standard of exchange, and the old barter system—in which people traded one thing for another— was
abandoned.
Agrarian societies have extreme social inequality, typically even more than modern societies such as our own. In
most cases, a large number of the people are peasants or slaves, who do most of the work. Elites therefore have time for
more “refined” activities, including the study of philosophy, art, and literature. This explains the historical link between
“high culture” and social privilege noted in Chapter 3 “Culture”.
Among hunters and gatherers and also among horticulturalists, women provide most of the food, which gives
them social importance. Agriculture, however, raises men to a position of social dominance. Using heavy metal plows
pulled by large animals, agrarian societies put men in charge of food production. Women are left with the support tasks,
such as weeding and carrying water to the fields (Boulding, 1976; Fisher, 1979).
In agrarian societies, religion reinforces the power of elites by defining both loyalty and hard work as moral
obligations. Many of the “Wonders of the Ancient World,” such as the Great Wall of China and the Great Pyramids of
Egypt, were possible only because emperors and pharaohs had almost absolute power and could order their people to
work for a lifetime without pay.
Of the societies described so far, agrarian societies have the most social inequality. Agrarian technology also
gives people a greater range of life choices, which is the reason that agrarian societies differ more from one another
than horticultural and pastoral societies do.
4. Industrial Societies
Industrialism, which first took hold in the rich nations of today’s world, is the production of goods using advanced
sources of energy to drive large machinery. Until the industrial era began, the major source of energy had been the
muscles of humans and the animals they tended. Around the year 1750, people turned to water power and then steam
boilers to operate mills and factories filled with larger and larger machines.
Industrial technology gave people such power to alter their environment that change took place faster than ever
before. It is probably fair to say that the new industrial societies changed more in one century than the earlier agrarian
societies had changed over the course of the previous thousand years .Change was so rapid that it sparked the birth of
sociology itself. By 1900, railroads crossed the land, steamships traveled the seas, and steel-framed skyscrapers reached
far higher than any of the old cathedrals that symbolized the agrarian age.
But that was only the beginning. Soon automobiles allowed people to move quickly almost anywhere, and
electricity powered homes full of modern “conveniences” such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, and
entertainment centers. Electronic communication, beginning with the telegraph and the telephone and followed by
radio, television, and computers, gave people the ability to reach others instantly, all over the world.
Work also changed. In agrarian communities, most men and women worked in the home or in the fields nearby.
Industrialization drew people away from home to factories situated near energy sources (such as coalfields) that
powered their machinery. The result was a weakening of close working relationships, strong family ties, and many of the
traditional values, beliefs, and customs that guide agrarian life.
December 28, Moray, in the Andes highlands of Peru. We are high in the
mountains in a small community of several dozen families, miles from
the nearest electric line or paved road. At about 12,000 feet, breathing is
hard for people not used to the thin air, so we walk slowly. But hard work
seems to be no problem for the man and his son out on a field near their
home tilling the soil with a horse and plow. Too poor to buy a tractor,
these people till the land in the same way that their ancestors did 500
years ago.
With industrialization, occupational specialization became greater than ever. Today, the kind of work you do has a lot to
do with your standard of living, so people now often size up one another in terms of their jobs rather than according to
their family ties, as agrarian people do. Rapid change and people’s tendency to move from place to place also make
social life more anonymous, increase cultural diversity, and promote subcultures and countercultures.
Industrial technology changes the family, too, reducing its traditional importance as the center of social life. No
longer does the family serve as the main setting for work, learning, and religious worship. Technological change also
plays a part in making families more diverse, with a greater share of single people, divorced people, single-parent
families, and stepfamilies.
Perhaps the greatest effect of industrialization has been to raise living standards, which increased fivefold in the
United States over the past century. Although at first new technology only benefits the elite few, industrial technology is
so productive that over time just about everyone’s income rises so that people live longer and more comfortable lives.
Even social inequality decreases slightly, because industrial societies provide extended schooling and greater political
rights for everyone. Around the world, industrialization has had the effect of increasing the demand for a greater
political voice, a pattern evident in South Korea, Taiwan, the People’s Republic of China, the nations of Eastern Europe
and the former Soviet Union, and in 2011 in Egypt and other nations of the Middle East.
5. Postindustrial Societies
Many industrial societies, including the United States, have now entered a new phase of technological development, and
we can extend Lenski’s analysis to take account of recent trends. A generation ago, the sociologist Daniel Bell (1973)
coined the term post-industrialism to refer to the production of information using computer technology. Production in
industrial societies centers on factories and machinery generating material goods; postindustrial production relies on
computers and other electronic devices that create, process, store, and apply information. Just as people in industrial
societies learn mechanical skills, people in postindustrial societies such as ours develop information-based skills and
carry out their work using computers and other forms of high-technology communication.
A postindustrial society uses less and less of its labor force for industrial production. At the same time, more jobs
become available for clerical workers, teachers, writers, sales managers, and marketing representatives, all of whom
have in common jobs that involve processing information. The Information Revolution, which is at the heart of
postindustrial society, is most evident in rich nations, yet new information technology affects people in all countries
around the world. A worldwide flow of products, people, and information now links societies and has advanced a global
culture. In this sense, the postindustrial society is at the heart of globalization.

The Limits of Technology

More complex technology has made life better by raising productivity, reducing infectious disease, and sometimes just
relieving boredom. But technology provides no quick fix for social problems. Poverty, for example, remains a reality for
some 43.6 million women and men in the United States and 1.4 billion people worldwide (Chen & Ravaillon, 2008;
U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
Technology also creates new problems that our ancestors (and people like Sididi Ag Inaka today) could hardly
imagine. Industrial and postindustrial societies give us more personal freedom, but they often lack the sense of
community that was part of preindustrial life. Most seriously, an increasing number of the world’s nations have used
nuclear technology to build weapons that could send the entire world back to the Stone Age—if humanity survives at all.
Advancing technology has also threatened the physical environment. Each stage in socio-cultural evolution has
introduced more powerful sources of energy and increased our appetite for Earth’s resources. Ask yourself whether we
can continue to pursue material prosperity without permanently damaging our planet by consuming its limited
resources or poisoning it with pollution.
Technological advances have improved life and brought the world’s people closer. But establishing peace,
ensuring justice, and protecting the environment are problems that technology alone cannot solve.
 Questions from Past Papers
2018 Q3.Make a comparative and analytical discussion on the Social Contract Theory and the Organismic Theory
while developing your thesis with a logical conclusion.

2018 Q4.How do you see the future of Pakistani Society resulting from the effect of Industrialization, Modernization,
Urbanization and modern means of communication upon social change process? Discuss with examples.

2018 Q5.How do you see the future of Major cities in Pakistan? Discussing by focusing on the issues of water and food
security and the situation of terrorism and extremism with examples and data?
2020 Q8- Write notes on the following: (10 Each)
a- Types of society
b- Caste and class dynamics in Pakistan
2023 Q7.What is meant by society? Discuss its types in detail. Also define culture and what is the difference between
material and non-material culture in a society culture?

Sources
th
A. Sociology 16 edition (John J Macionis) (FPSC Recommended)
B. An Introduction to Sociology (Abdul Hameed Taga, Abdul Aziz Taga)(Recommended by CSS Officers)
C. Sociology (Jahangir’s World Times) (Amal Sajjad, Jawad Tariq)