Assessment for Learning 1

UNIT 1.
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION- AN OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction:
You have been involved in the practices of assessment and evaluation from the day you
have started the teaching profession. You have experienced the merits of each of these
practices. Though you have been using both assessment and evaluation practices, you might
not have noticed that they are different and used for different purposes. We, as teachers need
to know these concepts in depth, and know why, how and when each of these are used in the
educational setting. Understanding these two concepts with clarity will help us to understand
the differences between the two and facilitates us to use them in appropriate situations. Hence,
in this unit, it has been made an attempt to make more in-depth understanding of the concept,
meaning, nature and other related aspects of assessment and evaluation and equip ourselves to
be good professionals in the field of education.
1.2 Concept and Meaning of Assessment:
Assessment plays a number of roles in the life of a student, some of which they may be
more aware of than others. It’s widely accepted that students’ learning patterns, educational
focus, and allocation of time will be directly influenced by assessment.
It is important to understand the concept of ‘measurement’ before trying to understand
the concept of ‘assessment’. Measurement basically refers to the assignment of numerals to
objects, attributes or events according to rules. For example, we describe the height and weight
of a person as 5.6ft and 60 kgs respectively.
In education, it refers to the quantification of any aspect of instructional process. It is
the process of obtaining quantitative description of the degree, to which an individual possesses
an attribute. In measurement numbers are assigned to represent quantities of the attribute.
Educational assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms,
knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the
learning community (class, workshop or other organized group of learners), the institution, or
the educational system as a whole (also known as granularity).
Assessment in education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or
tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning
progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students.
i. Assessment involves the use of empirical data on student learning to refine programs
and improve student learning.
ii. Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from multiple and
diverse sources to develop a deep understanding of what students know, understand,
and can do with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences; the process
culminates when assessment results are used to improve subsequent learning.
Assessment is the systematic basis for making inferences about the learning and
development of students. It is the process of defining, selecting, designing, collecting,
 Assessment for Learning 2

analyzing, interpreting, and using the information to increase students’ learning and
development. Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information
about educational programs undertaken to improve student learning and development.
DEFINITION:
According to Evangeline Harris Stefankis (2002), “The word assess comes from the
Latin ‘assidere’, which means ‘to set beside’. Then, to assess means to sit beside the learner.”
Assessment can be defined as the systematic collection, interpretation, and use of
information about learning. It gives teachers a better awareness of what pupils know and
understand, what their learning experiences enable them to do and what their skills and personal
capabilities are. Assessment refers to the wide variety of methods that educators use to
evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, and skill
acquisition of students from preschool through college and adulthood. It is the process of
systematically gathering information as part of an evaluation.
Assessment is carried out to see what children and young people know, understand and
are able to do. Assessment is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps,
reporting and involving parents, children and young people in learning. In other word, it is a
systematic process of gathering, interpreting, and acting upon data related to student learning
and experience for the purpose of developing a deep understanding of what student know,
understand, and can do with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences.
According to Fenton (1996), “Assessment is the collection of relevant information
Assessment for Learning focuses on the opportunities to develop students' ability to evaluate
themselves, to make judgements about their own performance and improve upon it. It makes
use of authentic assessment methods and offers lots of opportunities for students to develop
their skills through formative assessment using summative assessment sparingly.
According to Harlen, Gipps, Broadfoot, Nuttal (1992), “ Assessment in education is the
process of gathering, interpreting, recording, and using information about pupils’ responses to
an educational task.”
Educational assessment is the process of documenting and using empirical data on the
knowledge, skill, attitudes, and beliefs to refine programs and improve student learning. It is
the systematic process of determining educational objectives, gathering, using and analysing
information about students’ learning outcomes to make decisions about programmes,
individual student progress or accountability.
Therefore, the characteristics of assessment can be drawn from the above that –
i. Learner-Centered
ii. The primary attention of teachers is focused on observing and improving learning.
iii. Teacher-Directed
iv. Individual teachers decide what to assess, how to assess, and how to respond to the
information gained through the assessment
v. Teachers do not need to share results with anyone outside of the class.
vi. Mutually Beneficial
 Assessment for Learning 3

vii. Students are active participants.

viii. Students are motivated by the increased interest of faculty in their success as
learners.
ix. Teachers improve their teaching skills and gain new insights.
x. Formative
xi. Assessments are almost never "graded".
xii. Assessments are almost always anonymous in the classroom and often anonymous
online.
xiii. Assessments do not provide evidence for evaluating or grading students.
xiv. Context-Specific
xv. Assessments respond to the particular needs and characteristics of the teachers,
students, and disciplines to which they are applied.
xvi. Customize to meet the needs of your students and course.
xvii. Ongoing
xviii. Classroom assessment is a continuous process.
xix. Part of the process is creating and maintaining a classroom "feedback loop"
xx. Each classroom assessment event is of short duration.
xxi. Rooted in Good Teaching Practice
xxii. Classroom assessment builds on good practices by making feedback on students'
learning more systematic, more flexible, and more effective.
1.2.1 Nature of Assessment:
• The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities, teachers used to help
students learn and to gauge student progress.
• Assessment is often used interchangeably with test, but not limited to tests. Assessment
can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other
organized group of learners), a course, an academic program, the institution, or the
educational system as a whole.
• As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning
outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to
achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analysing and
interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and
using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning.
• Assessment is not simply testing. It can certainly be a part of most assessment
programmes, but assessment is much more than testing. It is a process that involves
reflection on purposes, discussion and specification of educational goals, development to
indicators of the extent to which those goals are being achieved, and based on the evidence,
curricular and programme modifications designed to increase the likelihood that students
will learn what is expected of them.
• Assessment is a process which follows a set of four components. These four stages or
components are Plan, Do, Check and act. It is a process to evaluate the student’s
performance. Besides, it is an orderly process.
• Assessment covers number of issues. It is important for teachers to focus on these to make
assessment more meaningful. They are as follows: -The ways teachers support and assess
 Assessment for Learning 4

children's learning and monitor progress and identify next steps in learning. -Reporting to
parents/carers, in writing and in discussions, to help them understand their child's progress
and what they can do to help their child's learning. -Formal recognition of a child or young
person's achievements through profiles and qualifications.
• Every Assessment Rests on Three Pillars A model of how students represent knowledge
and develop competence in a content domain.
• Tasks or situations that allow one to observe students’ performance.
• An interpretation method for drawing inferences from performance evidence.

1.2.2 Importance or Purpose of Assessment:

The importance and purposes of assessment in education serves many purposes. They
are as follows.
i) Assessment drives instruction
A pre-test or needs assessment informs instructors what students know and do not know
at the outset, setting the direction of a course. If done well, the information garnered will
highlight the gap between existing knowledge and a desired outcome. Accomplished
instructors find out what students already know, and use the prior knowledge as a stepping off
place to develop new understanding. The same is true for data obtained through assessment
done during instruction. By checking in with students throughout instruction, outstanding
instructors constantly revise and refine their teaching to meet the diverse needs of students.
ii) Assessment drives learning
What and how students learn depends to a major extent on how they think they will be
assessed. Assessment practices must send the right signals to students about what to study, how
to study, and the relative time to spend on concepts and skills in a course. Accomplished faculty
communicate clearly what students need to know and be able to do, both through a clearly
articulated syllabus, and by choosing assessments carefully in order to direct student energies.
High expectations for learning result in students who rise to the occasion.
iii) Assessment informs students of their progress
Effective assessment provides students with a sense of what they know and don’t know
about a subject. If done well, the feedback provided to students will indicate to them how to
improve their performance. Assessments must clearly match the content, the nature of thinking,
and the skills taught in a class. Through feedback from instructors, students become aware of
their strengths and challenges with respect to course learning outcomes. Assessment done well
should not be a surprise to students.
iv) Assessment informs teaching practice
Reflection on student accomplishments offers instructors insights on the effectiveness
of their teaching strategies. By systematically gathering, analysing, and interpreting evidence
we can determine how well student learning matches our outcomes / expectations for a lesson,
 Assessment for Learning 5

unit or course. The knowledge from feedback indicates to the instructor how to improve
instruction, where to strengthen teaching, and what areas are well understood and therefore
may be cut back in future courses.
v) Role of grading in assessment
Grades should be a reflection of what a student has learned as defined in the student
learning outcomes. They should be based on direct evidence of student learning as measured
on tests, papers, projects, and presentations, etc. Grades often fail to tell us clearly about “large
learning” such as critical thinking skills, problem solving abilities, communication skills (oral,
written and listening), social skills, and emotional management skills.
vi) When student learning outcomes are not met
Accomplished faculty focus on the data coming out of the assessments they complete
before, during and at the end of a course, and determine the degree to which student learning
outcomes are or are not met. If students are off course early on, a redirecting, reteaching of a
topic, referral to student learning centers, or review sessions by the instructor may remediate
the problem. Through careful analysis it is possible to determine the challenges and weaknesses
of instruction in order to support student learning better. Some topics or concepts are
notoriously difficult, and there may be a better approach to use. Perhaps a model, simulation,
experiment, example or illustration will clarify the concept for students. Perhaps spending a bit
more time, or going over a topic in another way will make a difference. If the problem is noticed
late in the course, an instructor may plan to make any instructional changes for the next time
the course is taught, but it is helpful to make a note of the changes needed at the time so that
the realization is not lost.
1.2.3 Types of Assessment:
Assessment is often divided into different categories for the purpose of considering
different objectives for assessment practices.

• Placement Assessment: Placement assessment is used to place students according to

prior achievement or personal characteristics, at the most appropriate point in an instructional
sequence, in a unique instructional strategy, or with a suitable teacher conducted through
placement testing, i.e. the tests that colleges and universities use to assess college readiness and
place students into their initial classes. Placement evaluation, also referred to as pre-assessment
or initial assessment, is conducted prior to instruction or intervention to establish a baseline
from which individual student growth can be measured. This type of an assessment is used to
know what the student's skill level is about the subject. It helps the teacher to explain the
material more efficiently. These assessments are not graded.

• Formative Assessment: Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a

course or project. Formative assessment, also referred to as "educative assessment," is used to
aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the
learner, providing feedback on a student's work and would not necessarily be used for grading
purposes. Formative assessments can take the form of diagnostic, standardized tests, quizzes,
oral question, or draft work. Formative assessments are carried out concurrently with
 Assessment for Learning 6

instructions. It is an essential part of teaching and learning. It does not add to the final marks
given for the unit; instead, it put into learning through given advice. Also, it points out what is
good about the work and what is not? Similarly, it also affects what the students and teacher
will plan in the future for learning.

• Summative Assessment: Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of

a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to
assign students a course grade. Summative assessments are evaluative. Summative assessments
are made to summarize what the students have learned, to determine whether they understand
the subject matter well. This type of assessment is typically graded (e.g. pass/fail, 0-100) and
can take the form of tests, exams or projects. Summative assessments are often used to
determine whether a student has passed or failed a class. It shows the amount of learners’
success in meeting the assessment. Also, it contributes to the final marks given for the unit.
These are conducted at the end of units. In Addition, it provides data for selection for the next
level. The logic and dependability of summative assessment are of great importance. It can also
provide information that has formative value.

• Work Integrated Assessment: This type of assessment is where the tasks and
situations are closely associated with what you experience. It helps to develop student’s skills
and capabilities along with educational development. Also, this helps and support educational
staff to design genuine assessments. It designs according to the need of the teacher.

• Dynamic Assessment: It measures what students can achieve when teaches about
unfamiliar topic or field. An example can be teaching students Spanish for a short while. It
helps to see how students who do not have any prior knowledge adopt it.It can be helpful to
review the potential for students who have a mainly underprivileged backdrop. Frequently it is
used in advance of the main body of teaching.

• Diagnostic Assessment: Just like formative assessment, diagnostic assessments

intended to improve learner’s knowledge. Besides, it looks backward rather than looking
forward. It reviews what the learner knows and difficulty that they are facing in learning.
Diagnostic assessment deals with the whole difficulties at the end that occurs during the
learning process. Not diagnosing these difficulties could limit their participation in learning.
Often used when a problem arises or before it.

• Synoptic Assessment: It gives confidence students to unite elements of their learning

from different parts of a plan and to show their build up knowledge and thoughtful of a topic
or subject area. It basically enables students to show their talents and skills. And it shows how
in--depth knowledge they have about the subject. Basically, it helps in measuring the capacity
to apply knowledge to understand the subject.

• Criterion-referenced Assessment: The performance of every student is judged by a

specific principle. It should be strictly seen that other student’s performance should not be
taken into account. In addition, the teacher should avoid normative thinking because it can
affect judgment. Apart from that, the teacher should assure reliability and validity.
 Assessment for Learning 7

• Ipsative Assessment: It measures the performance of the student in comparison to his

previous performance. Also, it helps in keeping in check how well they are undertaking their
tasks. Ipsative connect with efforts to enhance motivation to learn.
1.2.4 Role of Assessment in Learning:
Assessment plays a major role in how students learn, their motivation to learn, and how
teachers teach. Assessment is used for various purposes.
Assessment for learning: where assessment helps teachers gain insight into what
students understand in order to plan and guide instruction, and provide helpful feedback to
students.
Assessment as learning: where students develop an awareness of how they learn and
use that awareness to adjust and advance their learning, taking an increased responsibility for
their learning.
Assessment of learning: where assessment informs students, teachers and parents, as
well as the broader educational community, of achievement at a certain point in time in order
to celebrate success, plan interventions and support continued progress. Assessment must be
planned with its purpose in mind.
Assessment for, as and of learning all have a role to play in supporting and improving
student learning, and must be appropriately balanced. The most important part of assessment
is the interpretation and use of the information that is gleaned for its intended purpose.
Assessment is embedded in the learning process. It is tightly interconnected with
curriculum and instruction. As teachers and students work towards the achievement of
curriculum outcomes, assessment plays a constant role in informing instruction, guiding the
student’s next steps, and checking progress and achievement. Teachers use many different
processes and strategies for classroom assessment, and adapt them to suit the assessment
purpose and needs of individual students.
1.2.5 Principles of Assessment:
The principles of assessment are
a. Reliability
A test can be reliable but not valid, whereas a test cannot be valid yet unreliable.
Reliability, in simple terms, describes the repeatability and consistency of a test. Validity
defines the strength of the final results and whether they can be regarded as accurately
describing the real world.
b. Validity
The word "valid" is derived from the Latin ‘validus’, meaning strong. The validity of a
measurement tool (for example, a test in education) is considered to be the degree to which the
tool measures what it claims to measure; in this case, the validity is an equivalent to accuracy.
c. Relevance and transferability
 Assessment for Learning 8

In education, the term relevance typically refers to learning experiences that are either
directly applicable to the personal aspirations, interests or cultural experiences of students
(personal relevance) or that are connected in some way to real-world issues, problems and
contexts (life relevance).
Relevance is the concept of one topic being connected to another topic in a way that
makes it useful to consider the first topic when considering the second. The concept of
relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive sciences, logic, and library
and information science. Most fundamentally, however, it is studied in epistemology (the
theory of knowledge). Different theories of knowledge have different implications for what is
considered relevant and these fundamental views have implications for all other fields as well.
Transferability in research is the degree to which the results of a research can apply or
transfer beyond the bounds of the project. Transferability implies that results of the research
study can be applicable to similar situations or individuals. The knowledge which was obtained
6 in situation will be relevant in another and investigators who carry out research in another
context will be able to utilize certain concepts which were initially developed. It is comparable
to generalisability. Transferability in research is utilized by the readers of study. Transferability
can apply in varying degrees to many types of research.
Transferability does not involve broad claims, but invites readers of research to make
associations between elements of research and their own experience. For example, lecturers at
a school may selectively apply to their own classes results from a research indicating that
heuristic writing exercises aid students at the university level. It is important that adequate thick
description of the phenomenon under study is given to allow audience to have a proper
understanding of it, thus enabling them to compare the instances of the phenomenon explained
in the research document with those that they have seen emerge in their situations.
1.3 Concept and meaning of Evaluation:
Evaluation is a recent scientific concept. In teaching-learning process evaluation plays
a very important role. Education is considered an investment in human beings in terms of
development of human resources, skills, motivation, knowledge and the like. Evaluation helps
to build an educational programme, assess its achievements and improve upon its effectiveness.
In order to know in detail about evaluation we should proceed through meaning of the term
evaluation.
Evaluation is a means whereby systematically collected information is analysed to
know the result of a student's encounter with a learning experience. Bloom (1971) defined
evaluation as a tool in the educational practice for ascertaining whether alternative procedures
were equally effective or not in achieving a set of educational ends. So, we can say that
evaluation is a process by means of which changes in behaviour of children are studied and
guided towards goals sought by a school. Evaluation is a comprehensive term that comprises
the broad aspect of cognitive and conative experiences derived out of learning and achievement
of an individual. It takes into account qualitative and quantitative areas of experience of a
person as judged and observed by the authority concerned. By definitions, evaluation goes to
mean an act of giving certain value or symbol on consideration of the totality of behaviour
 Assessment for Learning 9

experiences attained by a person. It is a qualitative judgement of various aspects and areas of

individual achievement such as physical, mental, emotional, social, moral, aesthetic, cultural,
scientific and technological field. Evaluation implies qualitative assessment of achievement on
a certain subject or a group of subjects or in a field of war under consideration. Its scope and
area is wider than the term examination or measurement.
Keeping in view of its comprehensive nature and scope, the concept of continuous
comprehensive assessment or evaluation of students' achievement has emerged as a means of
necessary reform in the examination system at present. Such an evaluation covers activities
and achievements- both curricular and co-curricular inside and outside the classroom situation.
It aims at total assessment or evaluation of individual performances with reference to any
specific area of achievement. It is an easy task to measure, but difficult to evaluate.
Evaluation is the application of a standard and a decision-making system to assessment
data to produce judgments about the amount and adequacy of the learning that has taken place."
Evaluation refers to the value or judgement (the quality or worth) we attach to the
magnitude or quantity of the achievement of the student we measured. It answers the question
“what value that how much is”. It is thus qualitative. Measurement tells “how much” and
evaluation tells “what value or worth that how much is”. Measurement tells quantity, and
evaluation refers to quality.
In education, we never measure or evaluate people i.e. students or teachers. We measure
or evaluate characteristics or properties of people, their scholastic potential, knowledge of
algebra, honesty, perseverance, ability to teach and so forth.
DEFINITION
Evaluation is defined mostly as a comprehensive concept than measurement. The
definition put forward by Writing Stone is - "Evaluation is a relatively new technical term
introduced designate a more comprehensive concept of measurement than is implied in
conventional tests and measurement".
Based on this view it can be said evaluation fosters an objective, critical and creative
approach to problem of teaching. It helps in maintaining the standard of admission, promotion
and awarding of honour.
Gronlund explains evaluation process as - "Evaluation includes both qualitative and
quantitative description of behaviour plus value judgement concerning the desirability of that
behaviour".
To evaluate something is to appraise its quality, a determination of its worth
(Popham,1988). Evaluation is meant appraisal or assessment with respect to some standard
(Singh).
“The process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually being
realized” (Tyler).
 Assessment for Learning 10

“Evaluation is the process of determining merit, worth, or significance; an evaluation

is a product of that process” (Scriven).
C.E.Beeby (1977) described evaluation as "the systematic collection and interpretation
of evidence leading as a part of process to a judgment of value with a view to action".
Evaluation is a process wherein the parts, processes or outcomes of a programme are
examined to see whether they are satisfactory, particularly with the reference to the programme,
stated objectives, our own expectations, our own standards of excellence (Tuckman, 1975).
Evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for
judging decision alternative (Stufflebeam).
Evaluation in education is a process by which we form judgment about the value of the
educational status or achievement of students (Hill and Dressel).
In short, evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and
significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization,
program, design, project or any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realisable
concept/proposal, or any alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of
achievement or value in regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has
been completed. The primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to gaining insight into prior or
existing initiatives, is to enable reflection and assist in the identification of future change.
Evaluation is the structured interpretation and giving of meaning to predicted or actual
impacts of proposals or results. It looks at original objectives, and at what is either predicted
or what was accomplished and how it was accomplished. So evaluation can be formative, that
is taking place during the development of a concept or proposal, project or organization, with
the intention of improving the value or effectiveness of the proposal, project, or organisation.
It can also be summative, drawing lessons from a completed action or project or an organisation
at a later point in time or circumstance.
Thus, the Chief Characteristics of Evaluation are given below:
1. Comprehensive Process: Evaluation is a comprehensive process. In it, not only
cognitive aspect is evaluated as is done in essay type examination, it also evaluated the changes
which occur in affective and Conative aspects.
It includes all the chances which occur in all the aspects such as the physical, mental, social
and moral aspects. Hence, evaluation is a comprehensive method to test the pupils. It includes
both measurement and evaluation.
2. Continuous Process: Evaluation is a continuous process closely related to the
learning objectives. The desirable learning experiences are created in the pupil in accordance
with educational objectives and the behavioural changes which occur day-to-day are recorded.
On the basis of this record, the ranking of pupils is made and they are upgraded to the next
higher class.
 Assessment for Learning 11

3. Social Process: Evaluation is a social process. In this where all the aspects of
personality are evaluated, it is also evaluated whether the teaching has been conducted
according to the needs, ideals and norms of the society or not.
4. Descriptive Process: Evaluation is a descriptive process. In this is given the progress
which occurs in all the aspects of the pupils.
5. Cooperative process: Evaluation is a cooperative process. The source of pupil’s
promotion is the pupil himself. As he writes in his answer books, so he gets the marks. In
evaluation, the necessary material is collected by seeking essential cooperation of all the
sources like teacher, pupils and parents. Then his progress is evaluated.
6. Decisive Process: Evaluation is a decisive process. After this, it is decided that—(i)
whether any object or process is useful or not, (ii) to what extent the teaching is successful
according to the determined educational objectives, (iii) whether the learning experiences
provided to the pupils in the class are effective or not, (iv) How far the teaching objectives have
been achieved. If not achieved then whether the remedial instruction should be given or the
teaching strategies are to be modified.
1.3.1 Types of Evaluation:
There are three distinct types of evaluation. They are –
a. Preparative Evaluation
b. Formative or Process Evaluation
c. Summative or Product Evaluation
a. Preparative Evaluation
Preparative Evaluation can be termed as initial evaluation. It takes place before the
commencement of teaching learning process. The purpose of preparative evaluation is to
ascertain whether the pupils possess essential pre-requisite information for the successful
completion of a particular lesson.
b. Formative Evaluation
Formative Evaluation takes place during the process of instruction. It is regarded as a
part of the teaching learning process. The evaluation is formative in the sense that it is utilised
to indicate how students are changing with respect to their attainment of the instructional goals.
For example, if the first draft of a research proposal is evaluated with the intention of correcting
it, then such evaluation will be known as formative evaluation. The aim of formative evaluation
is to point out the shortcoming of the plan for correction to the person responsible for it.
c. Summative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation takes place at the conclusion. It is used primarily to grade the
students' achievement that provides information about how students have changed with respect
to the aim in view. For example, if a teacher has to refer a book to his students, and after
 Assessment for Learning 12

evaluating several available books he refers one, then this sort of evaluation is known as
summative evaluation.

1.4.2 Purposes of Evaluation:

Evaluation serves a number of purposes in education, Some of the well-known.
purposes are to grade, rank, classify, compare and promote the students, It is also used for
certifying the completion of a course, selection of students for admission or scholarship, and
for predicting their future success in different endeavours. However, these are the purposes of
end-of- the term evaluation.
The basic purpose of evaluation in school has been to bring about quality improvement
in education which it does by providing feedback regarding pupil learning, classroom teaching,
appropriacy of curriculum and course content, It also helps bring about all round development
of the students' personality when it is used for developing their non-cognitive capacities.
i) Improvement of Learning
Evaluation of pupil progress contributes directly to improvement in pupil learning. This
is done in a number of ways. Evaluation procedures used help clarify for the pupil what it is
that the teacher wishes him/her to learn. Feedback from evaluation provides him/her with
concrete information about his/her progress. It also indicates his/her readiness for future
learning activities. Through this continuous evaluation, the teacher knows the extent of learning
at every stage. If there are any hard spots or gaps of learning, appropriate remediation can be
provided. For students, who slow good progress, enrichment measures can be initiated. Thus,
evaluation helps in improving learning through diagnosis and remediation. It enables the
teacher to keep a continuous and regular watch on pupil development.
It is only evaluation of learning which motivates the students to learn. If there is no
evaluation in the classroom, perhaps the students would not study at all. Evaluation also
promotes a healthy competitive spirit in children and stimulates thein to show their excellence.
ii) Improvement in Teaching
Evaluation can also promote the accountability of the teachers. The children's results
can tell whether the poor performance of the students is due to poor teaching, defective
methodology or due to absenteeism of teachers or callousness in teaching. Thus, evaluation can
work as an important instrument for improvement in teaching.
Professional development of the teachers is almost directly related to the feedback
through evaluation. A teacher earns a reputation on the basis of the result shown by the pupils
whom she has taught. If the students do not show desirable learning outcomes, then he may
have to think of changing his/her strategies of teaching, improving the instructional material,
updating his/her knowledge or going for a refresher course, thereby exploring new approaches.
These steps will automatically help his/her professional development.
 Assessment for Learning 13

iii) Renewal of Curriculum or Course Content

Evaluation also gives information regarding the effectiveness of the course content.
There may be certain curricular areas which may prove to be difficult for the students as their
maturity level is not developed enough to cope up with them. This fact can be identified through
evaluation and its feedback. If it is found out consistently by the feedback of the evaluation of
different pupils that a particular curricular area is not suitable for them, it may be modified.
Such information is useft11 in judging the appropriateness of the pre-determined objectives, of
the course as well. Hence, evaluation can provide a basis for curriculum revision.
iv) Development of Non-Cognitive Capacities
In today's world the development of intellectual powers is not enough. The
development of social intelligence, emotional intelligence and physical aspects of personality
is also as vital as the development of mental intelligence. The prime concern of education is to
bring about an all-round development of human personality which can be done by developing
non-cognitive capacities of students along with the cognitive capacities. This can be ensured
only when a school takes up the system of evaluating these aspects of children's personality.
The comprehensive evaluation takes into cognizance the learning outcomes of both the
scholastic and non-scholastic domains of human personality. The areas included in the non-
scholastic domain are the social-personal qualities, interests, attitudes, values and physical
growth of the students which need to be developed and evaluated consciously in the context of
present-day educational system.
1.4.3 Steps in The Process of Evaluation
An effective process of evaluation involves the following steps;
i. Setting up of objectives of education according to the needs of learner.
ii. Writing the instructional objectives in behaviour terms.
iii. Imparting learning experience / engaging learners with the learning environment.
iv. Developing tools and techniques of evaluation in accordance with the instructional
objectives.
v. Implementing the tools and find out the results.
vi. Analysis and interpretation of results.
vii. Modifying with remedial teaching, if there are any deviations.
viii. Recording for future use.
1.4 Concept and Meaning of Measurement:
Suppose there is a basket full of fruits. Let us count the fruits. There are 22 apples, 12
oranges, 16 papayas, 4 pine apples and 8 mangoes. In all there are 62 fruits in the basket. This
counting is called enumeration.
 Assessment for Learning 14

Now, if someone asks “what is the total weight of the basket?” When the basket is
weighed, we find that that is 5.8 kg. This weighting answers the question “How much”. So
when we are trying to answer the question “How much” i.e. how much height, how much time,
how much area, how much volume, how much pressure, how much water, how much electricity
etc., we are dealing with measurement. Measurement answers the question “how much”.
In education, student’s progress is measured in terms of marks or grades, teacher’s
effectiveness as improvement and modification of the behaviour of his students etc.
In every measurement, three things are involved, Firstly, a set of objects i.e. the thing,
object or person to be measured, secondly a set of numbers and thirdly a rule or rules for the
assignment of a number to each object. Measurement may be defined as the assignment of one
of a set of numbers to each of a set of persons or objects according to certain established rules.
In the process of measurement numbers are assigned according to some predetermined
rules. A number is a kind of numeral which is assigned some quantitative meaning. In the
process of measurement, the investigator does not assign number of his own choice, but
according to certain fixed and explicit rules. Usually, such rules are of two types. One, where
the procedure is obvious and explicit. For example, when one is measuring the length of table
in feet and inches, rules for assigning numbers are very explicit and clear. But if one wants to
measure the intelligence of a student, the rules would not be as clear as in the case of measuring
the length of a table.
For measuring the educational attributes, the rules are generally vague and less explicit.
Measurement is always concerned with certain attributes or variables or features of an object.
It is these attributes which are measured but not the object itself. For example, if a teacher is
measuring the interest of a student towards art, he is measuring how much interest the student
has in art, but not measuring the student. In the process of measurement, numerals are used to
represent quantities of an attribute.
DEFINITION
Measurement refers to the process of assigning numerals to events, objects etc.
according to certain rules (Tyler, 1963).
Measurement consists of rules for assigning numbers to objects in such a way as to
represent quantities of attributes (Nunnally, 1970).
According to James M. Bradfield, “Measurement is a process of assigning symbols to
dimensions of phenomena in order to characterise the status of a phenomena as precisely as
possible.”
Measurement of any kind is matter of determining how much or how little, how great
or how small, how much more than or how much less than (Micheels& Karnes, 1950).
Measurement may be defined as the assignment of one of a set of numbers to each of a
set of persons or objects according to established rules (Lindeman and Merenda, 1979).
 Assessment for Learning 15

Measurement is the assigning of numbers to things according to rules (Glass and

Stanley, 1970).
Measurement means the description of data in terms of numbers (Gilford).
According to Stevens “Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects, or
events, according to rules.”
According to Stuffebeam “Measurement as the assignment of numerals to entities
according to rules.”
Measurement is the process by which we ascertain the quantity of something. It is
merely the assignment of a numerical index to the thing or phenomenon we measure.
Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical
object are determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in determining
the IQ of a person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is commonly used. Measuring such
things as attitudes or preferences also applies. However, when we measure, we generally use
some standard instrument to determine how big, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or
straight something actually is. Standard instruments refer to instruments such as rulers, scales,
thermometers, pressure gauges, etc.

1.5 Relationship between Measurement and Evaluation

Measurement and Evaluation both are used for assess the internal qualities. I.Q.
aptitude, attitude and intelligence of students. The main purposes of measurement and
evaluation are:-
i. Placement of student which involves bringing students appropriately in the learning
sequence and classification or streaming of students according to ability or
subjects.
ii. Selecting the students for courses- general, professional, technical, commercial etc.
iii. Certification: This helps to certify that a student has achieved a particular level of
performance.
iv. Stimulating learning: this can be motivation of the student or teacher, providing
feedback, suggesting suitable practice etc.
v. Improving teaching: by helping to review the effectiveness of teaching
arrangements.
1.6 Difference between Measurement and Evaluation
Generally, the term ‘measurement’ is confused with ‘Evaluation’, while they are quite
apart from each other. Measurement is a quantitative form of an object, while evaluation
presents its qualitative together with its measurement. In brief, measurement is numerical and
evaluation quantitative. Measurement tells us how much of an object, while evaluation tells us
how good it is. Besides, evaluation pays attention to the fact of realization of objectives, while
by measurement is meant only the number of specific objectives that have been realized.
Measurement is incomplete without evaluation.
 Assessment for Learning 16

Distinguishing between measurement and evaluation, Wrightstone has written: “The

emphasis in measurement is upon single aspect of subject matter achievement or specific skills
and abilities, but...the emphasis in evaluation is upon broad personality changes and major
objectives of an educational programme. These include not only subject matter achievement
but also attitudes, interests, ideals, ways of thinking, work-habits and personal and social
adaptability, e.g. by testing a child in mathematics we may measure his mathematical ability
and nothing else. We may not have any idea about the interests, abilities etc., of the child in
mathematics by administering this single test.”

Measurement Evaluation

1. Measurement does not express any clear 1. Clear assumption about a student can be
assumption about a student. formed on the basis of evaluation.

2. Measurement does not require much 2. Evaluation requires more energy and time.
energy and time.

3. The scope of measurement is limited, only 3. The scope of evaluation is wide, in it, the
some dimensions of personality can be tested entire personality of a student is tested.
under measurement.

4. Measurement is content-oriented. 4. Evaluation is objective-oriented.

5. Measurement is a means, and not an end in 5. Evaluation is an end in itself. end in itself.
itself.

6. The purpose of measurement is to gather 6. Evaluation is to deduce inferences from

evidences. evidence, that is, its work is appraisement of
evidences.
7. Measurement may not be an essential part 7. Evaluation is the integrated or necessary
of education. part of education.

8. Measurement answers the question ‘how 8. Evaluation answers the question ‘what
much’ such that Sunanda scored 56 marks in value’. much’, Sunanda has scored 50%
mathematics. This is measurement. marks in mathematics and passed second
division in measurement. the class, this is
evaluation.
9. Prediction cannot be made meaningfully 9. Evaluation can predict meaningfully.
on the basis of measurement.

10. Measurement acquaints with a situation. 10. Evaluation acquaints about the entire
This is isolated from the entire environment. situation.

11. Measurement indicates those 11. Evaluation comprises of both

observations which are displayed quantitative and qualitative observations.
numerically.

12. Measurement can be conducted at any 12. Evaluation is a continuous process.

time.
 Assessment for Learning 17

13. It is quantitative in nature. 13. It is both quantitative and qualitative in

nature.

14. No significant predictions may be made 14. Significant predictions may be made
here. here.

1.7 Difference between Assessment and Evaluation:

The terms assessment and evaluation are often used interchangeably, however, they
actually have different definition. Ewell (2003) explains that, “Evaluation is typically a broader
concept than assessment as it focuses on the overall or summative experience.”
Assessment is defined as a process of appraising something or someone, i.e. the act of
gauging the quality, value or importance. As against, evaluation focuses on making a judgment
about values, numbers or performance of someone or something. Assessment is made to
identify the level of performance of an individual, whereas evaluation is performed to
determine the degree to which goals are attained.
The terms "Assessment" and "Evaluation" have been used interchangeably in some
literature, but the basic distinction is that "evaluation" is used to provide a grade or score, and
"assessment" is used as a measure of progress. Both are important in the learning environment.
The difference between Assessment and evaluation in relation to different dimensions:

Sl. No. Dimensions Assessment Evaluation

1 Definition Process of gathering Process of analysing, reflecting upon
information on student and summarising, assessment
learning information, and making judgements/
decisions based on the information
collected.
2 Purpose To increase quality To judge quality
3 Timing Formative: ongoing Summative: provides closure
4 Focus on Process oriented: how Product oriented: what has been learnt.
measurement learning is going.

5 Uses Diagnostic Judgemental

6 Feedback Provides feedback Ascertains whether the standards are
attained or not

7 Grading Upgraded Graded

8 Criteria Individualised Applied against standards
focus

9 Objectives Measure of progress Extent of learning

 Assessment for Learning 18

10 Useful for Enables teachers to Helps students better understand

better

1.8 Relationship between Assessment and Evaluation:

Assessment according to Bob Adamson, ‘Assessment is the process of collecting
information or evidence of a learner’s learning process and achievement over a period of time,
in order to improve teaching and learning.’
Assessment is typically used to describe processes to examine or measure student
learning that results from academic programmes. It is an ongoing process aimed at improving
student learning. Assessment is not based on one test or one task, nor it is expressed by marked
of grade, but rather in a report from with scales or levels as well as description and comment
from the teacher. The student’s achievement is often measured against his own starting point,
rather than compared against the skills or abilities of other students.
Evaluation according to Cameron, ‘Evaluation is the process of marking overall
judgement about one’s work or a whole school’s work.’ It is concerned with a whole range of
issues in and beyond language education: lessons, courses, programmes and skills can be
evaluated. It produces a global view of achievement usually based on many different types of
information, such as observation of lessons, student’s test scores, teacher’s assessment reports,
course documents or interviews with students and teachers.
These two processes are complementary and necessary in education. Quality
assessment and evaluation are similar as a value specific criterion, process controlling
mechanism and response require collection of data. Both require person to collect data. Both
processes conclude with report of findings. Both are aim driven and have significance in
learning. Effective teachers will use both – assessment and evaluation techniques regularly and
on a daily basis to improve student learning and to guide instruction. Both measure whether or
not learning and/or learning objectives are being met. Thus, the relationship between
assessment and evaluation can be summed up in the following points:
i. Assessment is a part and parcel of the broad term - evaluation. Evaluation without
assessment is not possible and meaningless. Assessment guides the direction and
focus in the process of evaluation.
ii. Assessment gathers all necessary information, materials, evidences of students’
responses to educational activities which help to ascertain value addition,
judgement of the students’ performances or outcomes, or in determining students’
outcome i.e. in the process of evaluating students’ performance.
iii. Assessment is a process of assigning symbols to something that is assigning marks
through some form of tests or quiz or activity. It is one of the quantitative aspects
of evaluation, while evaluation gives value or determines the assigned marks or
 Assessment for Learning 19

symbols in terms of grade or level or degree of achievement. So, they are

interchangeable terms used in education.
iv. Effective evaluation depends on the effective assessment process. The quality and
valid evaluation is very relevant with the reliability and validity of information
collected or gathered through assessment process. Evaluation is what we do with
the assessment materials. Assessment is the basis of evaluation.
v. Assessment and evaluation are of similar in process, aims, techniques,
mechanisms, significance, etc. Both the terms are interchangeably used to ascertain
and determined values towards a defined objective. They measure whether learning
or teaching objectives are being attained.
vi. In any educative process in determining degree or performance of learning or in
the way to provide feedback to student or teachers, both the process – assessment
and evaluation are indispensable mechanisms during the course of teaching and
learning.
vii. Both assessment and evaluation require certain criteria to collect information for
judgemental purposes and made decision or determine the level of achievement
based of certain criterial such as norm criteria or standard criteria.
viii. Both uses measurement or test so as to collect or make judgement of the collected
data or determining level of achievement of the student’s learning.
1.3 Classifying the Terms: Test, Examination, Measurement, Grading:
When defined within the educational setting, the terms assessment, evaluation, test,
examination, measurement and grading are all used to ascertain or measure how much of
assigned materials have mastered, how well students are learning the materials, and how well
the students are meeting the stated goals and objectives. It also helps the teachers to change or
modify or enrich the teaching methods, or teaching learning materials in order to make the
learning process more constructive and worthful. In the following, these commonly used terms
are being described for clear understanding the concept and meaning, and to devoid of
confusing in use in educational settings.
A) Test:
A test (informally) is an assessment intended to measure a test-taker's knowledge, skill,
aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics. It is a method to determine a
student's ability to complete certain tasks or demonstrate mastery of a skill or knowledge of
content. Some types would-be multiple-choice tests, or a weekly spelling test. While it is commonly
used interchangeably with assessment, or even evaluation, it can be distinguished by the fact that a
test is one form of an assessment.
A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that
requires a test taker to physically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and
requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is often required to rely upon
memory to respond to specific items whereas in an open book test, a test taker may use one or
more supplementary tools such as a reference book or calculator when responding to an item.
 Assessment for Learning 20

A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test

would be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would
be a final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by
a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score.
A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both.
The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of
participants.
• A standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner
to ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are often used in education, professional
certification, psychology, the military, and many other fields.
• A non-standardized test is usually flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty
and significance. Since these tests are usually developed by individual instructors, the format
and difficulty of these tests may not be widely adopted or used by other instructors or
institutions. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the proficiency level of students,
to motivate students to study, and to provide feedback to students. In some instances, a teacher
may develop non-standardized tests that resemble standardized tests in scope, format, and
difficulty for the purpose of preparing their students for an upcoming standardized test.
B) Examination:
An examination is a more formal test which is conducted by the schools, boards,
colleges and universities to assess the knowledge and understanding level of the students
gained in teaching and learning. It assesses how he is better than the rest, how he is different
in his approach, what sets him apart from others, how can be asset to organization and to the
nation as a whole. According to Oxford Dictionary, ‘Examination is a formal test of a student’s
knowledge or proficiency in a subject or skill.’ It is an inspection to see how well one in doing
i.e. how proficient it or they are.
An examination is a formal test that you take to show your knowledge or ability in a
particular subject, or to obtain a qualification. It can be of summative form of
assessment because examinations are normally held at the end of a course and are conducted
under formal circumstances.
In other word, an examination is usually more important than a test. It is often
conducted at the end of a semester or the year. One class usually has only one or two
examinations but may have many smaller tests. It counts more percentage of the grade in
examination for the final grade of the student’s attainment.
Examination involves an interaction with the student to reveal the knowledge that the
child has retained from the class lesson. Examination is usually performed in the classroom
environment with every student participating. It can be of written, oral, open book or strictly
from memory. The purpose of examination is used to create goals for learning and to decide
which are ready for the next set of concept or class. The common techniques of conducting
examination are half yearly examination, term examination, final examination, promotional
 Assessment for Learning 21

examination, online examination, etc. which primarily consist of test questions like objective
type questions, short answer types and essay type questions.
C) Assessment:
Assessment is the process of gathering information to monitor progress and make
educational decisions if necessary. An assessment may include a test, but also includes methods such
as observations, interviews, behaviour monitoring, etc. In education, assessment may be described as
the process that appraise an individual’s knowledge, understanding, abilities, aptitudes or
skills. The overall goal of assessment is to improve student learning.
In other word, it can a tool that measure how well the students achieve the learning
instruction. Assessment is not just a test at the end of a unit. It is found in all the learning
components- the content, the process and the product. It is performance based, seamless and
ongoing.
It provides students, parents/guardians and teachers with valid information concerning
students’ progress and their attainment of the expected curriculum. So, assessment should
always be viewed as information to improve students’ achievement. According to the Higher
Learning Commission (USA), assessment of student learning is a participatory, interactive
process that –
- provides data/information student’s learning.
- engaged teachers and administrators in analysing and using this data or information
to confirm and improve teaching and learning,
- guides administrators in making educational and institutional improvement.
- evaluate whether changes made has any impact on student learning.
D) Evaluation:
Evaluation is a comprehensive term denoting both qualitative and quantitative changes
in the total being. It is not just a testing programme. Tests are but one of the many different
techniques such as observation, check lists, questionnaires, interviews, etc. that may contribute
to the total evaluation programme.
Evaluation is used to determine whether the subject (i.e. student) meets a preset criteria,
such as qualifying for special education services. This uses assessment (remember that an
assessment may be a test) to make a determination of qualification in accordance with
a predetermined criterion.
According to Walker H. Hill, “Evaluation in education is a process by which we form
judgements about the value of the educational status or achievement of students. It implies
some kind of measurement. And we must decide to what extent we find that level satisfactory
which means placing a value upon it.” It signifies describing something in terms of selected
attitudes and judging the degree of acceptability or suitability of that which has been accepted.
Thus, we can conclude that evaluation is
 Assessment for Learning 22

- A technical term recently brought into use which attempts to measure a wide range of
objectives and includes qualitative and quantitative observations.
- Concerned with the total personality of the pupils and attempts to gather evidence on
all aspects of personality development.
- Concerned with the total value and pre-purposes the definitions of goals and objectives.
- Takes into the previous achievements of the pupil and thus determines the rate of his
progress. This helps the evaluator to make an estimate of his future progress.
- Uses a variety of techniques such as achievement, attitude, personality, and interest
tests, work habits and in fact all modern techniques including sociometric techniques.
- A cooperative process, inter-relating students, teachers and parents.
E) Measurement:
Measurement is a process of determining ‘how much or how little, how great or how
small, how much more than or how much less than.’ It is used in its simple daily life context,
may be define as the assignment of an exact and quantitative number to an object such as 3 kg,
5 meters, 6 Rs. Or 10 miles, etc. E.L Thorndike rightly said that ‘anything that exists at all,
exists in some quantity; and anything that exists in some quantity is capable of being
measured.’ J. P. Guilford defined measurement as the ‘assignment of numerals to objects or
events according to certain rules.’ In the words of Norman E. Gronlund, ‘measurement results
are some score or numerical value and quantitative descriptions of the pupils.’ Thus,
measurement involves the process of quantification which indicates to what extent a particular
attribute is present in a particular object. It has been observed that measurement in any field
always involves three essentials:
i) identification and definition of quantity, attribute or variable that is to be measured.
ii) determining the set of operations by which the attribute or variable may be made
perceivable.
iii) establishing a set of procedure for translating observations into quantitative
statement of degree, extent or amount.
F) GRADING:
The word ‘grade’ is originated from the French word ‘grade’ meaning degree of
measurement. Its Latin synonym is ‘gradus’ which mean a degree of something rising by
stages.
Grading in education is the process of applying standardized measurements of varying
levels of achievement in a course. Grades can be assigned as letters as shown above, as a range
(for example, 1 to 6), as a percentage, or as a number out of a possible total (for example, out
of 20).
Grading is a formal certification of competence and achievement of learning outcomes
that should reflect as accurately as possible a student’s performance in a module or in its
elements. A valid grading system should meet three criteria:
1. It should accurately reflect differences in student performance
 Assessment for Learning 23

2. It should be clear for students so that they should be able to chart their progress
3. It should be fair.
4. The criteria for grading should be clearly communicated.
The award of grade 6s is a matter of academic judgement against agreed criteria
(learning outcomes and grade descriptors) and should not be simply a mathematical exercise.
It is a way of to communicate what is intended to be communicated.
Grading practices are generally more consistent. A grade is the overall level of
achievement of a course of study. The course profile indicates how the marks for individual
assessment items are combined to give a grade. Various types of descriptive information and
measure of students’ performance are converted into grades that summarises students’
accomplishments. Grade implies a set of symbols like O, A, B, C, D etc.
The main objective of grading is to place a value upon the quality of students’
performance. The grading process depends on many things such as the nature of the subject
matter, the difficulty of the question paper, the intellectual abilities assessed by the question,
and precision required in the evaluation programme.
The most predominant form of grading is the percentage system. An examination
consists of several questions each of which is given credit. The sum of credit for all questions
generally counts up to 100. The grade awarded to a student is based on the percentage obtained
in the examination. The percentage of all subjects taken in an examination leads to the grade
awarded at the end of the year. The percentage system is used at both the school and university.
In short, grading is a process of classifying students into different categories on the
basis of pre-defined standard and representing each category by a specific letter. Since grades
are the means of reporting students' performance, it is necessary to use the symbols in such a
way that it ought to be clearly defined and uniformly understood by all concerned like students,
teachers and parents. Therefore, it is of, utmost significance that the meaning of each grading
symbol be clearly spelt out and adhered to the specified system of grading by each examiner.
Need of Grading
A number of purposes are served by grading, as listed below:
(a) It provides an account of the level of instructional objectives achieved by
students, which is useful to both teachers and parents.
(b) Grades provides a sort of permanent record of students’ growth, which is useful
to institutes of higher learning for admissions, besides to the prospective
employees.
(c) It serves the purpose of making decisions by school itself in terms of promotions
and placement.
(d) Grades may be helpful in reviewing and adapting instructional strategies and
appropriateness of the prescribed curriculum.
(e) Grades can also be used in determining Grade point average (G.P.A) for awarding
scholarships in a number of institutions.
Merits:
 Assessment for Learning 24

• It reduces inter and intra examiners variability

• Reduces fear of examination
• Motivates learning
• Scope to strengthen self-esteem
• It gives an estimation for students about their achievement
• Gives an estimation of social and personal development
• Helps administrative and guidance purposes
• Informs parents about students’ progress

Limitations of Grading System:

• Letter grades, for example, offer parents and others an approximate description of
student achievement and the adequacy of their performance. This requires the
abstraction of a great deal of information into a single symbol. In addition, cut-offs
between grades are always arbitrary and difficult to justify. Grading lacks the richness
of other, more detailed reporting methods such as narratives or standard based reports.
• Discourages meritorious students.
• Very difficult to fix a child to a grade, in spite of specific criteria, since the child may
not exactly fit to any grade criteria. It re
• quires expertise to fix the criteria for grading
• It is not suitable for quantitative evaluation
• There is scope for subjectivity
Difference among the concepts of Test, Examination, measurement, assessment and
evaluation:
In an educational setting testing,
Evaluation
examination, measurement, assessment and
evaluation are used to measure to what extent
Assessment
the students have been able to learn in
accordance with the expected outcomes.
But each concept has its additional Measurement

attributes which differentiates it from the

Examination
rest of the concepts. Let us see the difference
among these concepts. Test and examinations
examine students’ knowledge of a definite amount Tes of
t
intended learning. They measure the level of skill or knowledge that
has been already taught or guided. It may be administered orally, on paper, on computer, as per
the requirement of the test.
Measurement refers to the observations that are expressed quantitatively. It is precise
and objective. It is precise and objective. It refers to the process by which the attributes or
dimensions of some physical objects are determined, by using standard instruments.
 Assessment for Learning 25

Assessment is the process of documenting knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs in

measurable terms. It is the process of describing, collecting, recording, scoring and interpreting
information about learning. It is the process of documenting in measurable terms. It focuses
mainly on the individual learner, the learning community, the institution or the educational
system as a whole. All tests are assessments, but not all assessments are tests. Test is conducted
at the end of a lesson or a unit. Progress is assessed at the end of the school year. Assessment
ascertains the behaviour specified in an objective.
Evaluation gives a qualitative description. It is subjective and comprehensive. It is
complex and value oriented. It refers to the comparison of data to standard for the purpose of
judging worth or quality and research and refers to the use of that data for the purpose of
describing, predicting and controlling for better understanding of the phenomena under
consideration. It is a continuous process, not a periodic exercise. It answers how good and adds
value judgement. It is based on tests, examination, measurement, and assessment. It is
concerned about improvement in teaching learning process.
1.4 Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) was a procedure of assessment,
directed by the Right to Education Act. of India in 2009. RTE (2009) safeguarded the
educational rights of Indian children between the age group of 5-14 years. To realise the goals
of this act, a structured and strong evaluation system was needed. So,, this was the beginning
of introducing CCE within the mainstream Indian education system.
CCE is an integral aspect of the teaching–learning process. The term CCE consists of
three terms- Continuous, Comprehensive, and Evaluation. Each of the terms bears the specific
characteristic of the assessment system.
The term ‘Continuous’ in CCE implies that there should be continuity in evaluating
different aspects of a child’s development rather than evaluating the isolated unconnected
events at certain intervals that specifically aim at categorizing or labelling a child. Assessment
during the teaching-learning process helps the child and the teacher to identify the gaps in
learning of a child to enable the teacher to adapt the curriculum and teaching learning strategies
to suit the needs of the learners(s).
‘Comprehensive’ aspect of CCE implies assessment to cover all aspects of a child’s
personality in an integrative manner. The progress should be mapped for holistic cognitive,
physical, and psycho-social development. Assessment of personal-social qualities and different
aspects of physical development should be integral to assessment of the cognitive aspects of
each curricular areas during the teaching-learning process. Beeby (1977) defined evaluation as
“the systematic collection and interpretation of evidence leading as a part of process to a
judgement of value with a view to action.” Thus, evaluation can be considered as systematic
process involving collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data in the light of the
objectives framed for the instruction system.
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school-based
evaluation of a student that covers all aspects of a student development. It is a developmental
 Assessment for Learning 26

process of student which emphasizes on two-fold objectives. These objectives are continuity
in evaluation and assessment of broad-based learning and behavioural outcomes on the other.
The term ‘continuous’ is meant to emphasise that evaluation of identified aspects of
students ‘growth and development’ is a continuous process rather than an event, built into the
total teaching-learning process and spread over the entire span of academic session. It means
regularity of assessment, frequency of unit testing, diagnosis of learning gaps, use of corrective
measures, retesting and feedback of evidence to teachers and students for their self-evaluation.
The second term ‘comprehensive’ means that the scheme attempts to cover both the
scholastic and the co-scholastic aspects of the students’ growth and development. Since
abilities, attitudes and aptitudes can manifest themselves in forms other than the written word,
the term refers to application of variety of tools and techniques (both testing and non-testing)
and aims at assessing a learner’s development in areas of learning, like: -
i. Knowledge
ii. Understanding
iii. Applying
iv. Analysing
v. Evaluating
vi. Creating
Nature of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
The nature of CCE is so comprehensive that it includes almost all aspects of child
development. It integrates assessment with teaching and learning process; emphasizing
assessment of learner abilities in scholastic areas along with the co-scholastic areas.
• CCE encourages and motivates students to be positive in their attitudes.
• It emphasizes that teacher’s judgment should be made through an honest and objective
appraisal without bias.
• It also encourages continuous interaction with parents with regard to their children’s
progress and performance.
• CCE is developmental in nature because emphasis is given on improvement of
students’ learning throughout the schooling process.
• It is a process of continuous attempts to assess whether desirable changes are taking
place in students along the lines of educational objectives.
Aims of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:

• The main aim of CCE is to assess every aspect of the child during their presence
at the school.
• CCE helps in minimising the stress on children.
• Make assessment comprehensive and regular.
• Provide space for the teacher for prolific teaching.
• Provide a tool for detection and corrections.
 Assessment for Learning 27

• Provide learners with great skill.

Objectives of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
Various objectives of continuous and comprehensive evaluation are –
• It makes the process of teaching and learning a learner-centred activity.
• To make the assessment process an essential part of the teaching-learning
process.
• To provide scope for learners for self-assessment.
• To use the evaluation process for improving student’s achievement through
detection and correction.
Objectives of CCE:
The objectives of CCE are:
i. To help develop cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills
ii. To lay emphasis on thought process and de-emphasise memorization
iii. To make evaluation an integral part of teaching-learning process
iv. To use evaluation for improvement of students’ achievement and teaching-
learning strategies on the basis of regular diagnosis followed by remedial
instructions
v. To use evaluation as a quality control device to maintain desired standard of
performance
vi. To determine social utility, desirability or effectiveness of a programme and
take appropriate decisions about the learner, the process of learning and the
learning environment
vii. To make the process of teaching and learning a learner-centered Activity
viii. To make the process more comprehensive in nature, it is important that
assessment of the child’s learning be done in a whole range of situations and
environment both in and out of the classroom.
Purposes of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
CCE attempts to minimize fear and anxiety among our learners about examination and
evaluation. CCE emphasizes evaluation as a process in place of an event. CCE helps learners,
parents and teachers in the following ways:
• It reduces stress and anxiety, which often builds up among the young students during
and after the examination.
• It reduces the dropout rate as there will be less fear and anxiety among learners related
to their school performance.
• In CCE, greater focus is given on learning rather than on conducting tests and
examinations.
• It contributes to the holistic development of learners.
 Assessment for Learning 28

• CCE is used as an instrument of preparing learners for future life by making them
physically fit, mentally alert, emotionally balanced and socially adjusted.
• Learners get more time to develop their interests, hobbies and personalities through
CCE.
• It promotes a learner friendly environment, thereby optimizes student learning.
Need of CCE:
• To take care of continuity and periodicity of assessment
• To overcome the limitations of the traditional system of evaluation: the traditional
system was confined only to scholastic aspects and did not promote the child from
holistic perspective. CCE helps to make the system of evaluation more
comprehensive.
• To make evaluation an integral part of total teaching learning process: Evaluation
was not considered as part of teaching in traditional system. It was considered as a
process apart from teaching. CCE considers evaluation as an integral part of
teaching learning process
• To meet the needs of individual learners: CCE has scope to evaluate each and every
child. It helps to achieve the aims of inclusive education.
• Different education commissions have recommended Continuous and
Comprehensive evaluation as an integral part of education. Kothari education
commission suggested that evaluation should be comprehensive including all those
aspects of students’ growth including personality traits, interests and attitudes.
National Policy on Education 1986, recommended that “continuous and
comprehensive evaluation should incorporate both scholastic and non -scholastic
aspects of evaluation spread over the total span of instructional time”. The National
Curriculum Framework 2005 also suggested that ‘School based CCE system should
be established, which can reduce stress among children, make evaluation
comprehensive and regular and produce learners with greater skills and creative
works.’ Right to Education act 2009, stated that a scheme of continuous and
comprehensive evaluation should be implemented from standard 1st to 8th
standard.
Advantages:

• Elimination of subjectivity in evaluation Provides scope to give meaningful feedback

• Contributes for further learning
• Gives scope to make learner responsible of learning
• Holistic evaluation possible
• Possibility of wider use of evaluation results
• Learning becomes more meaningful
• Scope to make evaluation integral part of teaching learning process
• Reduces stress and tension
• Checks students’ achievement in regular intervals of time
 Assessment for Learning 29

• Communicates the limitations in students’ learning and promotes further learning

• Encourages specific abilities of students
• Improves students’ performance
• All round development of students is possible
• Scope to change teaching and learning techniques based on feedback
• Dragonises students’ needs and problems
Limitations:

• Time consuming
• Needs proper orientation
• Unfavourable attitude of teachers and school setup
• Assessment is elaborative
• Difficult in classes where the number of students is more
• Biasness on the part of teacher
• Subjective approach
• It is costly
• Not appropriate for crowded classes
• Need more energy and efforts
• Need congenial environment
• Knowledge of background of students is needed
• Insecurity among student
• Need training for proper implementation.
1.4.2 Distinction between ‘Assessment of Learning’ and ‘Assessment for Learning’ and
‘Assessment as Learning’
Assessment for learning: -
Assessment for learning is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by
learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need
to go and how best to go there. Assessment for learning is also known as formative assessment
(UK 2002 Assessment Reform Group).
The ongoing process of gathering and interpreting evidence about student learning for
the purpose of determining where students are in their learning, where they need to go, and
how best to get there.
Assessment for Learning is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by
learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need
to go and how best to get there.

• In classrooms where assessment for learning is practised, students are encouraged

to be more active in their learning and associated assessment.
• The ultimate purpose of assessment for learning is to create self-regulated learners
who can leave school able and confident to continue learning throughout their lives.
 Assessment for Learning 30

• Students are guided on what they are expected to learn and what quality work looks
like.
• The teacher will work with the student to understand and identify any gaps or
misconceptions
• Teachers are now afforded the chance to adjust classroom instruction based upon
the needs of the students.
• Verbal or written feedback to the student is primarily descriptive and emphasizes
strengths, identifies challenges, and points to next steps as teachers check on
understanding they adjust their instruction to keep students on track
• no grades or scores are given - record-keeping is primarily anecdotal and
descriptive, occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the course
of study to the time of summative assessment.
Assessment For Learning involves teachers uses information about student’s
knowledge, understanding and skills to inform their teaching. It occurs throughout the teaching
learning process to clarify student’s learning and understanding. It includes two phases—initial
or diagnostic assessment and formative assessment. This type of assessment can be based on a
variety of information sources (e.g., portfolios, works in progress, teacher observation,
conversation). Verbal or written feedback given to the student after this assessment is primarily
descriptive and emphasizes strengths, identifies challenges, and points to next steps. Through
this assessment teachers check on understanding they adjust their instruction to keep students
on track. No grades or scores are given - record-keeping is primarily anecdotal and descriptive.
It occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the course of study to the time of
summative assessment

• Assessment FOR learning embeds assessment processes throughout the teaching

and learning process to constantly adjust instructional strategy.
• The emphasis shifts from summative to FORMATIVE assessment in Assessment
for Learning.
• Assessment for Learning happens during the learning, often more than once, rather
than at the end. Students understand exactly what they are to learn, what is expected
of them and are given feedback and advice on how to improve their work.
Teachers’ role in ‘Assessment for Learning’
Teacher acts as a mentor, doctor, reporter and director in this approach. They provide
feedback and support for each student. The teacher collects data and identifies the problems.
They involve themselves in the process of diagnosis. Teachers also work as reporters and report
to parents, students, and the school administration about students’ progress. Like a director,
they take decisions and give instructions about how the process should continue in the
immediate future, through meticulous planning of instruction. The specific tasks of teachers in
assessment for learning approach are the following.

• Gives instruction in view of targeted outcomes

• Identifies particular learning needs during different sessions of learning
• Selects and adapts materials and resources
 Assessment for Learning 31

• Plans the course of learning

• Creates differentiated teaching strategies and learning opportunities for students to
move forward in the process of learning
• Provides immediate feedback for students
• Ensures that learning has taken place
• Makes attempts to enhance students’ motivation and commitment to learning
• They see that classroom culture is conducive for learning
• They try to make learning convincing for students
• They ensure that learning is manageable for students.
• They observe keenly how students are making connections between previous and
present learning and plan further learning situations.
• They are keen on tasks that expose students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Assessment of learning: -
Assessment of learning refers to strategies designed to confirm what students know,
demonstrate whether or not they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their
individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and make decisions about students’ future
programs or placements. It is designed to provide evidence of achievement to parents, other
educators, the students themselves, and sometimes to outside groups (e.g., employers, other
educational institutions). Assessment of learning results in statements or symbols about how
well students are learning.
Assessment of learning: It basically focuses on learners’ achievement against some
predefined outcomes and standards. Sometimes, it is referred to as summative assessment.
Generally, teachers undertake this type of assessment at the end of a Unit or term or semester
in order to grade or rank the learners.
We have seen that the objective of assessment from behaviourist perspective is to assess
the extent of learning that has taken place at a particular point of time, for instance, after
teaching a lesson or unit, you might be interested to know the level of achievement of students
on the content you have taught and therefore you give them some test for it. The predominant
objective of assessment in schools is assessment of learning. You might be using various forms
of tests to assess the quantity and accuracy of learners’ work represented through grades or
marks. This type of assessment tells you as to how well the students are performing in
comparison to certain criteria such as ‘high and low achievement’ or ‘pass or fail’, etc. School
report card of students provide feedback to parents about the progress of their wards as well.
Similarly, at the larger scale, State level or National level surveys are conducted to
assess the performance of students at different levels. The focus of such assessment is to rank
order students in groups in terms of their position within the group such as first or second, and
so on. Although such type of assessment has long historical tradition and is widely accepted
by schools and parents alike, but it has several limitations and doubts have been raised about
the reliability and validity of such type of assessment procedures.
 Assessment for Learning 32

Assessment from this perspective has been considered as a means to achieve the goal
of mastery learning. This approach led to identifying minimum levels of learning (MLL). The
National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986, revised in 1992 and its Programme of Action
(POA1992) stressed on minimum levels of learning (MLL) which subsequently led to stage-
wise and subject-wise development of MLL by the NCERT. Traditionally assessment of
learning has been carried out in our schools with the help of numerical assessment (0-100) or
grades (A-E), etc. and is summative in nature reflecting how much a learner has achieved at
the end of learning any concept and unit. Assessment of learning, therefore is summative and
linear which is carried out with the objective to ascertain what the learner has learnt after
teaching is over. It is the end product of learning.
Assessment of learning represents the assessment conception of measurement.
Judgments of performances are taken at the end of learning. The predominant kind of
assessment in schools is Assessment of Learning. Its purpose is summative, intended to certify
learning. Assessment of Learning in classrooms takes the form of tests or exams that include
questions drawn from the material studied during that time. In Assessment of Learning, the
results are expressed symbolically, generally as marks across several content areas to report to
parents.
This is the kind of assessment that still dominates most classroom assessment activities,
especially in secondary schools, with teachers firmly in charge of both creating and marking
the test. Teachers use the tests to assess the quantity and accuracy of student work, and the bulk
of teacher effort in assessment is taken up in marking and grading. A strong emphasis is placed
on comparing students, and feedback to students comes in the form of marks or grades with
little direction or advice for improvement. These kinds of testing events indicate which students
are doing well and which ones are doing poorly. Typically, they don’t give much indication of
mastery of particular ideas or concepts because the test content is generally too limited and the
scoring is too simplistic to represent the broad range of skills and knowledge that has been
covered.
Assessment of Learning and grading has a long history in education. They have been
widely accepted by parents and the public. If they have served us so well, why would we worry
about a process that works? Without moving too far away from my primary purpose, I’d like
to highlight a few of the issues that are currently contentious about what we have always done.
Although the public has been largely supportive of grading in schools, scepticism is increasing
about its fairness and even its accuracy.
Assessment of learning is the use of a task or an activity to measure, record and report
on a student's level of achievement in regards to specific learning expectations. Assessment
that is accompanied by a number or letter grade, compares one student’s achievement with
standards, results can be communicated to the student and parents, occurs at the end of the
learning unit.
It assists teachers in using evidence of students learning to assess achievements against
outcomes and standards. Sometimes it is known as summative assessment. This assessment
helps for assigning grades & ranks. It compares one student’s achievement with standards The
results can be communicated to the student and parents. It occurs at the end of the learning unit.
 Assessment for Learning 33

• The purpose of this kind of assessment is usually SUMMATIVE and is mostly done at the
end of a task, unit of work etc.

• Assessment OF learning involves looking at assessment information at the end of the teaching
and learning process to rank students’ achievement levels against a standard

• “Assessment of Learning is the assessment that becomes public and results in statements or
symbols about how well students are learning. It often contributes to pivotal decisions that will
affect students’ futures. It is important, then, that the underlying logic and measurement of
assessment of learning be credible and defensible.”
Teachers’ Role
The consequences of assessment of learning are often far-reaching. They affect students
seriously. Teachers have the responsibility of reporting student learning accurately and fairly,
based on evidence obtained from a variety of contexts and applications. Effective assessment
of learning requires that teachers provide

• a rationale for undertaking a particular assessment of learning at a particular point in

time
• clear descriptions of the intended learning
• processes that make it possible for students to demonstrate their competence and skill
• a range of alternative mechanisms for assessing the same outcomes
• public and defensible reference points for making judgements
• transparent approaches to interpretation
• descriptions of the assessment process
• strategies for remedy in the event of disagreement about the decisions
With the help of their teachers, students can look forward to assessment of learning
tasks as occasions to show their competence, as well as the depth and breadth of their learning.
Assessment as learning: -
Assessment as learning focusses on students and emphasizes assessment as a process
of metacognition (knowledge of one’s own thought processes) for students. Assessment as
learning emerges from the idea that learning is not just a matter of transferring ideas from
someone who is knowledgeable to someone who is not, but is an active process of cognitive
restructuring that occurs when individuals interact with new ideas. Within this view of learning,
students are the critical connectors between assessment and learning. For students to be actively
engaged in creating their own understanding, they must learn to be critical assessors who make
sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge, and use it for new learning.
Assessment as learning is when learners are asked to assess their performance on their
own, they use various assessment techniques and strategies to assess themselves. This practice
helps learners to identify their knowledge gaps, adopt appropriate learning strategy and use
assessment as tool for new learning.
 Assessment for Learning 34

This is the regulatory process in metacognition; that is, students become adept at
personally monitoring what they are learning, and use what they discover from the monitoring
to make adjustments, adaptations, and even major changes in their thinking. Assessment as
learning is based in research about how learning happens, and is characterized by students
reflecting on their own learning and making adjustments so that they achieve deeper
understanding.
The ultimate goal in assessment as learning is for students to acquire the skills and the
habits of mind to be metacognitively aware with increasing independence. Assessment as
learning focusses on the explicit fostering of students’ capacity over time to be their own best
assessors, but teachers need to start by presenting and modelling external, structured
opportunities for students to assess themselves.
In assessment as learning, the role of the student, is not only seen as a contributor to the
assessment and learning process, but also as the critical connector between them. The student
is the link. Students, as active, engaged, and critical assessors, can make sense of information,
relate it to prior knowledge, and master the skills involved. This is the regulatory process in
metacognition. It occurs when students personally monitor what they are learning and use the
feedback from this monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations, and even major changes in
what they understand. Assessment as Learning is the ultimate goal, where students are their
own best assessors.
At some point, students will need to be self-motivating and able to bring their talents
and knowledge to bear on the decisions and problems that make up their lives. They can’t just
wait for the teacher to tell them whether or not the answer is “right.” Effective assessment
empowers students to ask reflective questions and consider a range of strategies for learning
and acting. Over time, students move forward in their learning when they can use personal
knowledge to construct meaning, have skills of self-monitoring to realize that they don’t
understand something, and have ways of deciding what to do next.
Assessment as learning is a process of developing and supporting metacognition for
students. Assessment as learning focusses on the role of the student as the critical connector
between assessment and learning. When students are active, engaged, and critical assessors, 50
they make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge, and use it for new learning. This
is the regulatory process in metacognition. It occurs when students monitor their own learning
and use the feedback from this monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations, and even major
changes in what they understand.
Assessment as learning is the use of a task or an activity to allow students the
opportunity to use assessment to further their own learning. Self and peer assessments allow
students to reflect on their own learning and identify areas of strength and need. These tasks
offer students the chance to set their own personal goals and advocate for their own learning It
begins as students become aware of the goals of instruction and the criteria for performance
involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and reflecting on results implies student ownership
and responsibility for moving his or her thinking forward (metacognition) occurs throughout
the learning process.
 Assessment for Learning 35

It occurs when students act as their own assessors. Students monitor their own learning
, ask questions and use a range of strategies to decide what they know and can do for learning.
It begins as students become aware of the goals of instruction and the criteria for performance.
It encourages to take responsibility for their own learning. It involves goal-setting, monitoring
progress, and reflecting on results It implies student ownership and responsibility for moving
his or her thinking forward (metacognition). It occurs throughout the learning process.
Teachers’ Roles in Assessment as Learning: -
The role of teacher here is different form the context of traditional assessment contexts.
The teacher needs to shift from a presenter of content to a practitioner of more productive
pedagogy. Here one can witness a shared responsibility of teachers and students for learning.
The idea of Zone of Proximal Development suggested by Vygotsky is more applicable here.
He proposes that the aim of teaching is to encourage the learner to be more independent from
the teacher. This approach implies that the teacher needs to set procedures of learning that
allow the learner to take up independently in the course of learning. In this approach, the
students are encouraged to use assessment information to set their learning goals, make
learning decisions related to their own improvement. The students assess the status of their
work and identify where they have to reach. They take the feedback from peers and students
and understands the demands of further learning. The teacher helps to make future learning
plans.
One should not think that, the role of teacher in this approach is less important because
students take the responsibility of their learning. The teachers have equal and greater
responsibility here, more than in learning for assessment contexts. The teacher is supposed to
design instruction and assessment that allows all students to think about, and monitor, their
own learning. Assessment as learning is based on the conviction that students are capable of
becoming adaptable, flexible, and independent in their learning and decision-making. When
teachers involve students and promote their independence, they are giving them the tools to
undertake their own learning wisely and well. To become independent learners, students must
develop sophisticated combinations of skills, attitudes, and dispositions. Self-monitoring and
evaluation are complex and difficult skills that do not develop quickly or spontaneously. Like
any other complex set of skills, becoming metacognitively aware requires modelling and
teaching on the part of the teacher, and practice on the part of the student.
The teacher’s role in promoting the development of independent learners through
assessment as learning is to

• model and teach the skills of self-assessment.

• guide students in setting goals, and monitoring their progress toward them.
• provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that reflect curriculum
outcomes.
• work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice.
• guide students in developing internal feedback or self-monitoring mechanisms to
validate and question their own thinking, and to become comfortable with the ambiguity
and uncertainty that is inevitable in learning anything new.
 Assessment for Learning 36

• provide regular and challenging opportunities to practise, so that students can become
confident, competent self-assessors.
• monitor students’ metacognitive processes as well as their learning, and provide
descriptive feedback.
• create an environment where it is safe for students to take chances and where support
is readily available Students need to experience continuous and genuine success.
This does not mean that students should not experience failure but, rather, that they
need to become comfortable with identifying different perspectives and challenge these
perspectives; they need to learn to look for misconceptions and inaccuracies and work with
them toward a more complete and coherent understanding. Students (both those who have been
successful - in a system that rewards safe answers—and those who are accustomed to failure)
are often unwilling to confront challenges and take the risks associated with making their
thinking visible. Teachers have the responsibility of creating environments in which students
can become confident, competent self-assessors by providing emotional security and genuine
opportunities for involvement, independence, and responsibility.
Difference among assessment for learning, assessment as learning and assessment of
learning
All the three approaches contribute to student learning but in vastly different ways. The
following table gives a summary of the salient features of each approach.
Features of Assessment for, as and of Learning

Features Assessment for Learning Assessment as Assessment of

Learning Learning
Purpose Information for teachers’ Self-monitoring and Judgements about
instructional decisions self-correction or placement,
adjustment promotion,
credentials, etc.
Reference External standards or Personal goals and Other students
points expectations external standards
Key assessor Teacher Student Teacher
Nature of Formative Summative Formative
assessment
Methods use A range of methods in A range of methods of Range of methods
different modes that make different modes that in different modes
students’ skills and elicits students; that assess both
understanding visible learning and product and
metacognitive process
processes.
Focus Each students’ progress Each student’s The extent to
and learning needs in thinking about his or which students can
relation to the curricular her learning, strategies apply the key
outcomes used to support concepts,
 Assessment for Learning 37

learning, and knowledge, skills,

mechanisms used to attitudes related to
advance with learning the curriculum
outcomes.
Ascertaining Accuracy and consistency Accuracy and Accuracy and
quality of observation and consistency of consistency of
interpretation of student students’ self- fairness of
learning; clear learning reflection, self- judgement based
expectations; accurate, monitoring, and self- on high quality
detailed notes for adjustment of the information; clear,
descriptive feedback to student in considering detailed learning
each student. and challenging one’s expectations, fair
own thinking; students and accurate
record on self- summative
learning. reporting.

Ways of using Provide each student with Provide each student Indicate each
information accurate descriptive with student’s level of
accurate
feedback to further descriptive feedback learning; provide
learning; differentiate that will help them to
foundation for
instruction by continually independent learning discussions on
checking where each habits; have each placement or
student is in relation to the student focus on the promotion; report,
curriculum outcomes. task and his or her fair, accurate and
Provide parents or learning detailed
guardians with descriptive information that ca
feedback about student used to decide the
learning and ideas for next steps in a
support. student’s learning.
Setting goals of Goals are clearly set by Goals are set by Goals are set by
assessment teachers students teachers
Communication Teachers communicate the Goals re derived by Goals are not
of goals goals to students students with the communicated
guidance of teachers
Decision on the Teacher decides Students decide Teacher decides
methods of
assessment
Examples Student: we were I had planned to learn 5 In have got 6/10
supposed to learn 5 new new words (to write marks in
words (to write with with proper spelling, to vocabulary test.
proper spelling, to pronounce properly
pronounce properly and to and to use the word in
use the word in proper proper context). I learn
context). I learnt three four words correctly. I
 Assessment for Learning 38

words in all categories. I must find out why I am

have to learn two more not getting the fifth one
tomorrow. and do some dictionary
exercises to learn that.

Both ‘assessment for learning’ and ‘assessment as learning’ take the learning process
as being significant and emphasise the roles of assessment in supporting learning. What makes
‘assessment as learning’ different from ‘assessment for learning’ is that ‘assessment as
learning’ places special attention on the role of the learner and promotes active engagement of
learners while ‘assessment for learning’ places stronger emphasis on the role the teacher plays
in promoting learning. ‘Assessment as learning’ could be said to be an “assessment as learning
to learn paradigm” while ‘assessment for learning’ an “assessment in support of learning
paradigm” (Berry, 2008a).
1.5 Classification of Assessment based on:
As we know assessment is generally used to refer to all activities that teachers use to
help students learn and to gauge student progress. Assessment can be divided/classified for the
sake of convenience using the following basis such as –
i) Purpose of Assessment (Placement, Formative, Diagnostic and Summative)
ii) Scope (Teacher made tests and Standardized tests)
iii) Attribute measured (Achievement, Attitude, Aptitude etc.)
iv) Nature of information gathered (Qualitative and Quantitative)
v) Mode of responses (Oral, Written and Performance)
vi) Nature of interpretation (Norm-referenced and Criterion referenced)
vii) Context (Internal and External)
They are being discussed in the following ways:
1.5.1 Purpose of Assessment (Placement, Formative, Diagnostic and Summative)
A. Formative Assessment:
Formative assessment is conducted well during the teaching-learning process. It has a
developmental purpose and is designed to help learners learn more effectively by giving them
feedback on their performance and on how it can be improved and maintained.
According to Cowie, B. and Bell, B., “Formative assessment as the bi-directional
process between teacher and student, to enhance, recognise and respond to learning.”
In the word of Tanner (1972), “Formative assessment refers to the use of tests and other
evaluative procedures while the course and instructional programmes is in progress.”
The goal of formative assessment is to monitor student learning to provide ongoing
feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve
their learning. Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the
 Assessment for Learning 39

instructional process, while learning is taking place, and while learning is occurring. Formative
assessment measures student progress but it can also assess your own progress as an instructor.
A primary focus of formative assessment is to identify areas that may need improvement. These
assessments typically are not graded and act as a gauge to students’ learning progress and to
determine teaching effectiveness.
Hence, formative assessment is a reflective process that intends to promote student
attainment. It provides feedback at appropriate stages of the teaching-learning process, which
helps in making changes in the curriculum, teaching-strategies and the learning environment.
Objectives of Formative Assessment:
Formative assessment serves the following purposes in educational system:
i) To make the learning process lively fast and mote fun filled,
ii) To facilitate learning,
iii) To see whether learning has taken place,
iv) To provide feedback to teachers on how learners are progressing; clarifying for the
teacher what can be done to improve, extent or enhance learning,
v) To provide feedback to learners concerning their own improve, extent or enhance
learning,
vi) To monitor student learning for the purpose of providing individualised instruction,
vii) To diagnose learner’s needs or barriers and help to inform any necessary changes to the
course or programme of study, and
viii) To evaluate the learning environment with a view to improve it.
Techniques or Tools Used for Formative Assessment:
Following table shows the techniques and tools, that may be used for formative
assessment:

Tools Techniques
• Paper-pencil tests (written tests) • Tests
• Observation schedules • Assignment
• Interview schedules • Quizzes and competitions
• Rating scales • Debates
• Check lists • Elocution
• Anecdotal records • Group discussion
• Portfolio analysis • Projects
• Inventories, etc. • Club activities, etc.

B. Summative Assessment
 Assessment for Learning 40

Summative assessment is concerned with making judgement about a finished product

or process. It is carries out at the end of the course of learning. It measured or ‘sum up’ how
much a student has learned from the course. It is usually a graded test.
Summative assessment is a process that concerns to final evaluation of the task it the
project or the programme met its goals. Typically, the summative assessment concentrate on
student’s outcomes rather than only the programme of instructions. Its motive is to determine
student’s mastery and understanding of information, skills, concepts or processes. Summative
assessment, occur at the end of a formal learning/instructional experience, either a class or a
programme and may include a variety of activities e.g. tests, demonstration, portfolios,
internship, clinical and capstone projects.
According to Wojtezak, A., “Summative assessment is testing which often occur at the
end if a term or course used primarily to provide information about how much the student has
learned and how well the course was taught.”
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, USA (2006) rightly defined
summative assessment is used to indicate the extent of a learner’s success in meeting the
assessment criteria to gauge the intended learning outcomes of a module or programme.'
Hence, summative assessment is comprehensive in nature, provides accountability and
is used to check the level of learning at the end of the programme. For example, if upon
completion of a programme, students will have the knowledge to pass an accreditation test,
taking the test would be summative in nature, since it is based on the cumulative learning
experiences.
Therefore, the goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student learning at the end
of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or benchmark. Summative
assessment takes place after the learning has been completed and provides information and
feedback that sums up the teaching and learning process.
Typically, no more formal learning is taking place at this stage, other than incidental
learning which might take place through the completion of projects and assignments. Grades
are usually an outcome of summative assessment. Summative assessment is more product-
oriented and assesses the final product, whereas formative assessment focuses on the process
toward completing the product.
Tools for Summative Assessment:
For summative assessment, teachers depend upon various testing tools. They are –
Test given at the end of completion of instruction can provide important information about
how much has been learned by the end of a unit, by mid-semester or by the end of the terms.
These are of many types:
i) Paper and Pencil Tests: There are two types of these tests – limited choice and open-
ended questions types tests:
 Assessment for Learning 41

(a) Limited-choice Questions: Limited-choice questions are test questions that require
students to choose one or more given alternatives – multiple choice, true/false, matching, etc.
(b) Open-ended Questions: Open-ended questions are questions that require students to
formulate their own answers – sentence completion, short-answer and essay, etc.
One type of question is automatically objective and the other necessarily subjective.
Each type of test, has its own sets of strengths and weakness.
ii) Diagnostic Tests: Diagnostic tests can help students develop their skills, if the tests
are constructed in such a way that they force students to become more aware of the thinking
processes they use. These tests can also provide the kind of rapid ad frequent feedback that is
very important to learning. Different kinds of tests are appropriate in different settings.
iii) Performance Tests: Performance testing in very important where the learning goals
involve the acquisition of skills that can be demonstrated through action. In areas, such as
music, theatre, art, dance, medicine and physical education, much of the learning will be
demonstrated through assessment of actual performance.
C. Diagnostic Assessment:
Diagnostic test/assessment is an assessment used to diagnose or to reveal an
individual’s weakness and strength in a certain course of study. It is designed to analyse
individual’s knowledge, performance, etc. and to provide information on the causes of
difficulty. Such assessment is generally encountered in reading and arithmetic and typically
yield a number of scores.
In other words, diagnostic assessment is concerned with identifying the learning
difficulties or weakness of pupil’s during instruction. It tries to locate or discover the specific
area of weakness of a pupil in a given course of instruction and also tries to provide remedial
measures. N.E. Gronlund says, “formative assessment provides first aid treatment for simple
learning problems whereas diagnostic assessment searches for the underlying causes of those
problems that don not respond to first-aid treatment.”
When the teacher finds that inspite of the use of various alternative methods, techniques
and corrective prescriptions the child still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a
detailed diagnostic through specifically designed tests called ‘diagnostic tests.’ Diagnosts can
be made by employing observational techniques too. In case of necessity the services of
psychological and medical specialists can be utilised for diagnosing serious learning handicaps.
Diagnostic assessment can help you identify your students’ current knowledge of a
subject, their skill sets and capabilities, and to clarify misconceptions before teaching takes
place. Knowing students’ strengths and weaknesses can help you better plan what to teach and
how to teach it.
D. Placement Assessment:
Placement assessment is designed to place the right person in the right place. It ensures the
entry performance of the pupil. The future success of the instructional process depends on the
 Assessment for Learning 42

success of placement assessment. Placement assessment aims at assessing pupil’s entry

behaviour in a sequence of instruction. In other words, the main goal of such assessment is to
determine the level or position of the child in the instructional sequence.
We have a planned scheme of instruction for classroom which is supposed to bring a change
in pupil’s behaviour in an orderly manner. Then, we prepare or place the student for planned
instruction for their better prospects. When a pupil is to undertake a new instruction, it is
essential to know the answer of the following questions:

• Does the pupil possess required knowledge and skills for the instruction?
• Whether the pupil has already mastered some of the instructional objectives or not?
• Whether the mode of instruction is suitable to pupil’s interest, work habits and
personal characteristics?
We get the answer to all the probable questions by using a variety of tests, self-report
inventories, observational techniques, case study, attitude test and achievement tests.
Sometimes past experiences, which inspire for present learning also leads to the further
placement in a better position or admission. This type of assessment is helpful for admission
of pupils into a new course of instruction.
Through process, the entry behaviour of the student is assessed. In this case, the students
are given admission to new courses according to their intelligence, attitude, motivation,
aptitude, etc. this type of assessment questions-

• Does the student process the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned
instruction?
• To what extent has the student already developed the understanding and skills that are
the goals of the planned instruction?
• To what extent do the student’s interests, work habits and personality characteristics
indicate that one mode of instruction might be better than other?
The goals of placement assessment are to determine for each student the position in the
instructional sequence and the mode of instruction that is most beneficial. For example, the
B.Ed. course. This type of assessment is called ‘placement assessment’.
1.5.2 Scope (Teacher made tests and Standardized tests)
In the broadest sense, assessments may be classified into two categories: teacher-made
and standardized. Teacher-made assessments are constructed by an individual teacher or a
group of teachers in order to measure the outcome of classroom instruction. Standardized
assessments, on the other hand, are commercially prepared and have uniform procedures for
administration and scoring. They are meant for gathering information on large groups of
students in multiple settings (Karmel and Karmel, 1978).
A. Teacher Made Tests:
These tests are designed by the teachers for the purpose of conducting classroom tests.
These teachers made tests can be in the form of oral tests and written tests. These tests have a
limited area of application and are prepared almost by all teachers according to their
 Assessment for Learning 43

requirements. A teacher is more concerned with the teacher – made tests as she is directly
involved in its construction. Moreover, the teacher made tests have an advantage over
standardized tests because they can be constructed to measure outcomes directly related to
classroom specific objectives and particular class situations. These tests are within the means
of every teacher and most economical. Teacher made oral tests are designed to measure the
performance of student’s skills like listening and speaking in language learning. Written tests
are designed to test the abilities of student’s knowledge comprehension and written expression.
B. Standardized Tests:
A Standardized test is one which norm have been established. The test has been given
to a large number of students. A norm is an average score which measures achievement. So,
every standardized test has norms. It is intended for general use and covers a wider scope of
material than is covered in an ordinary teacher made test. A standardized test is one in which
the procedure, apparatus and scoring have fixed so that precisely the same test can be given at
different time and places. A standardized test is one which has been given to so many people
that the test makers have been able to determine fairly accurately how well a typical person of
a particular age or grade in school will succeed in it.
Teacher made Test vs. Standardized Tests
The standardized test is based on the general content and objectives common to many
schools all over the country whereas the teacher made test can be adapted to content and
objectives specific to his own situation. The standardized test deals with large segments of
knowledge or skill whereas the teacher made test can be prepared in relation to any specific
limited topic. The standardized test is developed with the help of professional writers,
reviewers and editors of tests items whereas the teacher made test usually relies upon the skill
of one or two teachers. The standardized test provides norms for various groups that are broadly
representative of performance throughout the country whereas the teacher made test lack this
external point of reference.
Similarities

• They are both means of performance assessment.

• They both use the same type of test items.
• They both require validity, reliability, objectivity and efficiency.
Differences

• The classroom test may have more content validity than standardized tests.
• The quality of the test items on the standardized test is usually superior because they
are prepared by test specialists and are revised on the basis of actual try out and item
analysis.
• The student’s score on a standardized test is interpreted on basis of norms already
developed on a large sample. But the student’s score on a classroom test is interpreted
in relation to the average score of the classroom students.
 Assessment for Learning 44

• Standardized tests are always accompanied with tests manuals which report data on test
validity and reliability and provide directions for test administration. Such information
is usually not available for classroom tests.
1.5.3 Attribute measured (Achievement, Attitude, Aptitude etc.)
a. Achievement
Academic performance should be measured in multiple manners and methods such as:
teacher observation, benchmark assessments, student portfolios, rubrics, progress monitoring
tools, standardized assessments and other local assessments. ―Using multiple assessments
helps educators determine what is working and not working… and eventually can lead to better
outcomes for students.
b. Aptitude
The terms intelligence, ability and aptitude are often used interchangeably to refer to
behaviour that is used to predict future learning or performance. However, slight differences
exist between the terms. The tests designed to measure these attributes differ in several
significant ways.
c. Attitude
Most simply put, attitudes are likes and dislikes. Social psychologists have given
various definitions of the concept. Most of them view attitudes as inclinations or
predispositions. According to Gordon W Allport defined an attitude to be a mental and neural
state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence
upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related. Milton
Rokeach defined it as a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object or situation
predisposing a person to respond in some preferential manner.
Our response to an object is often in line with what we believe about and how we feel
toward that object. Attitudes are, thus, said to have a knowledge/belief (cognitive) component,
an emotional or affective component and a Conative or behavioural component.
Having an idea or belief about the object is the minimum condition for having an
attitude with regard to it. When the object of which you have an idea becomes associated with
pleasant or unpleasant events or with your aspirations and goals, you attach a corresponding
affect or an emotional tinge to that object. This affected belief energizes and directs your
response with regard to the object. An attitude may thus be understood as an idea or belief
charged with emotion predisposing an individual to act in a particular way to persons, things,
situations, issues, etc.
1.5.4 Nature of information gathered (Qualitative and Quantitative)
On the basis of the nature of information gathered, assessment can also be classified
into quantitative assessment and qualitative assessment:
i) Quantitative Assessment:
 Assessment for Learning 45

Quantitative assessment counts items correct, or measures the worth of a product or

performance by assigning to it a percentage or a score expressed as a fraction – 75% or 15/20.
Qualitative assessment describes the attributes of a product or performance according to
indicators that are typically represented on a rating scale or rubric.
Today, we better understand the need to select scoring methods, based on the nature of
the work that students are required to produce. Certain types of work require quantitative
marking. These include:
• knowledge of terms
• knowledge of formulas
• simple test items
ii) Qualitative Assessment:
Qualitative assessment does require the teacher’s professional judgment. That is, it
requires teachers to use their skills of observation to assess performance against clear, public,
shared standards. And while professional judgment is less reliable than computer scoring of a
well-designed multiple-choice test, no amount of multiple-choice questions will address all of
the critical learning targets to be found in a rich curriculum. Provided that students and teams
of teachers frequently discuss the rubrics and anchors they are using, over time they will come
to share a more consistent understanding of what quality work looks like.
Of course, even the best rubric is only words on a page. Students also need to see what
a quality performance looks like. That is why students need anchors--models of student work
matched to the levels of performance--to help them refine their performance.
1.5.5 Mode of responses (Oral, Written and Performance)
a. Oral Response and Written Assessments
Oral form of assessment is an old form of test or assessment. These tests mostly use in
lower classes, and even in higher classes. The viva-voice or examination are used in most of
the classes – graduate and post-graduate. Such form of assessment is verbal in nature, and
interactive in nature between teacher and students in face-to-face mode. These tests can cover
a large number of areas and knowledge of the student can be assessed in easy ways.
Student oral responses are longer and more complex, parallel to extended written
response questions. Just as with extended written response, one evaluates the quality of oral
responses using a rubric or scoring guide. Longer, more complicated responses would occur,
for example, during oral examination or oral presentations.
b. Written Assessment
Written assessments are activities in which the student selects or composes a response
to a prompt. In most cases, the prompt consists of printed materials (a brief question, a
collection of historical documents, graphic or tabular material, or a combination of these).
However, it may also be an object, an event, or an experience.
 Assessment for Learning 46

Student responses are usually produced ―on demand, i.e., the respondent does the
writing at a specified time and within a fixed amount of time. These constraints contribute to
standardization of testing conditions, which increases the comparability of results across
students or groups (a theme that is explored later in Chapters Four and Five).
c. Performance:
As the name indicates, in these tests, the students are assigned certain work or activity.
They have to complete this activity or work within a specified period of time. After the
completion, this work or activity or the performance is assessed and evaluated.
Performance tests are scientific in nature as it is based on specific principles, methods
of studies and under controlled conditions. Through these tests, self-confidents can be
developed in the students.
According to ETS, “Performance assessment is a test in which the test taker is intended
to measure by doing real-world tasks that require those skills, rather than by answering
questions asking how to do them.” Performance assessment asks students to apply their
knowledge and skills in creating some form of product, presentation, or demonstration focused
on key aspects of academic learning.
When creating and evaluating performance assessment, real-world goal, role, audience,
standards for success, and product/performance are being assessed. This form of assessment
measures how well students apply their knowledge, skills, and abilities to authentic problems.
The key feature of it is that it requires the students to produce something, such as a report,
experiment, or performance, demonstrate what they have mastered specific skill or knowledge,
which is scored against specific criteria.
The following characteristics of performance test are –
i) It is a task students must perform instead of writing a test.
ii) It is a set of strategies for the acquisition and application of knowledge, skills
and works habits of students.
iii) It is a tool to provide teacher with information about how students understand
and applies knowledge.
iv) It requires students to produce, demonstrate, perform what they have mastered
or learned through some task or work or activity.
v) It is a scientific in evaluation as it is based on specific principles, methods of
studies.
vi) Students are evaluated and assessed against a specific criterion.
vii) It is a real-world scenario.
viii) It is an authentic and a complex process.
ix) It assesses the student’s higher order of thinking and constructiveness.
x) It is reliable tests and transparent evaluation criteria.
1.5.6 Nature of interpretation (Norm-referenced and Criterion referenced)
A frame of reference is required to interpret assessment evidence.17 There are two
distinct approaches to interpreting assessment information. Norm referenced assessment
 Assessment for Learning 47

compares the student to the expected performance against that of peers within a cohort with
similar training and experience. Criterion referenced assessment focuses on the candidate's
performance of the task against an set of criteria related to the knowledge, skills, or attributes
that the candidate is developing.
Standardized assessments may be norm-referenced, criterion referenced-
i) Norm-referenced assessments
Norm-referenced assessments compare individual scores to those of a norm-reference
group, generally students of the same grade or age. They are designed to demonstrate
"differences between and among students to produce a dependable rank order" (Bond, 1996,
p.1) and are often used to classify students for ability-grouping or to help identify them for
placement in special programs. They are also used to provide information to report to parents.
These test measure student’s performance in comparison to other students. Also, the
age and question paper is same for both of them. They measure whether the students have
performed better or worse than other test takers. It is the theoretical average determined by
comparing scores.
ii) Criterion-referenced assessments
Criterion-referenced assessments determine the specific knowledge and skills
possessed by a student. In other words, identify "the kind of performances a student can do in
a domain, rather than the student's standing in a norm group" (Nitco and Brookhart, 2011, p.
369). Standards-based assessments involve comparing students' scores to "clearly defined
levels of achievement or proficiency" (Nitco and Brookhart, 2011, p. 514), such as state or
national standards.
A criterion-referenced test is an assessment and test that measures student’s
performance. Also, these measures the performance of the students alongside fixed criteria.
These criteria include written and brief reports of what students are capable of doing at different
stages. In other words, the Criterion reference test is a set of fixed criteria. That used to measure
student’s performance. Also, these assess the student’s performance. Criterion reference test is
a method which uses test score to judge students. Also, they help to generate statements about
students’ behaviour. Also, they use test scores as their reference. Criterion reference mostly
uses quizzes. The main objective of this is to check whether students have learned the topic or
not. These generally have multiple-choice, true-false, and open-ended questions. They play an
important role to take a decision about student’s performance.
Difference between Norm-referenced and Criterion-referenced Assessment:
The following table provides a summary of the key features of criterion and norm
referenced assessment approaches:

Basis Criterion-Referenced Test Norm-Referenced Test

 Assessment for Learning 48

Criterion referenced tests measured Norm referenced test measured the

Meaning the performance of a student against a performance of an individual against
specific criteria/standard norm. or with individuals within the group.

Each student is independently Judged on the basis of other student’s

Performance
assessed. performance.
It does not compare a student’s It compares a student’s performance
Comparison
performance with other students. with other students.
Its main objective is to help students Its main objective is to assess a
Objective learn without getting questioned student’s performance with other
about grades. students.
They have fixed criteria for
Criteria Their criteria change with outcomes.
assessment.
Results Results can be derived quickly. Takes little time to derive results.
Examples Clinical skill competency tools. Class examination.

1.5.7 Context (Internal and External)

Internal Assessment
Internal assessment is the process in which the teachers and schools judge the students’
performance on the basis of his performance. Also, this process does not involve any outside
person for assessment. Internal assessment is often called “Home examination”, “Class room
test” or “Teacher made test. There are the assessments for which all the arrangement are made
by the teachers of the same institution. Its main aim is to evaluate the progress of students in
different classes at different levels.
Teachers themselves frame the question papers, take the exam, examine the answer
scripts/answer copies and decide about the Fail/Pass of the students.
Internal assessment is set and marked by the school (i.e. teachers). Students get the
mark and feedback regarding the assessment.
External Assessment
“External assessment is a form of assessment in which question papers, assignments
and tasks are specified by the awarding organisation, then taken under specified conditions
(including details of supervision and duration) and marking or assessment judgements are made
by the awarding organisation. It does not include moderation or verification of centre based
assessment undertaken by an awarding organisation”.
The DfE’s definition of external assessment explicitly concerns the setting and marking
process of an assessment. It does not specify the type of task. This distinction is important
because external assessments are often associated with written, time-bound examinations
 Assessment for Learning 49

(Dufaux, 2012). The DfE has suggested several types of assessment tasks for vocational
qualifications that can be implemented as external assessment:
External assessment need not be limited to paper or on-screen tests. It may include
digital recordings of students, external examiners viewing and assessing artefacts made by
students, assessed performance at an external assessment centre, vivas or other effective means
made possible by developing technologies.
Outside persons prepare these assessment methods and they are responsible and
involved in it. Besides, it is done to give students the required certificate or degree or diploma
for which the student has applied.
1.6 Purposes and approaches of assessment in behaviouristic, cognitivistic and
constructivist paradigms
A. Purposes and Approaches of Assessment in Behaviouristic paradigm
Behaviourist Perspective of Assessment
Assessment has traditionally been influenced by the behaviourist theories of learning.
The behaviourist learning theories are concerned about the influence of external environment
on human learning. Learning according to behaviourism is based on three basic assumptions.
First, learning is manifested by change in behaviour; second, environment shapes the
behaviour; and third, the principle of contiguity and reinforcement are central to the learning
process. Behaviourism has tried to explain action in simple causal terms, as it believes that,
competence can be achieved by breaking down tasks and activities in small steps and
reinforcing the achievement of each step. All of us have experienced how children show their
happiness on getting ‘good’ or ‘fair’ in their class work. These comments act as reinforces for
further learning among children. Behaviourist theories believe that knowledge could be
obtained and transmitted through the manipulation of environment and human beings are
passive recipients who have to respond to an active environment. Learners’ natural capacities
to draw upon and construct their own knowledge, to develop their own capacities to relate to
the environment, both, physical and social are of little relevance in such learning.
Behaviourist learning theories considered learning as association of stimulus and
response resulting in change in behaviour. Reinforcement is central to the behaviourist
approach and it focused on objective measurement of ability and achievement. This developed
the tradition of defining learning outcomes in observable behaviours. Learner’s personal
experiences and socio-cultural context had very little significance in such type of learning
perspective. For instance, the socio-cultural context of a child coming from remote or tribal
area is entirely different from the children belonging to urban areas. This may affect their
learning but was ignored in the behaviourist perspective that focus on the outcome. The
achievement of learners, therefore, become more important and it is presumed that anything
can be taught using reward and punishment. The overemphasis on learning outcomes results in
an examination system that encourages rote memorization, objective types test, focus on recall,
completion, matching, and multiple-choice tests which fit perfectly with what was deemed
important to learn. It also results in neglect of the role of individual experiences and complex
 Assessment for Learning 50

learning skills like analysis, synthesis, critical thinking, reflection, problem solving, etc. in
learning.
Therefore, this perspective of human learning has encouraged schools to function as
factories to produce learners with higher academic achievement that have been the sole
determinant of quality education. Educational systems influenced with behaviourist
perspectives follow the typical transmission mode of teaching learning process to fill the minds
of young learners with heaps of information and then assess the learner’s ability to recall this
information through various means of assessment tools. Behaviourist perspective, thus,
encouraged the concept of mastery learning based on the premise that most students can master
their learning targets, given enough time and suitable opportunity. The basic premise of
behaviourist perspective is that competence can be achieved by breaking down tasks and
activities into small components or steps. Achievement of each step is acknowledged and
reinforced that motivates the learner to move towards the next more complex step. It was
assumed that intelligence is evenly distributed amongst learners and can be represented by
normal curve. Hence, the purpose of assessment was to place learners at various points of this
normal curve. This led to the use of various measurement tools of assessment to discriminate
between learners on the basis of their performance. You are familiar with the ranking system
where learners are placed according to the marks or grades, they obtain in examination, and
excellence is determined on how well a learner has performed in comparison to others. The
effectiveness of assessment tools from this traditional perspective is based on discrimination
index i.e., ability of the test to discrimination between high and low achievers. Consequently,
both teaching learning process and assessment have predominantly focused on quantification
of information.
This traditional behaviourist perspective expects to determine the learning objectives
and outcomes, related assessment tasks and criteria, the performance of learners and grades to
be awarded. This led to the separation of instruction and formal (summative) assessment with
latter being an objective exercise determining learner’s level of achievement and level of
readiness to move up to the next stage of learning. Consequently, in the whole teaching learning
and assessment process learners remained passive at the receiving end complying to the
activities given to them. Learners got very little opportunity for self-assessment, which may
help them in identifying their own learning gaps and determining their own learning objectives.
Purpose of Assessment implied by Behaviourism

• To assess whether desirable behaviours have been developed

• To assess whether the desirable behaviours have been fixed
• To assess the appropriateness of reinforcement in relation to expected behaviour
• To assess the responses and the related stimuli to fix the behaviours.
• Check the appropriateness of the stimulus as well as the environments.
• Assess the aptness of cues to get desirable responses
• To check the response in relation to sequence and content of stimuli
• To check whether the desirable response is fixed.
• To observe students in new situations to confirm their learning.
 Assessment for Learning 51

• To assess the ability of students to recall, generalise and automatically perform a

specified procedure.
• To assess whether practice situations in which prompts are paired with the target
stimuli are properly arranged?
• To assess whether the environmental conditions are apt so that students can make
the correct responses in the presence of those target stimuli and receive
reinforcement for those responses?
Approaches for Assessment according to Behaviourists:
A behaviourism approach to assessment is when teachers are observing the behaviour
of the child and analysing the behaviour. They pay attention to the consequences and the cause
that have arisen from this behaviour. The behaviourists believe that the intentional behaviour
that is performed by the child are controlled by their consequence and antecedents which means
an event that has bought the behaviour. The behavioural approach frequently assesses children
with intense observations where they will control and maintain the environmental factors. It
includes the assessment methods such as functional and Eco behavioural assessment.
1. Eco behavioural assessment is where you find out how to identify the functional
relationships between the behaviour of the child and the environmental events. It is said that
Eco behavioural assessment tends to focus on the behaviours that the child should be
accelerated through strategies such as active engagement, communicative behaviours and peer
interaction (Strain & McConnell, 1992).
2. Functional assessment is finding out the relationship that is between the child's behaviour
and the environmental influences that could maintain or cause it. We as teachers need to assess
to see what factors cause this behaviour and develop some predictions that can help us
determine why that behaviour is likely to occur (Strain & McConnell, 1992). Functional
assessment in behaviour analysis employs principles derived from the natural science of
behaviour analysis to determine the "reason", purpose, or motivation for a behaviour.
3. Functional behavioural analysis also called Functional analyses derived from Skinner’s
work with SR(Stimulus-response) learning. FBA is the descendant of Behaviourism, which
maintains that human behaviours can be described scientifically, and that we can alter
behaviour by rewarding positive behaviour and punishing negative behaviour. The work of B
F Skinner has been highly influential in the field of behaviour modification, although he saw
free will as an illusion and education being one of teacher as expert. Behaviourism evolved
into Applied Behavioural Analysis. FBA is also a result of moves in the 60’s and 70’s towards
ABA.
4. Criterion Reference Tests: Since behaviourists emphasise mastery learning as one of the
objectives Criterion reference tests also form one of the effective approaches of assessment.
Criterion-referenced tests are also used by educators and schools practicing proficiency- based
learning, a term that refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic
reporting that are based on students demonstrating mastery of the knowledge and skills they
are expected to learn before they progress to the next lesson, get promoted to the next grade
level, or receive a diploma. The desirable behaviours can be fixed as the ‘criterion’ and the
 Assessment for Learning 52

tests can measure whether the students have achieved the set of criteria predetermined. This is
what exactly behaviourists intend to do.

• Criterion Referenced Test measures a student’s performance based on mastery of a

specific set of skills
• These are also called mastery tests, compare a person’s performance to a set of
objectives. Anyone who meets the criterion can get a high score.
• These are used to know the specific skills achieved
• To know how far students have achieved the set tasks. A test of reading skills would
seek to discover whether a child can identify the specific sounds consonants make
before it would evaluate whether a student can answer comprehension questions. The
questions in a criterion-referenced test seek to find if the student has the skills, not
whether the student does as well as other third grade children. In other words, a
criterion-referenced test will provide important information that a teacher can use to
design specific instructional strategies to help those students succeed. It will identify
skills that the students lack.
5. Competency Checklists: Competency checklists are one way of validating competence.
Checklists must clearly identify expectations and should be completed by staff members who
know how to use them. Criteria for safe, effective performance must be clearly defined, and all
parties involved in the evaluation process must have a common understanding of the criteria
and the basis for assigning ratings.
Here is an example of a competency checklist to assess the technology competency of
students

• Familiarity with characteristics of currently available media types for information

storage

• Understands and applies visual design concepts to work products

• Operates a multimedia computer system either: Macintosh operating system: Knows
desktop controls, printing, saving, file management OR Windows 2000/2007: Knows
desktop controls, printing, saving, file management
• Appropriately uses terminology related to computers and technology in written and oral
communications
• Can describe and implement basic troubleshooting techniques for computer/technology
hardware
• Can flawlessly operate a TV, VCR, laptop, film video camera, and digital video camera
• Can use imaging devices such as scanners and digital cameras to create usable images
(both text and graphics)
• Demonstrates knowledge of the uses of computers and technology in education,
business, industry, and society
6. Observation Checklist: An observation checklist is a list of questions an observer will need
to answer when they are observing and assessing an individual's employees' skills. An
observation checklist is a list of things that an observer is going to look at when observing a
 Assessment for Learning 53

class. This list may have been prepared by the observer or the teacher or both. Observation
checklists not only give an observer a structure and framework for an observation but also serve
as a contract of understanding with the teacher, who may as a result be more comfortable, and
will get specific feedback on aspects of the class.
For example
The teacher has asked the observer to look at the issue of timing so the observer's
checklist includes these questions:
- Does the teacher follow the timings on the lesson plan?
- Does the teacher tell learners how long they have for an activity?
- Does the teacher tell learners when time is nearly up? This checklist is intended to
help both who are being observed and those who are observing. The focus is on the
mechanics of the classroom interaction, not on the content of the course.
B. Purposes and Approaches of Assessment in Cognitivist paradigm
In contrast to behaviourism the cognitive theorists, such as Piaget believed that learning
is an integral process in which new information is assimilated in one’s cognitive processes.
Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development i.e. sensory motor stage (0- 2years), pre-
operational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage(7-12years) and formal operational
stage (12-adult). According to Piaget these stages play crucial role in the learning of children
and they cannot learn certain things until they have reached to that level of cognitive
development. In other words, the mental readiness of the learner plays a crucial role in learning
and should be considered for assessment as well. The ‘child centred’ approach to learning
evolved out of Piaget’s cognitive development theory which was further reinforced by Bruner
with emphasis on ‘active learning’. Both Piaget and Bruner stressed on the importance of
activity in learning which the learner can observe, practice, manipulate, modify and construct
his/her own knowledge. They also stressed on relating new learning to the previous experiences
of the learners. Piaget recommended giving challenging tasks to activate the thinking process
which may facilitate the learner to reach equilibrium through the process of adaptation. From
Piaget’s perspective though the task/ activity may be challenging but it should be according to
appropriate developmental stage of the learner, otherwise the learner may not be able to learn.
Therefore, from the cognitive perspective the cognitive development of the learner determines
the assessment method, and tools to be used to assess the performance of learners. Clearly,
there is no single or uniform method of assessment from this perspective. Assessment is not
linear from this perspective; instead, it is a spiral and continuous process. Therefore, as a
teacher you have to inbuilt assessment in the activity itself and determine the assessment
procedure according to the developmental stage, experience, and exposure of the learner.
Approaches for Assessment according to Cognitivists:
Cognitive assessment (or intelligence testing) is used to determine an individual’s
general thinking and reasoning abilities, also known as intellectual functioning or IQ.
Intelligence testing can assess various domains of child’s cognitive capacity as the following:
 Assessment for Learning 54

• Verbal comprehension: understanding verbal information, thinking in words and

expressing thoughts in words
• Perceptual reasoning: ability to organise and reason with visual information, and to
solve visual problems
• Visual Spatial – measures the child’s verbal reasoning, understanding, concept
formation and knowledge
• Fluid Reasoning – measures the child’s ability to solve novel problems independent of
previous knowledge
• Working Memory – measures the child’s ability to learn, manipulate and retain
information to complete new tasks
• Processing Speed – measures the child’s ability to quickly process and make decisions
about visual information
• Social readiness: Measure ability to socialise and play with classmates
The approaches related to behaviourism also can be used to assess objectives derived
from cognitivists.
Purpose of Assessment implied by Cognitivists:

• To explain and predict student performance on assessment tasks in terms of profiles of

student
• To identify the skills and corresponding task requirements (in terms of cognitive
abilities).
• To identify the attributes that have been mastered by the student and those that have not
been mastered.
• To get an estimation of student’s mastery of a topic or lack of it
• To find out the type of guidance required of students
• to provide a coherent and instructionally relevant explanation of student performance
• To model learning in terms of a progression of increasingly sophisticated levels of
mastery of a domain or discipline.
• To define the levels in the progression in terms of mastery of the core principles and
methods in the discipline
• To identify the level of achievement in general competencies in the discipline
• To estimate the competence in the discipline and to provide meaningful intermediate
goals, or stages, that can be used to guide instruction.
• To guide instruction and learning,
• To design meaningful goals for instruction and learning.
• To describe the growth of students in different cognitive abilities
• To informing curriculum about needed changes.
• To describe what students, know and can do.
C. Purposes and Approaches of Assessment in Constructivist paradigm
Constructivism
 Assessment for Learning 55

Let us now discuss as to how concept of assessment has been reconceptualised due to
change in learning theories from behaviourist to constructivist perspectives. Constructivism
believes in active involvement of learner in the process of learning. Learner’s personal
experiences play important role in constructivist learning and each learner generates his/her
own rules and mental models which are used to make sense of experiences. According to
constructivism, knowledge is actively constructed by individual and learning is an adoptive
process based on these experiences. Consequently, the mechanistic view of learners as passive
recipient of knowledge has been replaced by the view of learners as situated and active
knowledge constructors. Therefore, while from behaviourist perspective anything can be
taught with the help of reinforcement, from constructivist perspective previous experience of
learner is more important and a deciding factor in learning.
Knowledge according to constructivist epistemology cannot be transferred uniformly
to all learners, hence teaching and learning cannot be synonymous. For instance, in a class a
teacher teaches the same content to the whole class but learners process the information
according to their own experiences and learn differently the same content.
A basic premise of constructivism is that individuals live in their own world of personal
and subjective experiences and build new knowledge on the basis of their previous experiences,
rather than new knowledge being imposed from outside. This premise of learning includes how
children learn, as well as learning with understanding, and not limited to what they learn, that
is, the end product acquired through rote memorization. Therefore, assessment is directed
towards assessment of understanding the learners rather than their surface knowledge and
ability to recall facts. As constructivist perspective of learning emphasizes the experiences of
learners and their socio-cultural contexts in the learning process, organizing new information
around the existing conceptual framework of learner facilitates learning. Concept mapping,
therefore, plays very crucial role in constructivist learning and facilitates transfer of learning
and problem solving from one conceptual framework to another.
Assessment from this perspective has to be context specific and cannot be uniformly
used for all learners. Usually, children in schools come from different sociocultural
backgrounds. Tribal children, for instance, often have difficulty in communicating and
understanding standard language due to their unfamiliarity with the standard language used in
school. Therefore, while assessing the language ability of such children, differential assessment
procedure has to be adopted. It is expected to assess learner’s ability to link ideas, apply
knowledge and solve problems. The assessment process is expected to challenge the
incomplete understanding and pre- concepts of learners, and should help the learner to modify
and refine their thinking through appropriate scaffolding and feedback. It means that you
cannot use a single standardized test on all the learners and have to adopt a variety of
assessment tools.
Assessment from this perspective should provide feedback on how learning is taking
place and how it can be ensured in the future. In other words, assessment should reflect not
only the present level of development of learner but also the level of potential development.
Constructivist learning approach, therefore, encourages an assessment culture where
 Assessment for Learning 56

assessment is embedded in the whole teaching-learning process and focuses on ‘assessment of

the process of learning in addition to that of its product’.
Hence multiple assessment procedures are used to develop learner’s profile through
authentic, contextualized assessment tools. Learners become engaged participants in sharing
and developing criteria, in self and peer assessment, reflecting on their own learning, keeping
track of their own performance and utilizing feedback to refine their knowledge, skills and
behaviours. Teachers facilitate learners to develop strategies for learning and assessing.
Assessment therefore, is spiral and formative while from behaviourist perspective, assessment
is considered as linear and summative process. To summarise, the focus of assessment, in
constructivist perspective has shifted from assessment of learning to assessment for learning.
Purpose of Assessment implied by Constructivists:

• To ensure that authentic tasks are anchored in meaningful contexts.

• To check whether the child has continuously constructing knowledge from introductory
to expert level.
• To help individuals to discover, negotiate and modify the misconceptions and biases
acquired.
• To identify appropriate methods and strategies to help students to construct knowledge
• To facilitate construction of learning by providing appropriate environment
• To help learners to validate the knowledge already acquired
• To facilitate inquiry process throughout the learning process
• To ensure that students come out with multiple interpretations
• To ascertain those students are motivated and accepted to work on individual
construction and interpretation of knowledge
• To ensure that teachers have meaningful strategies to facilitate students’ learning
• To critically examine whether the assessment processes are in favour of helping
students to learn further.
• To help students to document their growth and motivate them to learn further.
Approaches for Assessment according to Constructivists:
1. Concept map and Assessment
Concept maps have their roots in the cognitive theory of Ausubel (1963) that was part
of the constructivism movement in educational psychology (Novak and Canas, 2011). In
particular, this branch of science holds that learners actively construct and assimilate new
concepts through prior knowledge (Ausubel et al., 1978). Concept mapping is considered a
powerful tool to enhance meaningful learning and an innovative way to assess the acquisition
of knowledge in students. Concept mapping as a complement to traditional evaluation systems,
allowing teachers to determine whether the performance achieved by the students comes from
high levels of conceptual understanding.
One very significant feature of formative assessment is the full involvement of pupils
during lessons. The use of concept maps is one way how to integrate pupils in the learning
process. This involvement motivates and challenges pupils to such an extent that it increases
 Assessment for Learning 57

the chances for learning to take place. Many of us are familiar with the term ‘brainstorming’,
but not so much with ‘concept mapping’ although the term has been in use since the 1960s.
Usually the concept map is formed by placing the subject in a prime position in the diagram.
The subject is broken down into simpler themes, facts or opinions and therefore it becomes
easier for children to comprehend the subject that is being studied.
Ways of Assessing
An important aspect of effective teaching is a careful assessment of how much student
have learned. There are two ways in which concept maps assess student’s learning:
i. Concept map displays new knowledge acquisition more effectively than traditional
expository methods such as essay writing. (calderon-steck,2006)
ii. Concept maps assess meaningful learning, or connections between old and new
knowledge, more effectively than traditional expository assessment methods (Ausubel, 1968;
Hay et al.2008)
2. Portfolio
Portfolio is a purposeful collection of purposeful student works. It is a running record
of students writing performance over time. It is also the living proof to show students
themselves how much they have done or they haven’t done. The constructivism based on
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s assuming that students are able to acquire and socially construct their
knowledge and understanding. This approach pays more attention to students’ prior learning,
their problem-solving skills and their collaborative learning (Baki, 1994). However, in this new
environment students’ learning cannot be assessed within a shorter time using multiple choices
tests.
Therefore, it is needed a broader range of assessment tools that be able to assess the
students’ skills such as open-ended problem solving, and critical thinking, analyzing,
reasoning, be able to apply their knowledge in new problems, and to express oral and writing.
Further, constructivist epistemology requires us to assess students’ individual performance and
group performance together during their learning experience (Sheppard, 2000).
Rubrics:
Rubrics is an authentic assessment tool used to measure students’ work. It is a scoring
tool for subjective assessments. Rubrics are guide lines that enable the assessment process of
communicating expectations; providing focused ongoing feedback; and grading. A rubric is
defined as a document that articulates the expectations for an assignment by listing the criteria.
A rubric is a way to grade student work. It is a description of the assignment or task laid out on
a grid.
Assessment Process:
Assessment process in a constructivist class room are as follows:
(A) Self-assessment
 Assessment for Learning 58

(B) Peer assessment

(C) Collaborative assessment
(A) Self-assessment:
Self-assessment could mean that students simply check off answers on a multiple-
choice test and grade themselves, but it involves much more than that. Self-assessment is more
accurately defined as a process by which students
1) monitor and evaluate the quality of their thinking and behaviour when learning and
2) identify strategies that improve their understanding and skills.
That is, self-assessment occurs when students judge their own work to improve
performance as they identify discrepancies between current and desired performance. This
aspect of self-assessment aligns closely with standards-based education, which provides clear
targets and criteria that can facilitate student self-assessment. Finally, self-assessment identifies
further learning targets and instructional strategies (correctives) students can apply to improve
achievement.
Thus, self-assessment is conceptualized here as the combination of three components
related in a cyclical, ongoing process: self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and identification and
implementation of instructional correctives as needed. Essentially, students identify their
learning and performance strategies, provide feedback to themselves based on well-understood
standards and criteria, and determine the next steps or plans to enhance their performance.
(B) Peer Assessment
There are many variants of peer assessment, but essentially it involves students
providing feedback to other students on the quality of their work. In some instances, the
practice of peer feedback will include the assigning of a grade, but this is widely recognized to
be a process that is fraught with difficulties.
Peer assessment requires students to provide either feedback or grades (or both) to their
peers on a product or a performance, based on the criteria of excellence for that product or
event which students may have been involved in determining.
(C) Collaborative Assessment:
Collaborative assessment is a problem-solving process, originally developed by Bruce
Chalmer, that can be used as an alternative to psychological evaluation. It draws from the ideas
and techniques of narrative therapy.
1.7 Perspective on assessment and evaluation of learning in a constructivist paradigm
1.7.1 Perspective of Assessment for Learning in a Constructivist Paradigm
We have discussed bout the principles of constructivism and its implications for
learning. Constructivism differs from other approaches in relation to the ways of using
assessment in the total learning process. Assessment is not the end point of learning in
 Assessment for Learning 59

constructivism but another important process on the continuum of learning and thus assessment
is considered as important as learning. Let us see in this unit, why and how assessment occupies
a pivotal place in constructivism and how assessment, according to constructivism contributes
‘for learning’.
Constructivists believe that assessment should be employed as a tool to provide
understanding for both the student and teacher and to further the student's learning in general.
There are a few major implications of constructivism for assessment. These help us to
understand the perspective of constructivism ‘for assessment’.

• Assessment is not just for the sake of assessing or to assign some marks or grades
for students
• Assessment is a tool for learning, to continue learning and to strengthen learning
• Assessment and learning are associated processes to improve learning
• Assessment gives cues for students what to learn and how to learn
• Learning and assessment are deliberate and active processes
• Learning is the responsibility of learner and teacher should facilitate learning
through assessment process
• The process of learning does not stop at assessment but becomes more crucial and
meaningful during and after assessment.
• Number of techniques give better results of assessment and promote learning.
• Assessment includes the process of inquiry on the part of students.
• Student go beyond initial information level of learning as a result of assessment
and achieve higher order objectives.
• Students reconceptualise knowledge as a result of assessment.
• Students interact with each other in all circumstances including the process of
assessment.
• Reflection on assessments build understanding for deeper understanding and
appreciation of the creative, generative processes of learning.
According to constructivists, assessment process has to focus on three steps:

• The teacher must help students understand from the outset the criteria by which
their work will be judged.
• Students must document their work process for the duration of learning of a unit
• Through performance and feedback, students come to understand the complex
nature of judging and improving upon one’s work.
Further discussions help us to understand how constructivist paradigm contribute ‘for
learning’ in the total process of learning.
Constructivists say that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the
world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Further reflection also
will enhance and strength knowledge. Assessment contributes for this enhancement of learning.
When individual encounters something new, he/she has to merge it with their previous
ideas and experience, may be changing what they were believing so far or may be discard new
 Assessment for Learning 60

information as irrelevant. In any case, they are active creators of new knowledge. To do this,
one has to ask questions, explore and assess what they know. Assessment is a continuous and
formative process and at every stage the teacher facilitates students for learning by prompting
students to formulate their own questions(inquiry).
Constructivist approach to assessment is a formative rather than a summative. Its
purpose is to improve the quality of student learning. Assessment has to respond to the
particular needs and characteristics of teachers, students.
According to constructivists, assessment is context specific. What works well in one
class will not necessarily work in another. Therefore, to a large extent assessment processes
are not pre-determined.
Assessment is an ongoing process. Teachers get feedback from students of their
learning. This feedback is compiled with the feedback of teachers and peers, and the learners
can prepare a consolidated feedback that will help further learning. Here, the teachers are
expected to discuss the learning plans and assessment plans with the students. Students have to
be made aware of what they are going to learn and the procedures of assuring that they have
learnt or what is called the assessment process. No judgement will be taken at the first sight
about the performance of the individual.
The student should be given appropriate feedback to continue the course of learning.
Feedback should be given to individuals on their individual performance as soon as possible
after performance; it should be specific and focused on the task, should aim to correct errors or
inadequacies and should have a diagnostic function.
The process of learning continues till the expected objectives are achieved. The learner
keeps assessing his/her own learning and takes decisions and plans for future learning. Of
course, each step will be carried out with the help of the facilitator. Due to the holistic vision
of constructivism, the assessment should focus on the whole person. It also needs to respect
multiple cultures and perspectives. It should enable students from all cultural backgrounds to
demonstrate their skills, and not unfairly disadvantage some students. The assessment should
ultimately direct to develop the ability of self-assessment as the highest form of assessment. It
should lead to insights into self-assessment and self-reflection.
According to constructivists, planning for learning should include strategies to ensure
that learners understand the goals they are pursuing and the criteria that will be applied in
assessing their work. How learners will receive feedback, how they will take part in assessing
their learning and how they will be helped to make further progress should also be planned.
The process of learning has to be in the minds of both learner and teacher/instructor when
assessment is planned and when the evidence is interpreted. Learners should become as aware
of the ‘how’ of their learning as they are of the ‘what’. Giving feedback should be as
constructive as possible to support learners in self-assessment. In this paradigm, assessment
and learning are closely and intimately tangled.
Constructive assignments can be of different types. It may ask learners to supply
answers, perform observable acts, demonstrate skills, create products, and supply portfolios of
work. Assessment is seen as an integral part of the instructional process.
 Assessment for Learning 61

The following are the pillars of assessment according to constructivism:

• Assessments should take place in a context.

• Assessments should be longitudinal. The teacher needs to assess the student over a
period of time but not at a time.
• Assessment is a collaborative process
• Assessment is a collaborative process where teachers, students, peers and others
are involved. Assessment takes different forms like making the students write
essays, performance tests, open-ended statements to justify a position, products or
interviews. There are no grades, scores or marks.
1.7.2 Perspective of Evaluation for Learning in a Constructivist Paradigm
From a constructivist point of view, the process of learning is emphasized over the end
product. Constructivism favours evaluation for and as learning (formative and self-
assessment), as opposed to evaluation of learning (summative assessment). While
behaviourism and cognitivism focus on measuring specific outcomes objectively,
constructivists tend to subjectively assess student work. The journey in attaining knowledge is
as important as the actual knowledge itself.
Evaluation in constructivism focuses on the process that the individual learner takes in
the process of knowledge creation. Each learner is perceived to be different with individual
strengths, weaknesses, and previous knowledge and experiences. Evaluation focuses on how a
learner is able to learn new material through linking it with previous knowledge to create lasting
ties in the learner’s mind. Through this linkage, students are evaluated on their ability to apply
learning to real-life contexts.
Within a constructivist classroom, evaluation takes the form of endless methods
designed to focus on the processes that a learner has used to gain knowledge. Through self-
assessment and reflection, the learner strengthens his/her linkages within the mind. The teacher
uses many formative assessment methods to monitor the learner’s process and determine how
the learner is learning.
Evaluation of a constructivist learning experience can be used to determine if a student
is able to complete an authentic task, using tools and understandings within a particular content
domain to solve a particular problem, by determining if the task is completed or not. As well,
evaluation of a constructivist learning experience could be accomplished by reflection and
documentation on how a student or group of students came to a particular conclusion. The
following list provides some parameters for evaluation in constructivist environments:
Incorporate assessment as part of the teaching experience throughout the learning process as
opposed to an exercise at the end of the task.

• Critique and discuss products such as portfolios, projects, compositions, and

performances which are grounded in authentic assessment.
• Use work products to complement summative assessment. This can be particularly
effective when the critiquing process utilizes different perspectives.
 Assessment for Learning 62

• Evaluate processes for learning by using strategies such as debriefings, abstracted

replays, dramatizations, interviews, group discussions, knowledge telling, co-
investigation, and post mortems of problem-solving activities.
• Use informal assessment based on teacher observations such as eye contact, body
language, facial expression and work performance to compliment formal
assessment.
For constructivists, the differences in the way of constructing and applying knowledge
by each individual is a very natural phenomenon. This is because each learner is perceived to
be different with individual strengths, previous knowledge and experiences.
The nature of evaluation itself in constructivist paradigm is for learning or towards
contributing learning. The following aspects are important in this regard.

• Evaluation should aim at finding out the ability of the learner to apply knowledge
created, in new situations.
• Evaluation procedures should give learners the opportunity to demonstrate the
knowledge and skill gained by students. This means that the knowledge should be
performance based.
• The evaluation process does not stop with teachers or administrators. The major
roles are played by peers and student himself or herself. The feedback received by
these sources help the learner to strengthen his learning.
• Evaluation is comprehensive to involve more than one specific technique or
method of evaluation. The process of evaluation includes a number of techniques
as per the need of the objectives.
• The procedure of evaluation is followed by reflection on feedback by the learners.
• The students are guided to understand the feedback received and implement and
proceed through the course of learning.
In constructivist paradigm, the type of evaluation, to a large extent, is formative rather
than summative. A few examples of evaluation procedures can be as follows:

*****************************
 1

UNIT 2

CONTEXT OF ASSESSMENT

2.1 Dimensions and level of learning

Dimensions of Learning is an extension of the comprehensive research-based

framework on cognition and learning described in Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for
Curriculum and Instruction (Marzano et al., 1988), published by the Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Dimensions of Learning translates the
research and theory explained in Dimensions of Thinking into a
practical framework that K-12 teachers can use to improve the
quality of teaching and learning in any content area. The
Dimensions of Learning Research and Development Consortium,
which worked on the model for two years, was made up of more
than ninety educators, including the author team from the first
edition of this manual. Under the leadership of Dr. Robert
Marzano of the Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory
(McREL), these educators helped to shape the basic program into
a valuable tool for reorganizing curriculum, instruction, and
Robert J. Marzano
assessment.

Together, these resources guide educators through a structured, yet flexible, approach
to improving curriculum, instruction, and assessment.

It is essential to successful learning and teaching, and even in designing planning

curriculum and instructional designs. It is based on the assumptions that –

i. New learning is shaped by the learner’s prior knowledge.

ii. Much learning occurs through social interaction there.

iii. Learning is closely related to a particular situation/environment of learning.

iv. Successful learning is possible when there is effective use of numerous

strategies each individual has and reinforced.

v. Learning events should be experienced-based and related to the world beyond

the classroom.
 2

Implicit in the Dimensions of Learning model, or framework, are five basic

assumptions:

i) Instruction must reflect the best of what we know about how learning occurs.

ii) Learning involves a complex system of interactive processes that includes five
types of thinking—represented by the five dimensions of learning.

iii) The K-12 curriculum should include the explicit teaching of attitudes,
perceptions, and mental habits that facilitate learning.

iv) A comprehensive approach to instruction includes at least two distinct types of

instruction: one that is more teacher directed, and another that is more student
directed.

v) Assessment should focus on students’ use of knowledge and complex reasoning

processes rather than on their recall of information.

In addition to this teacher’s manual, Dimensions of Learning is supported by a number

of resources designed to help educators fully understand (1) how these five assumptions affect
teachers’ work in the classroom and, as a consequence, students’ learning and (2) how the
Dimensions of Learning framework can be used to restructure curriculum, instruction, and
assessment:

• A Different Kind of Classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning (Marzano,

1992) explores the theory and research underlying the framework through a variety of
classroom-based examples. Although teachers need not read this book to use the model, they
will have a better understanding of cognition and learning if they do. Staff developers also are
encouraged to read this book to strengthen their delivery of the Dimensions of Learning
training.

• Observing Dimensions of Learning in Classrooms and Schools (Brown, 1995) is

designed to help administrators provide support and feedback to teachers who are using
Dimensions of Learning in their classrooms.

• Dimensions of Thinking (Marzano et al., 1988) describes a framework that can be

used to design curriculum and instruction with an emphasis on the types of thinking that
students should use to enhance their learning.

• The Dimensions of Learning Trainer’s Manual (Marzano et al., 1997) contains

detailed training scripts, overhead transparencies, and practical guidelines for conducting
comprehensive training and staff development in the Dimensions of Learning program.

• Assessing Student Outcomes: Performance Assessment Using the Dimensions of

Learning Model (Marzano, Pickering, & McTighe, 1993) provides recommendations for
 3

setting up an assessment system that focuses on using performance tasks constructed with the
reasoning processes from Dimensions 3 and 4.

We recommend that those who plan to train others to use Dimensions of Learning first
participate in the training offered by ASCD or McREL or by individuals recommended by
these organizations. In some cases, experienced staff development trainers with an extensive
background in the teaching of thinking may be able to learn about each dimension through self-
study or, ideally, through study with peers. We strongly recommend, however, that before
conducting training for others, these individuals use the Dimensions of Learning framework to
plan and teach units of instruction themselves. In short, Dimensions of Learning is best
understood and internalized through practical experience with the model.

• Implementing Dimensions of Learning (Marzano et al., 1992) explains the different

ways that the model can be used in a school or district and discusses the various factors
that must be considered when deciding which approach to use. It contains guidelines
that will help a school or district structure its implementation to best achieve its
identified goals.

• Finally, the Dimensions of Learning Videotape Series (ASCD, 1992) introduces and
illustrates some of the important concepts underlying the Dimensions of Learning
framework. Videotaped classroom examples of each dimension in action can be used
during training, in follow-up sessions for reinforcement, or during Dimensions of
Learning study-group sessions.

2.1.1 What is Dimensions of Learning?

Dimensions of Learning is a comprehensive model that uses what researchers and

theorists know about learning to define the learning process. Its premise is that five types of
thinking—what we call the five dimensions of learning—are essential to successful learning.
The Dimensions framework will help you to
• maintain a focus on learning;
• study the learning process; and
• plan curriculum, instruction, and assessment that takes into account the five
critical aspects of learning.

Now let’s take a look at the five dimensions of learning.

Dimension 1: Attitudes and Perceptions

Attitudes and perceptions affect students’ abilities to learn. For example, if students
view the classroom as an unsafe and disorderly place, they will likely learn little there.
Similarly, if students have negative attitudes about classroom tasks, they will probably put little
effort into those tasks. A key element of effective instruction, then, is helping students to
establish positive attitudes and perceptions about the classroom and about learning.

Dimension 2: Acquire and Integrate Knowledge

 4

Helping students acquire and integrate new knowledge is another important aspect of
learning. When students are learning new information, they must be guided in relating the new
knowledge to what they already know, organizing that information, and then making it part of
their long-term memory. When students are acquiring new skills and processes, they must learn
a model (or set of steps), then shape the skill or process to make it efficient and effective for
them, and, finally, internalize or practice the skill or process so they can perform it easily.

Dimension 3: Extend and Refine Knowledge

Learning does not stop with acquiring and integrating knowledge. Learners develop in-
depth understanding through the process of extending and refining their knowledge (e.g., by
making new distinctions, clearing up misconceptions, and reaching conclusions). They
rigorously analyse what they have learned by applying reasoning processes that will help them
extend and refine the information. Some of the common reasoning processes used by learners
to extend and refine their knowledge are the following:
• Comparing
• Classifying
• Abstracting
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Constructing support
• Analysing errors
• Analysing perspectives

Dimension 4: Use Knowledge Meaningfully

The most effective learning occurs when we use knowledge to perform meaningful
tasks. For example, we might initially learn about tennis rackets by talking to a friend or reading
a magazine article about them. We really learn about them, however, when we are trying to
decide what kind of tennis racket to buy. Making sure that students have the opportunity to use
knowledge meaningfully is one of the most important parts of planning a unit of instruction. In
the Dimensions of Learning model, there are six reasoning processes around which tasks can
be constructed to encourage the meaningful use of knowledge:
• Decision making
• Problem solving
• Invention
• Experimental inquiry
• Investigation
• Systems analysis

Dimension 5: Habits of Mind

The most effective learners have developed powerful habits of mind that enable them
to think critically, think creatively, and regulate their behaviour. These mental habits are listed
below:
 5

Critical thinking: • Be accurate and seek accuracy • Be clear and seek clarity • Maintain
an open mind • Restrain impulsivity • Take a position when the situation warrants it • Respond
appropriately to others’ feelings and level of knowledge

Creative thinking: • Persevere • Push the limits of your knowledge and abilities •
Generate, trust, and maintain your own standards of evaluation • Generate new ways of viewing
a situation that are outside the boundaries of standard conventions

Self-regulated thinking: • Monitor your own thinking • Plan appropriately • Identify

and use necessary resources • Respond appropriately to feedback • Evaluate the effectiveness
of your actions.

2.1.2 The Relationship Among the Dimensions of Learning

It is important to realize that the five dimensions of learning do not operate in isolation
but work together in the manner depicted in Figure given below:

Briefly, as the graphic in Figure A.1

illustrates, all learning takes place against the
backdrop of learners’ attitudes and perceptions
(Dimension 1) and their use (or lack of use) of
productive habits of mind (Dimension 5). If students
have negative attitudes and perceptions about
learning, then they will likely learn little. If they
have positive attitudes and perceptions, they will
learn more and learning will be easier. Similarly,
when students use productive habits of mind these
habits facilitate their learning. Dimensions 1 and 5,
then, are always factors in the learning process. This is why they are part of the background of
the graphic shown in Figure.

When positive attitudes and perceptions are in place and productive habits of mind are
being used, learners can more effectively do the thinking required in the other three dimensions,
that is, acquiring and integrating knowledge (Dimension 2), extending and refining knowledge
(Dimension 3), and using knowledge meaningfully (Dimension 4). Notice the relative positions
of the three circles of Dimensions 2, 3, and 4. (See Figure)

The circle representing meaningful use of knowledge subsumes the other two, and the
circle representing extending and refining knowledge subsumes the circle representing
acquiring and integrating knowledge. This communicates that when learners extend and refine
knowledge, they continue to acquire knowledge, and when they use knowledge meaningfully,
they are still acquiring and extending knowledge. In other words, the relationships among these
circles represent types of thinking that are neither discrete nor sequential. They represent types
of thinking that interact and that, in fact, may be occurring simultaneously during learning.
 6

It might be useful to consider the Dimensions of Learning model as providing a

metaphor for the learning process. Dimensions of Learning offers a way of thinking about the
extremely complex process of learning so that we can attend to each aspect and gain insights
into how they interact. If it serves this purpose, it will be a useful tool as we attempt to help
students learn.

2.1.3 Levels of learning:

Management trainer Martin M. Broadwell described the

model as "the four levels of teaching" in February 1969. Paul
R. Curtiss and Phillip W. Warren mentioned the model in their
1973 book The Dynamics of Life Skills Coaching. The model
was used at Gordon Training International by its employee
Noel Burch in the 1970s; there it was called the "four stages for
learning any new skill". Later the model was frequently
attributed to Abraham Maslow, incorrectly since the model
does not appear in his major works.

Before we learn something new, we often do not realise

how much we do not know and are yet to learn. At times, when we begin to learn, we discover
the gravity of what we do not know and get overwhelmed by its difficulty, which may leave us
feeling disheartened. Through understanding the levels of learning, we will be able to more
easily recognise how we feel as we keep track of where we are in the learning process.

The learning process can often be more difficult than necessary because of the negative
feelings people get when they make mistakes. Ironically, not doing it right and making mistakes
are vital steps in the learning process.

The four stages suggest that individuals are initially unaware of how little they know,
or unconscious of their incompetence. As they recognize their incompetence, they consciously
acquire a skill, then consciously use it. Eventually, the skill can be utilized without it being
consciously thought through: the individual is said to have then acquired unconscious
competence. Understanding the 4 stages of learning a skill can help keep you focused on
learning to do something, and not on any mistakes or errors that may occur.

Abraham Maslow’s 4 stages of learning gives us a valuable conceptual framework to

understand how we learn anything:

1. UNCONSCIOUS INCOMPETENCE

We don’t know that we don’t know.

In this stage, we do not have the knowledge or skill set yet, and we do not know that
we need to learn it. This is when we do not know what we do not know. For example, as a child
who has not been introduced to riding a bike, we are completely unaware of its benefits and
usefulness.
 7

When a certain idea is introduced to us and we realise that there is value that may be
gained from learning it, we then move on to the next level.

The individual does not understand or know how to do something and does not
necessarily recognize the deficit. They may deny the usefulness of the skill. The individual
must recognize their own incompetence, and the value of the new skill, before moving on to
the next stage. The length of time an individual spends in this stage depends on the strength of
the stimulus to learn.

An energetic two-year-old boy wants to ride a bike that he sees his older brother riding.
But he doesn’t know that he doesn’t know how to ride it. Most of us in business who have
never had extensive feedback about our interpersonal skills are at this state of unconscious
incompetence.

2. CONSCIOUS INCOMPETENCE

We know that we don’t know.

When we are in this stage, we are aware of the skill we lack and understand that we
must put in the work to bridge the deficit. We can say “I know that I do not know (what this is
really about/how to do this)” and hopefully that will be followed by, “but I would like to learn.”
Applying this to the previous example, this is when we begin to learn the fundamentals of
properly riding a bicycle and putting it into practice – getting on one and working to master its
manoeuvring.

Though the individual does not understand or know how to do something, they
recognize the deficit, as well as the value of a new skill in addressing the deficit. The making
of mistakes can be integral to the learning process at this stage.

Here we learn that we are not competent at something. This often comes as a rude
awakening. The two-year-old boy gets on a bike and falls off. He has immediately gone from
stage one to stage two and knows that he does not know how to ride a bike.

3. CONSCIOUS COMPETENCE

We work at what we don’t know.

This stage entails being aware of one’s ability to execute, but having to remain
conscious as they do so because it doesn’t come naturally yet. This is when we can say “I know
I am doing this right” – we know we aren’t incompetent, and that we can ride a bike, but we
still need to consciously think about it in order to correctly execute the action.

The individual understands or knows how to do something. However, demonstrating

the skill or knowledge requires concentration. It may be broken down into steps, and there is
heavy conscious involvement in executing the new skill.
 8

Here we consciously make an effort to learn a new skill. Practice, drill and repetition
are at the forefront. This is where most learning takes place. It takes effort and work. The little
boy carefully steers and balances and pedals and thinks of what he is doing, step by step.

4. UNCONSCIOUS COMPETENCE

We don’t have to think about knowing it.

Reaching this stage entails knowing that we know something so well that we don’t even
realise that we are doing it when we do. This is when you can ride a bike without even thinking
about it, or to take the example even further, when you’re driving a car and you get to your
destination without properly remembering how you got there. The skill is so embedded in us
that we do not have to continuously process what we are doing.

The individual has had so much practice with a skill that it has become "second nature"
and can be performed easily. As a result, the skill can be performed while executing another
task. The individual may be able to teach it to others, depending upon how and when it was
learned.

Here the skill set happens automatically at an unconscious level. The little boy rides his
bike without even thinking about it. He can whistle, talk, sing, or do other things with his mind
at the same time. Another example that we can all probably relate to is driving a car.

The 4 levels of learning framework is best used to help us understand the emotions we
experience during the learning process. It helps to reassure ourselves that while learning can
get frustrating and challenging, we are well on our way to improving as we continue to do so.

2.2 Retention/recall of facts and concepts; Application of specific skills:

Normally in subject-centred learning it is used to be a regular practice of teachers

teaching and then testing to know whether the students have learnt or remember what is taught.
Most of the teaching was focused on facts, concepts related to various subjects and the testing
was to test the memory and their capacity to recall and remember. Rarely, teacher test or try to
know the students’ capacity to apply various skills and knowledge in different contexts or
application-oriented questioning.

Classroom teaching in the present days, learner-centred paradigm is focusing more on

application of the students’ past and the experiences of day-to-day life and also the practical
experiences provided within the class or outside the class and learn through the construction of
knowledge on their own.

Whatever is the process of teaching and learning, it is important for the teacher to focus
on certain important skills of learning to enable the leaners to know the facts, remember, recall
and retrieve the information when necessary and also to reconstruct the knowledge based on
the existing knowledge in terms of facts and concepts that is available with the child. Teacher
 9

need to provide the contexts to develop conceptual understanding through practical

experiences.

Teaching of Facts:

Teachers help students learn facts – that is, verifiable pieces of specific information.
Facts takes a variety of forms, including definitions, names, dates, and formulae. For instance,
learning the names of the state capitals is factual learning. While crucial to overall knowledge
development, facts do not generalise well. They are specific to the context in which they are
taught. Methods for teaching facts vary considerably. Teachers may suggest students use
flashcards, instructional technology, games or other devices for remembering facts.

Teaching of Skills:

Teachers also want students to learn skills. Skills are best considered a type of learning
that gets better with practice. The most obvious examples come from motor learning. Practicing
will likely make people learn more accurate skill like sports and games, drawing, etc. (a good
coach can help). But skill learning can also include cognitive skills, such as using a dictionary.
For instance, if you practice finding words in dictionary by learning how to use the guide word
or recognizing the significance of different types faces, you will very likely become faster and
more efficient. Methods for teaching skills usually involve practice in which the teacher gives
quick feedback on the student’s performance.

Teaching Concepts:

Teachers are generally most concerned with conceptual learning because it helps
learners to understand why. Concepts are distinguished from facts in that they are a much
broader, deeper type of knowledge. Learning a concept should help the learner generalise from
the teaching context to other, different contexts. In this way, conceptual learning is like a key:
it helps to open learning in other areas. Concepts are also different from facts and skills because
they involve relationships or processes. Photosynthesis, natural selection, and the theory of
relativity are all examples of large, organizing concepts. Learning concepts is usually much
more difficult than leaning than learning facts because it requires analytical thinking; facts
taught within a concept are typically learned faster. Teaching for concepts can take many
forms. One common method for conceptual development is use of examples and non-examples,
with a focus on attributes/criteria for inclusion. Teachers also engage in hypothetical
questioning and system analysis instruction for teaching concepts.

Memory, Recall and Retrieval:

Memory recall or retrieval is remembering the information or events that were

previously encoded and stored in the brain. Retrieval is the third step in the processing of
memory, with first being the encoding of memory and second, being the storage of the memory.
Retrieval of the encoded and stored memory is very important because otherwise there is no
point in storing information. During memory recall, there is a replaying of neural activity that
was originally generated in the brain during a specific event. This echoes the brain’s perception
 10

of that specific event which is not completely identical

to that event. In this way, the brain remembers the
information and details of the event. Memory recall is
not just pulling things from the storage of memories,
rather it is a process of creativity in which the relevant
information is gathered from the scattered, jigsaw
puzzle-like information in the brain.

Memory retrieval requires revisiting the nerve

pathways formed during the encoding and storage of
the memory. How quickly a memory is retrieved?
Well, it depends upon the strength of neural pathways formed during its encoding. According
to a theory, memory is stored in three forms: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. But
only information stored in short and long-term memory can be retrieved. However, the exact
mechanism of memory retrieval is not completely understood.

Types of Memory Recall

There are three main types of memory recall. We will discuss all of them one by one.

Free Recall

In free recall, the person recalls a list of items in any order. There are three types of
effects seen in free recall. First, the primacy effect refers to recalling the items presented at the
beginning of the list or the items presented more often on the list. Second, the recency effect
refers to recalling recent items in the list or the items presented at the end of the list. Third, the
cognitive effect refers to the recalling of things successively which are in neighbouring
positions.

Cued Recall

Cued recall refers to recalling a list of items by using cues and guides. In cued recall,
people more often remember the things which they do not remember in free recall. Cues help
in retrieval of those memories which are thought to be lost. There is more chance of recalling
an item when it has a strong link with the cue. The information can also be presented in the
form of pairs of pictures and numbers, and the first thing cues the recall of the second thing in
the pair.

Serial Recall

Serial recall refers to the recalling of items or events in the order of their occurrence. In
this way, recalling previous item cues to the recall of the next item in the list. It is especially
helpful in recalling life events in their chronological order.

There is a difference in serial recall of short-term and long-term memory. It has been
seen in different studies that more recently happened events are more easily remembered in
 11

order. The memory recall decreases when the items increase on the list. Primacy effect and
recency effect are also observed in serial recall.

Two-stage Theory

The two-stage theory explains the process of recalling a memory. According to this
theory, the first stage in the process of recall is research and retrieval of information from the
storage. The next step is recognition of the correct information from what has been retrieved.

According to some scientists, recognition is superior to recall because it involves only

one process while recall involves two processes. So, the recall is susceptible to more errors.
But some scientists argue that recall is superior to recognition in some cases. An example of
this may include failure to recognize words that can later be recalled.

Encoding Specificity

The encoding specificity theory is more advanced than the two-stage theory. According
to this theory, the memory utilizes information both from memory trace or the situation in
which it was encoded as well as the situation, context, or environment in which it is retrieved.

It means that if the situation or environment of learning and retrieving is the same, there
is more chance of successfully recalling the information. So, if you are a student and you go to
the hall where your exams are held every year and study your books in that hall, you will
probably score more numbers on the exam.

In the same way, people tend to remember an emotional thing in the mood that matches
the emotional memories. For example, a person in a happy mood remembers happy memories.

Forms of Memory Retrieval

Recall

Recall refers to the simple process of remembering something without any cues, and in
the physical absence of that thing. The recall is pulling information from the brain. Recalling
the name of a person or answering to a question are some examples of recall. In recall, all the
neurons involved in the memory are activated and they reconstruct the memory.

Recognition

Recognition is identifying the information of a previously known thing after seeing the
thing or experiencing memory again. Recognizing and remembering someone’s name by
seeing their picture is an example of recognition. Another example is when you do not
remember the location of a restaurant, but you recognize it when you see it.

Recollection
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Recollection refers to the rebuilding or piecing together of memory. Our mind

reconstructs the memory by utilizing logical structures and clues. Remembering the details of
an event using partial memories, clues and logic is a good example of this type of memory
retrieval.

Relearning

This type of memory retrieval refers to relearning of the information that has already
been learned in the past but is not remembered. People may not be able to recall but they know
that they have learned this before. Relearning shows improvement in retrieval of the
information as it strengthens the neuronal connections.

Brain Structures Involved in Retrieval

Studies have shown that six areas of the brain are predominantly involved in recall and
recognition.

1. The Prefrontal cortex is related to the

retrieval attempt.

2. The Hippocampal and Para-

Hippocampal areas of MTL are related to
conscious recollection.

3. The Anterior cingulate cortex is related

to response selection.

4. The Posterior midline area including

posterior cingulate is related to imagery.

5. The inferior parietal cortex is related to space awareness.

6. The Cerebellum, especially on the left which is related to self-initiated retrieval.

Increased activity in Globus pallidus, anterior cingulate gyrus, thalamus, and

cerebellum is seen during recall. The same activity is not seen in the recognition process which
means that these structures play a more important role in recall than recognition. Some studies
have shown that recall only takes place when there is synchronic activation of two brain region
i.e. rhinal cortex and hippocampus.

According to another study, which included recalling items from a list, huge differences
are seen in hemodynamic activity during subsequent recalled and not recalled items. The effect
has now been termed as the subsequent memory effect (SME). These differences in activity
determine whether a specific item is recalled or not.
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2.3 Manipulating tools and symbols; Problem solving; Applying learning to diverse
situations:

Manipulating Tools and Symbols:

Ccognitive tools may be manipulated like technical tools we often think about but are
unique in that they can be concepts, symbols, strategies or any other culture-based mechanism
that helps learners think and act more effectively. Some examples of these cognitive tools
include mnemonic devices, algebraic symbols and works of art.

The famous psychologist Lev Vygotsky bridged the gap between tool use and cognitive
development with his designation of cultural symbols as psychological tools. Included are
language, numerical systems, mathematical symbols, maps, diagrams and so on.

Both the tools of work (technical tools) and psychological tools assist the individual in
completing a task. Technical tools (such as hammers, nails and saws) are directed outward;
they change an external situation. In contrast, psychological tools are directed inward; they
direct the mind and change the process of thinking. Specifically, these tools allow learners to
use basic mental functions (such as attention, perception, sensation and memory) more
effectively and adaptively. Language and other psychological tools are artificial devices for
mastering one's own mental processes; they are social in nature, meaning they are
representative of the culture and society of the learner, and they're also the product of historical
development.

Psychologists today recognize that the child's culture shapes cognitive development by
determining what and how the child will learn about the world.

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was a spokesperson for this sociocultural theory and his
ideas about language, culture, and cognitive development have become major influences in
psychology and education and have provided alternatives to many of Piaget's theories.

Vygotsky believed that human activities take place in cultural settings and cannot be
understood apart from the settings-our specific mental structures and processes can be traced
to our interactions with others.

Social Sources of Individual Thinking: Vygotsky believed that higher mental processes
appear first between people as they are co-constructed during shared activities. Then the
processes are internalized by the child and become part of that child's cognitive development.
Ex: First, children use language in activities with others, to regulate the behavior of the others,
and then later, the child can regulate his/her own behavior using private speech. Piaget believed
that the most helpful interactions were between peers because peers are on an equal basis and
can challenge each other's thinking, but Vygotsky, on the other hand, suggested that children's
cognitive development is fostered by interactions with people who are more capable or
advanced in their thinking, such as parents and teachers.
 14

Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development: Vygotsky believed that cultural tools
(including real tools and symbolic tools) play very important roles in cognitive
development. He emphasized the tools that the culture provides to support thinking so that all
higher-order mental processes, such as reasoning and problem solving, are mediated by
psychological tools, such as language, signs, and symbols. Adults teach these tools to children
during day-to-day activities and the children internalize them, so later the psychological tools
can help students advance their own development. Ex: Children engage in activities with adults
and they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing concepts. These co-
created ideas are internalized by children; thus, children's knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and
values develop through appropriating the ways of acting and thinking provided by their culture
and by the more capable members of their group. Children begin to create a "cultural tool kit"
and transform the tools given to them into their own representations, symbols, patterns, and
understandings. Piaget informed us that children's constructions of meanings are not the same
as adults, so in the exchange of signs and symbols, children create their own understandings,
which gradually change as they engage in social activities and try to make sense of the
world. In Vygotsky's theory, language is the most important symbol system in the tool kit, and
it is the one that helps to fill the kit with other tools.

Problem Solving:

Problem solving is a process – an ongoing activity in which we take what we know to

discover what we don’t know. It involved overcoming obstacles by generating hypothesis,
testing those predictions, and arriving at satisfactory solutions.

A felt difficulty to reach our goals is generally called as a problem. Problem solving
involves mentally working to overcome obstacle that stand in the way of reaching a goal.

“A problem is a situation which is experienced by an agent as different from the

situation which the agent ideally would like to be in.” – Polya

“A problem arises when one has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be
reached” - Karl Duncker

So, problem solving is a process or act of finding a solution to a problem. It is the

process of working through details of a problem to reach a solution. True problem solving is a
process of applying a method – not known in advance – to a problem that is subject to a specific
set of conditions and that the problem solver has not seen before, in order to obtain a
satisfactory solution. According to Mayer, “Problem solving is thinking that is directed towards
the solving o a specific problem that involves both the formation of responses and the selection
among possible responses.” In the words of Ausubel, “Problem solving involves concept
formation and discovery learning.”

In a problem-solving method, children learn by working on problems. This enables the

students to learn new knowledge by facing the problems to be solved. The students are expected
to observe, understand, analyse, interpret find solutions, perform applications that lead to a
 15

holistic understanding of the concept. This method develops scientific process skills. This
method helps in developing brainstorming approach to learning concepts. Thus, problem
solving method may be defined as a planned attack upon a difficulty for the purpose of finding
a solution. This involves reflective thinking for the purpose of arriving at rational conclusions
relevant to the problem. It is a process of raising a problem in the minds of the students in such
a way as to stimulate purposeful reflective thinking for arriving at a rational solution.

Problem solving involves three basic functions –

i) seeking information,

ii) generating new knowledge, and

iii) making decision.

Problem solving is, and should be, a very real part of the curriculum. It presupposes
that student can take on some of the responsibility for their own learning and can take personal
action to solve problems, resolve conflicts, discuss alternatives, and focus on thinking as a vital
element of the curriculum. It provides students with opportunities to use their newly acquired
knowledge in meaningful, real life activities and assists them in working at higher levels of
thinking.

Importance of Developing Problem Solving Skills Students:

Good problem-solving skills empower students in their educational, professional, and

personal lives. Nationally and internationally, there is growing recognition that if education is
producing skilled thinkers and innovators in a fast-changing global economy, then problem
solving skills are more important than ever. The ability to solve problems in a range of learning
contexts is essential for the development of knowledge, understanding and performance.
Requiring students to engage with complex, authentic problem solving encourages them to use
content knowledge in innovative and creative.

The following aspects of problem solving as crucial to successive ways and promotes
deep understanding.

i) Developing creative, innovative solutions

ii) Developing practical solutions
iii) Showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them
iv) Solving problems in teams
v) Applying a range of strategies to problem solving
vi) Using mathematics including budgeting and financial management to solve
problems
vii) Applying problem solving strategies across a range of areas
viii) Teach students problem solving skills.
 16

Students need to be able to transfer the ability to solve problems in one context into
new and different contexts and situations. Certain aspects of problem solving are transferable,
even if the particular problem to be solved is discipline or context-specific.

Teaching Problem Solving:

Mayer (2008) identified four issues that are involved in designing a problem-solving
course.

What to teach? Should problem solving courses attempt to teach problem solving as a
single, monolithic skill (e.g., a mental muscle that needs to be strengthened) or as a collection
of smaller, component skills? Although conventional wisdom is that problem solving involves
a single skill, research in cognitive science suggests that problem solving ability is a collection
of small component skills.

How to teach? Should problem solving courses focus on the product of problem
solving (i.e., getting the right answer) or the process of problem solving (i.e., figuring out how
to solve the problem)? While it makes sense that students need proactive in getting the right
answer (i.e., the product of problem solving), research in cognitive science suggests that
students benefit from training in describing and evaluating the methods used to solve problems
(i.e., the process of problem solving). For example, one technique that emphasizes the process
of problem solving is modelling, in which teachers and students demonstrate their problem-
solving methods.

Where to teach? Should problem solving be taught as a general, standalone course or

within specific domain such as problem solving in history, in science, in mathematics, etc.)?
Although conventional wisdom is that students should be taught general skills in stand-alone
courses, there is sufficient cognitive science research to propose that it would be effective to
teach problem solving within the context of specific subject domains.

When to teach? Should problem solving be taught before or after students have
mastered corresponding lower-level? Although there are evidences in both ways to deal with
higher order to put before and after i.e. both are effective.

Applying Learning in Diverse Situations:

The teacher wants student to successfully grasp, retain and apply new materials to
diverse situations, and recruit their interest. Teachers need to find ways to make learning
relevant, authentic and valuable in student’s lives. The following ways can be used to engage
students for learning in diverse situations –

i) Connect what you are teaching with the real life

ii) Use student’s interest and fascinations
iii) Present information in multiple formats
iv) Teach students self-monitoring skills
 17

Focus on core concepts - Students can more effectively apply their knowledge when they
comprehend principles that organize, guide, and explain content and skills. Instructors can
develop activities that connect dots through deeper relationships, shared functions, or similar
organizing principles. With a strong conceptual framework, rather than memorized facts or a
string of lecture notes, students can recognize contexts operating through similar concepts and
arrange knowledge as more functional parts of a whole.

Include activities that promote deeper learning - A larger approach to conceptual learning,
deeper learning asks students to practice more rigorous thinking than memorization, skills
practice, or test preparation. Instructors can design class activities and assessments like active
learning that span Bloom’s taxonomy, thereby leading students to more independent thinking
and the ability to recognize both the details and the broad strokes of what they study.

Provide comparative scenarios - Students develop the ability to accommodate their learning by
practicing applying. Instructors can present two different scenarios, formulas, or readings and
ask students to find single approaches for solving or analysing each; flipping the script, they
can ask students to construct a different problem or scenario that requires the same skills and
knowledge as a pre-completed assignment; instructors can also engage students in case studies,
where a variety of skills and knowledge sets may be stretched to address issues that are similar
to, but not exactly, readings or lecture material.

Provide a roadmap with links - Students are more engaged when instructors provide a clear
sense of direction for intended learning. By making intellectual connection between segments
of class, or asking students to articulate the relationship between a previous class and a current
class, instructors show how knowledge operates in more than one context, and give students
practice charting their learning beyond single contexts.

Build on previous knowledge - Students construct their learning by integrating new knowledge
into knowledge they already have. Instructors can support student learning by assessing and
building from previous knowledge. They can also make this process explicit for students, which
in turn helps students learn to relate their knowledge and treat it as a network, rather than
individual nuggets.

2.4 Meaning – making propensity; Abstraction of ideas from experiences; Seeing links
and relationships; interference, Analysis, Reflection:

Meaning-making Propensity:

Modern educational theory has stress learner’s active participation in learning. Major
contribution of educational research during this century has been its focus on the process that
learners use, mote than on the structure of material to be learned.

Man by nature has the capacity to wonder about the world around him and derived
meanings out of the experiences gained by observation, using sensory experiences, creating
new ideas for the experiences. This is a natural phenomenon of human learning process. Many
specific experiences make a child to form a generalized conceptual idea to form many concepts.
 18

Individual encounters with various concrete objects, things people and creates some ideas about
them in the mind.

All of us constantly organize and select the information our sense takes in from the
natural world and from symbolic and cultural world. Children are born with ability to interprets
the world as their elders do. They have to learn the meaning of things and they do so gradually,
as they gain experience.

Constructivism is an educational theory that both recognizes the importance of

individual meaning making and makes it central aspect of pedagogic practice.

Abstraction of Ideas from Experience:

Teaching and learning with representations of objects from a cognitive psychological

point of view, the development of knowledge takes palace by experiencing reality (Piaget,
1972). Experience results from the interaction with objects which on the one hand leads to the
development of ideas about these objects and on the other hand, by manipulation ot the
possibility to evaluate whether these ideas are correct or not. Experiences with objects in the
real world can be divided into i) direct experience with the reality, or ii) mediated experiences
by the use of media. In education, mediated experience by using a representation of the reality
is essential, as real objects are not always available or suitable to use. Besides, it is possible to
refer to an imaginary reality.

Constructivist are of the view that people construct their own understanding and
knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and
experience, may be changing what we believe, or may be discarding new information as
irrelevant. In any case, we are active creator of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask
questions, explore, and assess what we know. So, in classroom, students should be encouraged
to use active techniques (experience, real world problem solving) to create more knowledge
and then reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing.
The teacher makes sure she understands the student’s pre-existing conceptions, and guides the
activity to address them and then build on them. He should encourage students to constantly
assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and
their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become ‘expert learners’. This
gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning with a well-planned classroom environment,
the students learn ‘how to learn’.

There are three levels of communicating about things: objects, experience, and concept.
As we go up the levels of abstraction, ideas increases and reality recedes.

v) Object: At the object level, we talk about tangible material things, many of
which we can touch and pick up. The truth of an object is independent or people,
it exist whether we are there or not.
 19

vi) Experience: At the experience level, we talk about the experience we have had.
This now has the abstraction of interpretation. However, it is still very real to
us, at least.
When two people talk about a common experience, they refer to the
same objects, but may have different feelings about them. This is a common
source of conversation, interest and may be conflict, as we often expect others
to have the same experiences as us.
vii) Concept: At the conceptual level of communication, we talk about ideas and
thoughts we have had. Concepts includes our beliefs, values and schemas. These
are internal constructions that are abstracted away from reality, although we
often mistaken them to be that reality they represent.
Words are effectively concept in the way they are little packets of
meaning by which we try to communicate. Concepts can be accepted or
rejected, however and the same word may be interpreted differently by different
people.

Abstraction is a cognitive process of isolating common feature or relationship observed

in a number of things, or the product of such a process. The property of electrical conductivity,
for example, is abstracted from observations of bodies that allow to flow through them;
similarly, observations of pairs of lines in which one line is longer than the other can yield the
relation of ‘being loner than’. So, it is the form of thinking that is based on the cognitive process
of abstraction, which is defined as process by which allegedly we form concepts on the basis
of experience or of other concepts. Empiricists like Loke use abstraction to help specify how
we build up our concepts on the basis of experience.

Seeking Links and Relationships - Inference, Analysis, Reflection:

Inferences are based on evidence. To infer one must collect evidence and evidence is
collected by the process of analysis. Inference is a process of reaching a conclusion. Analysis
is a particular form of investigation it refers to close, careful or systematic examination.
Analysis is a process of breaking something into parts for closer examination. Complex topics
are broken into simpler ones. The goal of analysis is not simply to discover parts within the
whole, but to understand the whole. Once the parts are identified, analysis then seeks to
determine, how those parts are related from a recognition of –

- the nature of the parts, and

- the relationships between the parts.

Inference is essential to and part of being human. We engage inference every day. We
interprets actions to be example of behaviour characteristics, intents or expressions of particular
feeling. Inference is a mental process by which we reach a conclusion based on specific
evidence. We infer motives, purpose and intentions. Inference tends to reflect prior knowledge
and experience as well as personal beliefs and assumptions. Inferences thus tend to reflect one’s
stake in a situation or one’s interest in the outcome.
 20

Reflection or thinking about our experiences is the key to learning. reflection allows us
to analyse our experiences, make changes based on our mistakes (inference). Keep doing what
is successful, and build upon or modify past knowledge based on new knowledge. Reflection
also allows us to make connection between subjects, courses or between school, work and
home. reflection includes both inference and analysis, because of which we can improve further
in positive direction. Reflection on each course taken in the semester assess what you have
learned and explain what connection between classes and between school, work and home.

Once the student has gathered information, resources, it make sense of the text in
relation to what one already know, use analytical skills to make inferences, interprets data,
organize ideas, and make connections critical analysis of information gathered requires
application of critical reading skills. Sorting and classifying, shifting information. Presenting a
coherent argument, drawing conclusions and summarising. Students may find that they have
not gathered sufficient information through this analysis and assured that this reflection is part
of the process. Adapting information seeking strategies to be encouraged as student begin to
find new meaning from their work.

2.5 Originality and initiative; Collaborative participation; Creativity; Flexibility:

Originality and initiative

Originality is the pinnacle of creativity. Often it is a someone’s spontaneous originality that

makes us call him creative. It is the ability to develop ideas that are statistically unusual, novel
or unique. A dynamic, challenging, creative and flexible teacher possess the qualities of
originality and initiatives. The ability to think independently and creatively on the part of the
teacher is originality. Being able to get away from the obvious and complex to generate novel
ideas and response, the starting point of originality is curious.

A novice teacher who has developed originality will be able to offer unusual responses
to challenges. These responses will be unexpected and unfamiliar and may often lead to break
through solution. This skill is important for deliberately pushing for originality and novelty the
likelihood of break through ideas increases.

The ability to assess and initiate things independently is imitativeness. It is power or

opportunity to act or take charge before others do. Teacher actions that begin the process, often
done with direct managerial influence.

The mostly originality and initiative ability should come from within the teacher. This
helps the teacher of the present curriculum to assess the student continuously.

Collaborative participation:

Collaborative participation in learning is the educational approach of using groups to

enhance learning through working together. Groups of two or more learners work together to
solve problems, complete tasks, or learn new concepts. Collaborative participation is a method
of teaching and learning in which students team together to explore a significant question or
 21

create a meaningful project. Collaborative participation is a situation in which two or more

people learn or attempt to learn something together. More specifically, collaborative learning
is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members
actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetry roles. Put differently,
collaborative participation refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage
in a common task each individual depends on and is accountable to each other.

It is heavily rooted in Vygotsky’s views that there exists an inherent social nature of
learning which is shown through his theory of zone of proximal development. Often,
collaborative participatory learning is used as an umbrella term for a variety of approaches in
education that involve joint intellectual effort by students or students and teachers. Thus, it is
commonly illustrated when groups of students, work together to search for understanding,
meaning, or solutions or to create an artifact or product of their learning. Further, it redefines
traditional student-teacher relationship in the classroom which results in controversy over
whether this paradigm is more beneficial than harmful. Its activities can include collaborative
writing, group projects, join problem solving, debates, study teams, and other activities. In it,
students work together in small groups on a structured activity. They are individually
accountable for their work, and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed. In small
groups, they can share strengths and also develop their weaker skills. They develop their
interpersonal skills, and in dealing with conflicts together. In order to create such as situation
of learning collaboratively, three things are necessary –
i) students need to feel safe, but also challenged,
ii) group need to be small enough that everyone can contribute, and
iii) the task of student’s work must be clearly defined.

Also, in cooperative learning small groups provide a place where:

• learners actively participate;

• teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
• respect is given to every member;
• projects and questions interest and challenge students;
• diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
• students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
• members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
• goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
• research tools such as Internet access are made available;
• students are invested in their own learning.

The role of assessment in collaborative projects is to encourage students to take

responsibility for their participation in team work and to help them understand and embrace
the collaborative, not competitive nature of a collaborative learning process. Our students
should also understand that we learn better in groups than alone, because we can help each
other overcome difficulties and solve problems. Assessment shouldn't discourage learners, but
 22

rather strengthen their commitment to learning. It should be brief, clear and timely so that it
can help students improve their skills and knowledge.

According to Barry Zimmerman, one of the foremost researchers on self-regulated

learning, self-regulated learning represents an ongoing series of feedback cycles that consists
of three phases: planning, practice and feedback.

During the planning phase, students learn to assess their previously gained knowledge, choose
appropriate strategies and set short and long-term goals. During the practice phase, students
implement the strategies and keep track of their progress. During the evaluation phase, students
evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies. Feedback from this phase serves as the basis for the
next SLR cycle. When students are actively engaged in the learning process, they take greater
responsibility for their learning and in this way their performance improves.

Effective self-regulated learning starts with learner autonomy. When students are given
detailed instructions and timelines, they do not have the opportunity to plan their own work.
Teachers can foster self-regulation skills by giving students responsibility for deciding how
they will:
- divide their work among themselves,
- create a schedule and set interim deadlines,
- accomplish the task,
- plan where the work will be done.

Teachers can help students learn to monitor the quality of the work they produce by
giving them assessment or quality criteria in advance. Assessment criteria are the factors that
the teacher considers in grading the students' work. When students are given the criteria in
advance, they can examine the quality of their work as they complete it. In this way, they can
practise assessing their own performance and improve their work before submitting it.

Creativity:

Creativity is generally defined as the ability to produce work that is novel and
appropriate. Creativity is the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality. It is
characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden pattern, to make
connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions. Creativity is
a mental and social process involving the discovery of new ideas or concepts, or new
associations of the creative mind between existing ideas or concepts. It is fuelled either by
conscious and unconscious insights. Creativity is “the interaction among aptitude, process, and
environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible product that is both novel
and useful as defined within a social context”. An alternative conception of creativeness is that
it is simply the act of making something new. Creativity is the act of turning new and
imaginative ideas into reality. it involves two processes – thinking and producing.
 23

Creativity has been studied from a variety of perspectives and is important in numerous
contexts. Most of these approaches are un-disciplinary, and it is therefore difficult to form a
coherent overall view.

Today, creativity forms the core activity of a flowing section of the global economy –
the so called ‘creative industries’ – capitalistically generating wealth through the creation and
exploitation of intellectual property or through thr provision of creative services. The Creative
Industries Mapping Document 2001 provides an overview of the creative integral part of
industrialized nation’s economies.

Creative professions include writing, art, design, theatre, television, radio, notion
pictures, related crafts, as well as marketing strategy, some aspects of scientific research and
development, product development, some types of teaching and curriculum design, and more.

The gift of creativity as an enduring personal trait is dependent on at least two different
factors. First, there must be an urge, drive, or motivation to create something new; and second,
there must be talent to carry out and materialised this creative urge.

Nickerson provides a summary of the various creativity techniques that have been
proposed. These include approaches that have been developed by both academia and industry
–

• Establishing purpose and intention

• Building basic skills
• Encouraging acquisitions of domain-specific knowledge
• Stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration
• Building motivation, especially internal motivation
• Encouraging confidence and a willingness to take risks
• Focusing on mastery and self-competition
• Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity
• Providing opportunities for choice and discovery
• Developing self-management (metacognitive skills)
• Teaching techniques and strategies for facilitating creative performance
• Providing balance.

Flexibility:

Flexibility and adaptability in the classroom are two of most important qualities that
every teacher must possess. These two characteristics also go-hand-in hand with one another.
Flexibility is the idea that your plans can change very quickly, sometimes with notice and
sometimes without. Receiving criticism from your advisor is extremely important in terms of
flexibility because it will force you to change up what you are used to doing. Being flexible
means incorporating this feedback into your teaching. Also, on-the-spot changes may also need
to me made based on certain situations in the classroom, often without prior realization.
Adaptability is the ability to adapt to change. In general, it is being able to acclimate yourself
 24

to changing roles, job responsibilities, material, and schedules. If you cannot accommodate for
these different aspects of teaching, it will be difficult to give your students the best learning
experience that they could possibly get, and of course that’s always the goal.

Flexibility in the classroom is one of most important qualities that every teacher must
possess. Receiving feedback from your peers and administrators can be rather intimidating,
and then changing your plans in order to accommodate their feedback and criticism may seem
like a daunting task – and it is. Teachers need to be aware that they will always need to be
changing up their teaching styles. Lesson plans are great fluids in the classroom, but of course
the class cannot always go as smoothly as it is planned. There will always be interruptions du
to rowdy students, disadvantaged students, misunderstandings when learning and technical
difficulties among many other reasons. When an obstacle arises, you must be able to overcome
it smoothly and this could require changing your entire plan for the day on-the-spot.

One of the most important parts of analysis is being able to organize information in a
way that it is easier understood. This is a situation where being flexible could be very important.
Suppose maybe a particular diagram or visual was given in class in order to help teach a certain
topic. It is very possible that may be particular students are not visual learners and would rather
see the information displayed in a different way. This is where teachers need to be flexible in
their lessons., by being able to come up with some other form to display the information in
such a way that it is easier understood for the students who may be did no grasp the concept
with the first visual. This may require organizing material into several distinct components
(i.e., graphs, tables, text, pictures, etc.). The ability to be able to adapt to a student’s needs is
extremely crucial here.

2.6 Context of assessment:

Assessment is the process of collecting evidence and making judgements on whether

competency has been achieved to confirm that an individual can perform to standard expected
in the school. There is a bigger picture of assessment which we need to know is why we want
to assess in the first place.

There are many different reasons why we might assess a student, and each of them
might lead to a different way of assessing. So, we need to be clear on our purpose before we
start. Some of the more common reasons to assess that we encounter as teachers include:

a) To recognise prior learning or current competencies,

b) To identify learner needs or progress,
c) A component of a teaching learning process,
d) To establish candidate’s progress towards achievement of competence,
e) To determine language needs of learners,
f) To certify competence through a progress card,
g) To establish progress towards a qualification,
h) To determine learning gaps of students,
i) To measure student’s performance.
 25

Thus, the purpose of assessment is to improve process and materials of the teaching-
learning. Also, it is an integral part of teaching-learning process spread out to entire teaching-
learning programme and throughout the academic year.

The purpose of assessment is closely linked to its context. But, the context includes all
those things that tells us about the reasons for the assessment, and issues that we will need to
consider when we are planning our assessment. Some of the common contexts of assessmen
include:

i. The environment in which the assessment will be carried out including real or
simulated issues,
ii. Opportunities for gathering evidence in a number of situations,
iii. The purpose of assessment,
iv. Who carries out the assessment,
v. Relationship between units of competency and performance of students in real life,
vi. The period of time during which the assessment takes place,
vii. Cost or fees of assessment,
viii. Quality assurance mechanisms.

So, in carrying out the purpose and context, the first step is to work out a list of all the
people who might be agected by the assessment. These are the stakeholders – they have a stake
in what we are doing, simply because they are affected in some way by it. Among them, we
will identify some key people who can help us to understand the way that lots of other people
are going to be affected. These are the relavant people including the candidates and assessors.

2.6.1 Subject-related Assessment:

We not only assess person as a whole but the content through which assessment
procedures are followed. Here, the student’s competencies are assessed by his ability to work
upon the given teaching learning material. Thus, it is desirable to assess student’s general
ability, aptitude, attitude towards a subject and degree of motivation to participate in learning.

In subject relate assessment, some specific assessment techniques are organised or

selected in order to collect information about how well students are mastering the contents,
achieving learning outcomes/objectives. Which assessment techniques are chosen depending
on what the teacher wants the students to demonstrate the capabilities of the students, and on
what the students have been doing in the class. Other considerations made with it are
environment and socio-cultural background of the student.

Teachers, in this context, had to understand thoroughly ‘study course material’ and
performance learning activities such as problem solving in their respecitive subjects. The
assessment goes along with teaching learning in the classroom. For the teacher to ask questions
in formative assessment, especially open-ended questions, the teacher should be creative and
it should directly be linked with the subject concerned.

2.6.2 Learner-related Assessment/Person-related Assessment:

 26

Assessment procedures related to the person is a subject of occupational therapy.

However, as a teacher, we need to understand the student in a holistic manner. Human
performance can be understood only through the ‘lens’ of context, which includes temporal
(age, development, health status), physical, cultural, and social features that operate external to
a person. In essence, the inter-relationship between person and context determines which tasks
fall within the individual’s performance range.

Personal context reflects an individual’s internal environment derieved from his or her
gender, belief, cultural background, or state of mind. Personal context refers to the
intrapersonal environment that shapes an individual’s experience. Some aspects of a person’s
internal environment such as age and longstanding beliefs, are stable; others, such as pain,
mood, and adaptation to illness or injury, may be constantly in flux. An understanding of the
person in a thorough manner by the teacher will help resolve classroom issues related to
teaching learning process in an amicable way.
 CPS – 04
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
(Sir. Dr. N. Sanjoy Singh)

UNIT – 3 : ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE

Enlargement notions of subject based learning in a constructivist perspective

The subject-centred designer divides the curriculum into distinct subjects such as languages,
mathematics, sciences, social sciences, etc. This structuring of the disciplines is for practical
reasons. It organizes the curriculum into basic concepts that are combined based on what they have
in common. The essential knowledge of each area is gathered together to be taught to students. Such
type of learning is called as Subject Based Learning (SBL).

In this case, subjects overlap and the division is often arbitrary. In addition, every subject can be
further divide into smaller parts. For example, social science can be broken down into history,
geography, political science, and economics and so on.

A major criticism of this design is the lack of integration or horizontal articulation. The learning is
compartmentalized and the students often never see the connections across subjects. In addition,
the subject based learning does not take into account the needs and interest of the students. The
textbook is made by experts in the field who already know what knowledge and even experiences
a child requires.

Despite this, the subject based learning is by far the most popular approach because of being
practical and easy to do nature. It is appropriateness needs to be left to the educator who is trying
to help their students. Some of disadvantages of Subject-Based Learning are:

 Students retain little of the information they learn (end of the cycle)
 Students can rarely apply what they have learned
 Students are not forced to think for themselves or frame problems that interest them
 Students do not typically enjoy this process

From a constructivist perspective, Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or
compartments, but should be discovered as an integrated whole. This underlines the importance of
the context in which learning is presented. The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does
not approach one in the form of different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems,
dimensions and perceptions.

Therefore, Problem-based learning (PBL) is a viable alternative to traditional classroom learning

which is subject based learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centred pedagogy in
which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem.
Students learn both thinking strategies and domain knowledge.

Problem-Based Learning has a number of advantages over the traditional one; some of them are
given below:
 Gives students the opportunity to examine and apply the information they learn (cyclical
process)
 Helps foster teamwork and collaborative skills
 Improves students writing and speaking abilities
 Introduces students to the idea of defining a problem and presenting evidence to support
solution
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  Causes students to become more flexible in their learning
 Students typically enjoy this type of learning environment

In Problem Based Learning, the teacher presents the students with a problem, not lectures or
assignments or exercises. Since students are not handed "content", his/her learning becomes active
in the sense that they discover and work with content that they determine to be necessary to solve
the problem. In addition, teacher acts as facilitator and mentor, rather than a source of "solutions."
This means that problem based learning is student centred.

Teachers who adhere to problem based learning are influenced strongly by constructivism.
Constructivism holds that prior knowledge forms the foundation by which new learning occurs.
Because student and their experiences are different, they arrive at school with varying levels of
proficiency. A student is challenged according to his or her individual zone of proximal
development. The difference between a student's actual developmental level and his or her potential
is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Good instruction matches each child's ZPD.

Constructivist notion is to integrate the subjects via problem-focused experiences, and to integrate
school with the world beyond. In executing such problems, students develop deep understandings
by making something new of their subject matter. Of necessity, they learn how to collaborate, how
to plan, how to give and accept critique, how to revise, how to self-assess. They read complex texts
and write a wide range of pieces for a variety of purposes, from personal reflections to news articles,
project proposals, memos, research reports, stories, and essays. They interview community
members, learning to listen and appreciate diverse perspectives. As they present their work to
important audiences, they come to understand what it means to be a member of the human
community.

Constructivists view learning as an active process where learners should learn to discover
principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging guesswork and
intuitive thinking in learners. In fact, for the constructivist, reality is not something that we can
discover because it does not pre-exist prior to our social invention of it. Reality is constructed by
our own activities and that people, together as members of a society, invent the properties of the
world.

In this view, rather than a collection of fixed texts, the learning is more like a flow of events,
accessible through tools that help students identify and extract rich academic content from the
world: guidelines and templates for project development, along with activities and routines for
observation and analysis, reflection, dialogue, critique, and negotiation. In summary, Problem
based learning provides a student with opportunities to:

 examine and try out what he/she know

 discover what she/he need to learn
 develop himself/herself social skills for achieving higher performance in teams
 improve his/her communications skills
 state and defend positions with evidence and sound argument
 become more flexible in processing information and meeting obligations
 practice skills that he/she will need after his/her education

In a constructivist perspective, learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to
skills and knowledge just beyond their current level of mastery. This will capture their motivation
and build on previous successes in order to enhance the confidence of the learner. This is in line
with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, as mention earlier, which can be described as the
distance between the actual developmental level (as determined by independent problem-solving)
and the level of potential development (as determined through problem-solving under adult
guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers).

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Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the
foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form. This means that
instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and form to any topic or subject area,
and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has been extensively used in curricula.
It is also important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them,
it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal which reflects their own belief
systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their learners.
Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise. The emotions and life contexts of those
involved in the learning process must therefore be considered as an integral part of learning. The
goal of the learner is central in considering what is learned.
It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is
built into the learning process. The more structured the learning environment, the harder it is for
the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual understandings. A facilitator should
structure the learning experience just enough to make sure that the students get clear guidance and
parameters within which to achieve the learning objectives, yet the learning experience should be
open and free enough to allow for the learners to discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own,
socially verified version of truth.
Enlargement notion of subject based learning in a constructivist perspective is thus an intervention
where contextualised activities (tasks) are used to provide learners with an opportunity to discover
and collaboratively construct meaning as the intervention unfolds. Learners are respected as unique
individuals, and instructors act as facilitators rather than as teachers.
Another constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part
in activities which are directly relevant to the application of learning and which take place within a
culture similar to the applied setting. Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an effective
constructivist model of learning which attempts to "en-cultrate students into authentic practices
through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident, and evidently successful,
in craft apprenticeship"

It is clear from the above discussion that difference between subject based and problem based
classrooms is philosophical. Philosophy drives behaviour, so when it comes to our teaching style,
it is important to have a deep understanding of our own belief system. Our view of learning,
students' roles, and teachers' roles determine the method by which we teach.

Assessment tools – Every lesson that a teacher teaches has an objective that is students who have
understood the lesson are able to perform tasks they could not have done before the lesson. At the
end of the lesson, teachers like to know whether or not the objective has been realized. For this,
they need assessment tools.

Kinds of tasks are –

1) Projects – Project work challenges students to think beyond the boundaries of the classroom,
helping them develop the skills, behaviours, and confidence necessary for success in life.
Designing learning environments that help students question, analyze, evaluate, and extrapolate
their plans, conclusions, and ideas, leading them to higher–order thinking, requires feedback
and evaluation that goes beyond a letter or number grade. The term “authentic assessment” is
used to describe assessment that evaluates content knowledge as well as additional skills like
creativity, collaboration, problem-solving, and innovation.

Authentic assessment documents the learning that occurs during the project-building process and
considers the real-world skills of collaboration, problem solving, decision making, and
communication.
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Since project work requires students to apply knowledge and skills throughout the project-building
process, we will have many opportunities to assess work quality, understanding, and participation
from the moment students begin working.

For example, our evaluation can include tangible documents like the project vision, storyboard, and
rough draft, verbal behaviours such as participation in group discussions and sharing of resources
and ideas, and non-verbal cognitive tasks such as risk taking and evaluation of information. We can
also capture snapshots of learning throughout the process by having students complete a project
journal, a self-assessment, or by making a discussion of the process one component of the final
presentation.

2) Assignment – assignment is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be

completed outside the class. Common homework assignments may include a quantity or period
of reading to be performed, writing or typing to be completed, problems to be solved, a school
project to be built (such as a diorama or display), or other skills to be practiced.
The basic objectives of assigning homework to students are the same as schooling in
general: to increase the knowledge and improve the abilities and skills of the students.
However, opponents of homework cite homework as rote, or grind work, designed to take up
children's time, without offering tangible benefit. Homework may be designed to reinforce what
students have already learned, prepare them for upcoming (or complex or difficult) lessons, extend
what they know by having them apply it to new situations, or to integrate their abilities by applying
many different skills to a single task. Homework also provides an opportunity for parents to
participate in their children's education.
3) Performance – The combination of increasing demands for accountability and the desire to
measure a variety of complex educational outcomes makes the use of performance assessment
an essential addition to the tools used to profile student achievement. Performance assessment
in education is valuable for student assessment and for the assessment of teacher and principal
performance. Lessons learned to date in the practice of performance assessment include:
 the need for clear targets;
 the need for an array of assessment tools;
 the need for training;
 cost, time, and technical issues; and
 issues associated with high-stakes testing, such as restricting curriculum, teaching to the
test, and other negative effects;
The instructional usefulness of performance assessment is currently limited, but making teachers
partners in the assessment process improves the quality of performance assessment and its
instructional usefulness. A major unresolved performance assessment problem is that teachers do
not have the training to use all that performance assessment offers.
Kinds of test are –
1. Written test – Written test is the most commonly used type of assessment for certification
purposes. This test assesses candidates’ knowledge in specific areas, as defined in the
blueprint. Written test is best suited for initial certification as it enables a wide coverage of
content and it can be used to assess both knowledge and its application. Other advantages
that explain the popularity of this method include its low cost for candidates and its
decreased cost to administrators as the number of candidates increase.

Written test is flexible and can be used either on its own or paired with other tools. Although written
test can also be used for re-certification, in practice, this occurs infrequently.
The following provides information on the advantages and disadvantages of multiple-choice
examinations and other forms of written examinations.

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Multiple Choice tests:
Advantages
 Sound psychometric qualities
 Wide coverage of domain content
 Can assess both knowledge as well as application of knowledge
 Can be scored quickly
 Can be administered more than once
 Low cost for candidate and decreases as the number of candidates increases
 Possibility of online delivery
 Well accepted by candidates

Disadvantages
 Need large pool of questions to ensure their rotation.
 Measuring practical skills is not always possible
 Initial development costs are high, therefore requiring significant investment capital
 Requires creation of various versions of the exam to prevent question over-exposure and
to ensure security of the test.

Essays//Short Answer/Answer Completion

Advantages
 Can assess both knowledge as well as application of knowledge,
 can obtain more information in some areas
 Can have reasonable coverage of domain content
 Cost for candidate is still reasonable

Disadvantages
 Need to revise content after each administration
 Attention needs to be paid to development of scoring key
 Measuring practical skills is not always possible
 Scoring can be time-consuming and challenging

2. Oral test - Oral test is the most commonly used of all forms of assessing a student’s learning
outcomes. Indeed, it is an essential feature of teaching learning processes that is hardly
recognised as a form of assessment by most of the prospective teachers.

These types of tests are conducted for supplementing to written examination. Test of reading ability,
pronunciation etc. where there is nothing to write.
Observation: Observation is used to evaluate overt behaviour of pupil in controlled and
uncontrolled situations. It is purposive, systematic and carefully viewing/observing behaviour and
recording it. It is a most frequently employed measurement technique without using any
instruments. Large number of individual observations or observations made by large number of
observers is employed to minimize subjectivity. Information can be gathered about children in
‘natural’ settings. Some are about learners in the course of teaching. Others based on planned and
purposeful observation of students on activities/tasks.
Observation is usually used to make an informal assessment of student behaviours such as attitudes,
interest, skills, appreciations etc. Observations may be recorded through anecdotal notes, checklists,

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video, audio recordings or photos. Observations may be used to collect data about behaviours that
are difficult to evaluate by other methods.
Advantages
 Various aspects of personality development can be assessed through observations.
 Can be used to assess individuals as well as groups.
 Assessments can be made during varying time periods.
 Evidence of child’s performance/knowledge is based on an ‘on-the-spot’ record.
 Over time, detailed observations of behaviour as well as interests, challenges,
patterns/trends emerge which allow teachers to create a comprehensive picture/view
of the child.

Caution for teachers

 Avoid arriving at inferences/interpretations or jumping to conclusions. Important to
takedown more than what is actually seen.
 Dependent on the skill of the observer which determines ‘what’ is observed.
 Requires sensitivity and unobtrusiveness in the way the observation is done.
 Observations to be made over a period of time, across different activities and settings.

Suggestions for implementation

 Recording details that not only describe the actions but reveal how a child feels about what
she/he is doing, details on how she/he does something as well as the quantity of her/his
interrelationship with people and materials, and what he/she says etc.
 Nothing comments about the child’s behaviour in parentheses based on which processes can
be inferred at a later point of time.

3. Self reporting – students can tell us much of what we need to know about them as learners,
and asking them to self-report and self-reflect also supports them in coming to know
themselves as learners. A self-report is any method which involves asking a participant
about their feelings, attitudes, and beliefs and so on. Examples of self-reports are
questionnaires and interviews; self-reports are often used as a way of gaining participants’
responses in observational studies and experiments.
The main strength of self-report methods is that they allowed participants to describe their own
experiences rather than inferring this from observing participants. Self-report studies have many
advantages, but they also suffer from specific disadvantages due to the way that subjects generally
behave.
 Self-reported answers may be exaggerated;
 Respondents may be too embarrassed to reveal private details;
 Various biases may affect the results, like social desirability bias;
 Subjects may also forget pertinent details.

Self-report studies are inherently biased by the person’s feelings at the time they filled out the
questionnaire. If a person feels bad at the time they fill out the questionnaire, for example, their
answers will be more negative. If the person feels good at the time, then the answers will be more
positive.
4. Self assessment – One of the most challenging and interesting tools of authentic assessment
is self-assessment which encourages a student to be directly involved in the learning
process. It underlines the feeling of being autonomous and intrinsically motivated. The
learner is asked to set some goals and make their own choices which he may later evaluate

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 and regulate. These students feel proud of themselves and they are capable of determining
their strengths and weaknesses. Moreover, self-assessment helps students to learn how to
monitor their own process of learning.

According to O’Malley and Valdez (1996) self-assessment and self-management are one of the
most important tools of learning with the use of authentic assessment, and it should be implemented
as the regular instruction in the classroom.
Self assessment refers to the student’s own assessment of her/his learning and progress in
knowledge, skills, processes, interests, attitudes etc. It is a brief activity completed by students
before, during, or after an activity that helps students clarifies what they have learned. Often
consists of short questions based on the desired learning goals of the activity.
5. Peer assessments – Another attractive way of evaluating that is characteristic to authentic
assessment is so called peer-assessment which is connected with cooperative learning. The
most important value of such approach is that learners can teach each other new things.
Students learn how to be critical and how to draw conclusions from what others consider
good or bad. Peer-assessment helps learners to work in groups, and it improves skills for
socializing and cooperation. A teacher must be very careful in designing a task requiring
peer-assessment in order not to discourage or even block students from participation in the
lessons.

Peer assessment refers to one student assessing other children. This can be conducted in pairs or in
groups. Peer assessment allows students to share ideas and see alternative ways of thinking.
Students are exposed to the thinking of their peers of similar skill levels. Often this can help a
student receive alternative feedback as a student’s observations may differ from those of the teacher.
Peer evaluation lets the learner step outside his/her normal role and take on the role as pseudo
teacher.
Peer and self-assessment strategies ask students to “reflect on make a judgment about, and then
report on their own or a peer’s behaviour and performance”. Both performance and attitude can
be evaluated with peer and self-assessments. Assessment tools for this type of evaluation might
include sentence completion, scales, checklists or holistic scales.
Using feedbacks for reporting to different stakeholders such as student, parents and
administrator
In education, the term stakeholder typically refers to anyone who is invested in the welfare
and success of a school and its students, including administrators, teachers, staff members, students,
parents, families, community members, local business leaders, and elected officials such as school
board members, city councillors, and state representatives.

Stakeholders may also be collective entities, such as local businesses, organizations, advocacy
groups, committees, media outlets, and cultural institutions, in addition to organizations that
represent specific groups, such as teachers unions, parent-teacher organizations, and associations
representing superintendents, principals, school boards, or teachers in specific academic
disciplines. In a word, stakeholders have a “stake” in the school and its students, meaning that they
have personal, professional, civic, or financial interest or concern.

In some cases, the term may be used in a more narrow or specific sense—say, in reference to a
particular group or committee—but the term is commonly used in a more general and inclusive
sense. The term “stakeholders” may also be used interchangeably with the concept of a “school
community,” which necessarily comprises a wide variety of stakeholders.

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 Feedback – Good feedback generally focuses on behaviour or the outcome of behaviour rather
than on the inherent characteristics of the person concerned. Feedback involves providing learners
with information about their responses. Feedback can be positive, negative or neutral. Feedback is
almost always considered external.

Feedback is an essential part of education and training programmes. It helps learners to maximise
their potential at different stages of training, raise their awareness of strengths and areas for
improvement, and identify actions to be taken to improve performance.

Feedback can be seen as informal (for example in day-to-day encounters between teachers and
students, between peers) or formal (for example as part of written reporting to various stakeholders).
However, there is no sharp dividing line between assessment and teaching in the area of giving
feedback on learning. Feedback is part of the overall dialogue or interaction between teacher and
learner, not a one-way communication.

Reporting: The purpose of reporting is to communicate information about learner progress to a

wide range of stakeholders. Stakeholders include: the learner, parents and administrators.

Learner achievement information or feedbacks is used to:

 inform all key stakeholders about learners’ demonstrations of outcomes

 discuss future learning pathways with learners and parent

 describe the progress made by learners at a particular time in respect to school Curriculum
Standards (outcomes)

 guide the planning of teaching and learning programmes

 Provide meaningful information to the different stakeholders as a basis for evaluating the
effectiveness of educational programmes and to inform future school planning and resource
allocation.

Reporting responsibilities
1. Teachers
 Provide ongoing feedback to students so assessment is used to inform goal setting, reflection
and ultimately improve learning.
 Use report information to form the basis for the construction of on-going learning programs.
 Provide regular, formal and informal reports on student progress.
 Inform parents/carers as soon as there is any indication that their child’s achievement level,
rate of progress or behaviour differs noticeably from past performance or in comparison to
his/her peers.

2. Principal/administrators
 Create and sustain systems that provide opportunities for parents/carers to attend at least
one formal interview within each school year.
 Support teachers to enable opportunities for informal discussion between teachers and
parents/carers as desired.
 Sustain a system of providing clear information on learner progress at least once a
semester using grades (e.g. A to E) for learners from class 1 to 10.

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  Establish and maintain effective partnerships between parents and other stakeholders
within school communities to negotiate reporting procedures that reflect the school and
community context.

These procedures or processes should be consistent throughout the school.

Linking feedback for reporting and assessment: Reporting is the description of a teacher’s
summative judgement of a learner’s achievement. This is based on recorded evidence that teachers
have gathered within the teaching and learning cycle. It should accurately reflect what learners
know (declarative knowledge) and how they apply or use that understanding (procedural
knowledge).
Assessment of learning and assessment for learning are both essential and should not be considered
mutually exclusive in practice. However, they do have very different purposes. Assessment for
learning promotes future learning by identifying learning needs and adjusting teaching
appropriately. On the other hand, assessment of learning is a ‘point-in-time’ assessment which
describes and labels learning and is used when reporting student achievement and progress to
parents.
Consequently, the assessment process is integral to reporting student achievement. It is the quality
of the evidence that enables accurate reporting.
When making judgements regarding quality of student learning for reporting purposes, teachers
should consider the three aspects of content, competence and context. These aspects assist in
identifying surface to deep knowledge and understandings of the learner. The descriptors of
emerging, solid and comprehensive are considered within the aspects of content, competence and
context and used when assessing a range of student evidence of learning to determine quality of
learning. Multiple samples of learning across a range of contexts must be used to make an on-
balance judgement for reporting purposes.
Maintaining profile: After the test is over, the test copies, both used and unused, should again be
counted to see that all has been collected. This must be done before the candidates leave the room.
It is important that no student or parent or unauthorized teacher be allowed to retain a test copy for
study. Allowing this is considered professional unethical, and may also invalidate future testing.

The scoring procedure of the answer sheets thus collected can be for a) Scoring individual
performance- the individual performance whether of the oral or written type, are generally scored
by the examiner. Some test need to be scored during the process of test administration, as the
presentation of further items depends upon the examinee’s performance on prior item. There are
also some tests which can be scored later. As the subjective judgement enters into the scoring of
any response, the result obtained by independent scorers should be checked on a representative
sample of record sheets. This check provides measures of one aspect of the reliability of the tests;
b) Scoring group performance- Speed and economy are major considerations in group performance
testing where score can be done manually by hand or by machine.

In both the cases, the examiner can employ either hand scoring of machine scoring. Hand scoring
procedure is simple but untrained scorers make frequent errors in counting answers, following
instructions, using scoring guides and the like. Nowadays electronic scoring machines are available
for accurate and quick scoring. For large scale testing programmes, machine scoring is the most
efficient method.

The reporting and recording process starts after the test have been scored. When the test result has
to be made available to the teacher, student, parents and other stakeholders, the minimum
information to be recorded and reported is the date the test was given, grade in which the test was
given, test title and form used, total and parts scores expressed in appropriate units, and the nature
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of norm of the group where percentile or standard scores are used. The type of norm is provided in
the manual. If the test is given to a student, then it is essential that the information is recorded in
the student’s cumulative record card so that the comprehensive information is available for all the
stakeholders.

An adequate assessment programme warrants proper and meaningful interpretation of test

scores so that wrong choices and decisions are avoided. For a proper and meaningful
interpretation of student’s performance, it is essential that the test, examinee and test situation
are properly understood. The measured abilities of the student can only be determined with
reference to the special conditions under which a test is validated. Any additional information
related to reliability, the nature of the group for which norms have been prepared, the
background information about the examinees is required for meaningful interpretation of score.
In addition to this the teacher needs to remember that the test result may be influenced by the
following factors:

1. The physical and emotional condition of the student at the time of taking the test.
2. The cultural experience of the student which may be too limited or different from that
demanded by test items.
3. Errors in administering or scoring the answer sheets.
4. The validity, reliability, objectivity, usability and norms of the test.

Therefore, adequate times should be provided by the teacher in his/her schedule for test
interpretation for the entire test. The test results should be interpreted to parents/guardians who
wish to know those. Instead of numerical raw scores, it is better to use descriptive terms such as
‘he/she belong average group of student’s or ‘he/she is among the top twenty percent of students in
his/her classes. A conference between teacher, students and parents should be held periodically for
interpreting test results with the aim of increasing their understanding of the progress of the
students.

Moreover, assessment programme is usually planned to help students understand themselves, for
understanding their personality and to assist them in their educational discourse. Students should,
therefore, be given an opportunity to find out their own strengths and shortfalls as reveal by the test
results to them. The data as revealed by tests should be considered in relation to the other
information obtained from different sources such as anecdotal record, cumulative record cards,
portfolios, journals, and case studies etc. as well as from peers and parents, tutors and
administrators.

Reporting students’ performance

Assessment for learning requires teachers to provide parents with information regarding their
children’s performance. In formal reports, teachers provide written comments, including
information about attitudes, work habits, effort and social responsibility. Problematic behaviour is
best reported to parents through written comments and conferences.
Reporting student progress usually requires that parents or guardians be provided with a minimum
of -
 Three or four formal written report cards. The formal written report must be on a
form approved by the school administrator/principal and must follow the requirements for
the specific class and programme as stated in legislation and policy of the affiliating central
or state board. One formal report shall be made at the end of the school year. Formal reports
identity students progress and are placed in the Permanent Student Record file.

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  Two or three informal report each school year. At least two informal reports must be
provided to parents each school year. Schools determine how they will communicate
informally with parents.

Formal reports communicate to parents and students significant aspects of the students’ progress
in the areas of intellectual, life skills, physical and vocational development etc.
Student’s Performance Scale/profiles
The performance scale for Primary students should indicate, in words or as a graph, the student’s
level of performance in relation to the expected learning outcomes set out in the prescribe
curriculum/syllabus for each subject and class. Student’s Performance should be described as one
of the following:
 Approaching Expectations
 Meeting Expectations
 Exceeding Expectations

Or, students’ performance can be described as one of the following:

 Not Yet Meeting Expectations
 Approaching Expectations
 Meeting Expectations
 Exceeding Expectations

Use of the performance scale to show progress in scholastic areas such as languages, mathematics,
social science and sciences is mandatory. The performance scale may also be used to report progress
in other non scholastic areas, such as fine arts, personal planning, physical education, social
responsibilities and work habits etc.
Letter Grades
Letter grades indicate students’ level of performance in relation to the prescribed learning outcomes
set out for each subject and class, and the learning outcomes. Letter grades will appear on report
cards instead of marks for each student.
Assessment of Scholastic attainments Part 1 (formal responding) will be reported twice in a year.
The nine point grading scale for measuring Scholastic achievements is given below:
Grade Marks Range Grade point
A1 91-100 10.0
A2 81-90 9.0
B1 71-80 8.0
B2 61-70 7.0
C1 51-60 6.0
C2 41-50 5.0
D 33-40 4.0
E1 21-32 3.0
E2 00-20 2.0

Minimum qualifying grade in all the subjects under Scholastic Domain is D.

Note: All assessment with regard to the academic status of the students shall be done in marks and
the assessment will be given in grades. Co-Scholastic attainments 2(A, B, C & D) and 3(A, B) will
be done on 5 point Scale (shown in the table below). It will be done once in a session.

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 Grade Grade Point
A 4.1-5.0
B 3.1-4.0
C 2.1-3.0
D 1.1-2.0
E 0-1.0

Minimum qualifying grade in Co-Scholastic Domain is D

Note: As per the Directive of RTE, no child will be detailed till class VIII
Reporting on Daily Physical Activity
(K.G. to class IX): When students are meeting the Prescribed Learning Outcomes of Daily Physical
Activity, a comment of ‘Meeting requirement’ should be made on term and final reports. A
comment of “Not meeting requirement” should be made at any time when students are not meeting
the Prescribed Learning Outcomes of Daily Physical Activity. Where a “Not meeting requirement”
comment is made, a further comment can be added to outline a plan for the student to meet the
requirement.
(Classes X to XII): When students are meeting the Prescribed Learning Outcomes of the classes X
and XII, a comment of” “Meeting requirement should be made on term and final reports. A
comment of “Not meeting requirement” should be made at any time when students are not meeting
the Prescribed Learning Outcomes of their respective classes. Where a “Not meeting requirement”
comment is made, a further comment can be added to outline a plan for the student to meet the
requirement.
Upon successful attainment of the Transitions Programme, “Requirement Met (RM)” can be
recorded on the students’ transcript/progress report.
Informal reports
Each school year, teachers must provide parents with a minimum of two informal reports. In relation
to curriculum, informal reports may describe:
 What the student is able to do,
 The areas of learning that require further attention or development,
 Ways the teacher is supporting the student’s learning needs.
 Ways the students or the parents might support the learning

Informal reports are an important link between home and school and can take a variety of forms,
such as: telephone calls, interim reports (written or oral) and conferences (parent-teacher, three
ways, student-led, etc.). Parents should have the opportunity to meet with teachers for a conference
at least once each school year. A record of each informal report should be kept, noting the date, and
type and topic(s) of discussion.
Reporting Guidelines
Student Progress Reports are required for reporting the progress of all students belonging to K.G.
to class XII. However, a general format is provided as an example:
 Provide central or state board approved letter grades indicating the student’s level of
performance as it relates to the learning outcomes for each subject or course and class.
a. Include written reporting comments that clearly described, in relation to the
learning outcomes: what the student is able to do.
b. Areas in which the student requires further attention or development.

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 c. Ways of supporting the student in his or her learning.
 Include written comments that describe student behaviour, including information on
attitudes, work habits, efforts and social responsibility
 Follow school/board policy of communicating letter grades to parents of students for various
classes
 Daily Physical Activity: When students are meeting the Prescribed Learning Outcomes of
Daily Physical Activity, a comment of “Meeting requirement” will be made on term and
final reports. A comment of “Not meeting requirement” will be made at any time when
students are not meeting the Prescribed Learning Outcomes of Daily Physical Activity.
Where a “Not meeting requirement” comment is made, it is recommended that a further
comment is added to outline a plan for the student to meet the requirement.

At the end of the school year, the following information must be placed in each student’s Permanent
Student Record file: the final student progress report for the two most recent years (including
documentation to support the communication of class V and IX letter grades if the second choose
to provide the letter grades in a document other than the student progress report). The suggested
format of a Report Book is given below.

Format of report book

School Logo

Affiliation No. -----------------------------------------------

Name of school -----------------------------------------------
Complete Address ----------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------
E-mail Id -----------------------------------------------
Telephone No. -----------------------------------------------

Report Book
CLASSES VI to VIII
Session:------------------

Student Profile:
Name of Student
Class/House
Admission No.
Date of Birth
Mother’s name
Father’s name’s
Residential address
Phone No.

Attendance: Term I Term II

Total attendance of the student --------------- ---------------------
Total working days --------------- ---------------------

Signature: Student Class Teacher Principal Parent

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Part-1: Academic performance: scholastic areas (9 point scale)

Term-1 Term-2 Term-3

FA FA SA FA1 FA FA SA FA FA1 SA1 Overall

1 2 1 + 3 4 2 3+ + + Grade
FA2 FA FA2 SA2
+ 4+ +
SA1 SA FA3
2 +
FA4
1 Language I
2 Language II
3 Language III
4 Mathematics
5 Science
6 Social
science
7 Addl. subject

Overall grade:

Part 2: Co-Scholastic Areas

(To be assessed on a 5 point scale once in a session)
2(A): Life Skills

Sl. No. Descriptive Indicators Grade

01 Self Awareness:
02 Problem Solving:
03 Decision making:
04 Critical thinking:
05 Creative thinking:
06 Interpersonal relationship:
07 Effective Communication:
08 Empathy:
09 Dealing with stress:
10 Managing emotion:

2(B): Work Education

Descriptive Indicators Grade

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 2(C): Visual and Performing Arts
Descriptive Indicators Grade

Suggestive Activities: Work Education: Cookery Skills, Preparation of stationery items, Teeing
and dyeing and screen printing, preparation paper out of waste paper, Hand embroidery,
Running a book bank, Repair and maintenance of domestic electrical gadgets, Computer
operation and maintenance, Photography etc. Visual & Performing Arts: Music (Vocal,
instrumental), Dance, Drama, Drawing, Painting, Craft, Sculpture, Puppetry, Folk Art forms
etc.

2(D): Attitude and values

Sl. No. Descriptive Indicators Grade
1.0 Attitude towards
1.1 Teachers:
1.2 School mates:
1.3 School programme:
1.4 Environment:
1.5 Value system:

3(A) Co-Scholastic Activities (Any two to be assessed)

1. Literary and Creative skills. 2. Scientific Skills. 3. Information and communication

Technology (ICT) 4. Organizational and Leadership Skills (clubs)

Sl. No. Descriptive Indicators Grade

01
02

Suggestive Activities:
Literary & Creative Skills: Debate, Declamation, Creative Writing, Recitation, Poster-Making,
Slogan Writing, Theatre etc.
Scientific Skills: Science Club, Projects, Maths Club, Science Quiz, Science, Exhibition,
Olympiads etc.
Information and communication Technology (ICT): Power Point Presentation, Website and
Cover Page Designing, Animation, Programme, E-books etc.
Organisational & Leadership Skills: Eco-Club, Health & Wellness Club, Heritage Club,
Disaster Management Club, Literary Club, Scientific Club and other Clubs etc.

3(B) Health and Physical Education (any two to be assessed)

1. Sports/ Indigenous Sports, 2. NCC/NSS, 3. Scouting and Guiding 4. Swimming, 5.
Gymnastic, 6.Yoga, 7. First Aids, 8. Gardening/ Shramdaan

Sl. No. Descriptive Indicators Grade

01
02
.
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 Self Awareness
My goals:

Strengths:

My interest and hobbies:

Responsibility discharge/Exceptional achievement:

Scholastic Areas (Grading on 9 point scale)

Grade Marks range Grade point
A1 91-100 10.0
A2 81-90 9.0
B1 71-80 8.0
B2 61-70 7.0
C1 51-60 6.0
C2 41-50 5.0
D 33-40 4.0
E1 21-32 3.0
E2 00-20 2.0

Co- Scholastic Areas (Grading on 5 point scale)

Grade Grade point
A 4.1-5.0
B 3.1-4.0
C 2.1-3.0
D 1.1-2.0
E 0-1.0

While reporting students’ achievement in different areas, indirect grading in absolute scale
having five points may be used.

Anecdotal Records
Anecdotal Record derives its origin and meaning from the word ‘anecdotes’-brief events and
episodes. An Anecdotal Record in the observed behaviour of a student. It is a record of some
significant episode in the life of the student that sheds light on the conduct, thinking, skills and
capabilities revealing significant features and characteristics about his/her personality. In order
to arrive at a trend or pattern, emphasis is on recording multiple episodes or anecdotes. Every
time, a teacher documents an episode or an anecdote, he/she records his/her comments too. The
following points should be considered in connection with these records:
 These supplement other records and should not be considered as substitutes.
 The objective description of the behaviour should not be mixed up with the subjective
comments.
 Any significant behaviour, be it in the classroom, in the school or outside the school,
should be recorded.
 Student’s behaviour, whether it is favourable, unfavourable or neither of the two should
be recorded.
 The facts presented in all the anecdotes must be shifted and
 Arranged so that they may be studied in relation to one another.
 The record should be regarded as confidential. It should not fall into irresponsible hands.

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Format of an Anecdotal Record
Name of the student: Class:
Name of the observer: subject:
Date: place:
Sl. Objective Description of the incident Comments of the
No. or anecdote observer
1
2
3

Cumulative record card

A cumulative record card is a record of information about a student over a long period during the
course of his/her study. It is an account of the child’s history in the schools. It begins as soon as the
child enters the school and continuous till he/she leaves the school for further studies or goal. In
school information thus gathered may be passed from teacher to teacher and from school to school.

Format of cumulative record card:Using Rubrics assessment procedure in learning situation

A rubric is a type of scoring guide that assesses and articulates specific components and
expectations for an assignment. Rubrics can be used for a variety of assignments: research papers,
group projects, portfolios and presentations.
Rubrics help teachers in the following ways:
 Assess assignments consistently from student-to-student.
 Save time in grading, both short-term and long-term.
 Give timely, effective feedback and promote student learning in a sustainable way.
 Clarify expectations and components of an assignment for both students and course.
 Refine teaching skills by evaluating rubric results.
Rubrics also help students in the following:
 Understand expectations and components of an assignment.
 Become more aware of their learning process and progress.
 Improve work through timely and detailed feedback.

How can we develop a rubric?

Getting Started
 Start small by creating one rubric for one assignment in a semester.
 Ask colleagues if they have developed rubrics for similar assignments.
 Although it takes time to build a rubric, time will be saved in the long run as grading and
providing feedback on student work will become more streamlined.
Rubric Development Guidelines
 Examine an assignment for the course.
 Outline the elements or critical attributes to be evaluated (these attributes must be
objectively measurable).
 Create an evaluative range for performance quality under each element; for instance,
“excellent,” “good,” “unsatisfactory.”
 Reinforce a developmental approach by students by using a developmental scale in the
rubric, like “Beginning”, “Emerging” and “Exemplary.”
 Add descriptors that qualify each level of performance.

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  Avoid using subjective or vague criteria such as “interesting” or “creative”; instead, outline
objective indicators that would fall under these categories.
 The criteria must clearly differentiate one performance level from another.
 Assign a numerical scale to each level.
 Give a draft of the rubric to the colleagues for feedback.
 Train students to use the rubric and solicit feedback; this will help us judge whether the
rubric is clear to them and will identify any weaknesses.
 Rework the rubric based on the feedback.

Ways and means to incorporate rubrics in a course

Rubrics are most often used to grade written assignments, but they have many other uses.
 They can be used for oral presentations.
 They are a great tool to evaluate teamwork and individual contribution to group tasks.
 Rubrics facilitate peer-review by setting evaluation standards.
 Students can use them for self-assessment to improve personal performance and learning.
 For larger assignments, have students use the rubric to provide peer assessment on various
drafts.
 Encourage students to use the rubrics to assess their own work.
 Motivate students to improve their work by using rubric feedback to resubmit their work
incorporating the feedback.

A sample strategy for introducing rubrics to students:

1) Provide samples, or smaller sections of samples, of a complete assignment (consider asking
previous students for permission to use their assignments as samples, provided that you
remove their names).
2) Have students evaluate the assignments individually using the rubric.
3) Have students share their results with a partner and justify their evaluation by explaining
how they used the rubric.
4) Ask a few pairs to share their responses with the class. (Paying attention to students’
reactions/interpretations of the rubric is useful and may inform rubric adjustments).
5) Provide own evaluation of the sample assignments and explain how to use the rubric to
assess the work.

The following table provide a rubric for assessment of a project work

Level of Analysis Disciplinary concepts Elaborated written
performance communication
Excellent Substantial evidence of You have used social You have provided
work analysis. Most of your science concepts to substantial and
work includes analysis. organize, explain, accurate elaboration
At least three statements interpret, summarize, and or two or more
indicate that you have extend the meaning and important statements.
successfully generalized, significance of otherwise The details,
interpreted, tested, or discrete pieces of qualifications, and
synthesized specific information. The use of nuances are
information. ideas illustrates expressed within an
exemplary overall coherent
understanding. framework intended
for the reader, and
relevant to the topic.
The response is so
rich as to be worthy
of display as an
outstanding example
of writing in social
science.
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 Meets Moderate evidence of You have used social You have provided
Expectations analysis. A central science concepts to some elaboration for
portion of your work organize, explain, two or three
contains analysis. At interpret, summarize, and important statements
least two statements extend the meaning and OR provided
indicate you have significance of otherwise substantial
successfully generalised, discrete pieces of elaboration for one
interpreted, tested, or information. The use of statement. In either
synthesized specific ideas is somewhat limited case, the details,
information. and /or shows some flaws qualifications, and
in understanding. nuances are
expressed within an
overall coherent
framework intended
for the reader, and
relevant to the topic,
and without major
inaccuracies.
Approaching Some evidence of You have included social You have provided
the standards analysis. A small, but not science concepts, but reasonably accurate
set central portion or your their use is significantly elaboration for at
work includes analysis. limited and/or shows least one important
At least one statement significant flaws in topic.
shows you have understanding.
successfully generalized,
interpreted, tested, or
synthesized specific
information.
No evidence of analysis. Your work includes You provide virtually
Unacceptabl Almost all statements virtually no social studies no information or
e work, needs consist of recording or concepts, or the use of provide only
to be redone reporting specific any that are included disjointed details.
information, without shows almost no OR, you provide
evidence of you understanding. discrete claims,
organising it or reflecting broad generalization,
on it; OR virtually all slogans, or
analysis offered is conclusions, but none
unsuccessful or in error. are elaborated.

Kinds of test and their constructions: teacher made and standardized test
A distinction between teacher-made tests and standardized tests is often made in relation to tests
used to assess academic achievement. Ordinarily, teachers do not attempt to construct tests of
general or special aptitude or of personality traits. Teacher-made tests tend instead to be geared to
narrow segments of curricular content (e.g., a sixth-grade geography test). Standardized tests with
carefully defined procedures for administration and scoring to ensure uniformity can achieve
broader goals. General principles of test construction and such considerations as reliability and
validity apply to both types of test.
Teacher made test: While Planning the Assessments Teachers should use the following guidelines:
 Have the purpose of the test clearly in mind.
 Determine what type of assessment will be most appropriate for the situation, based on the
nature of what you are teaching, the purpose of the instruction, and what you want to find
out.

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  If the purpose of the assessment is to determine how well students have mastered a particular
unit of study, make sure the test parallels the work covered in class. And, to be able to
discriminate among levels of learning, avoid making the assessment overly difficult or easy.
 If the assessment is a selected-response or fill-in-the-blank test that will be used to diagnose
basic skills, it should contain at least 10 questions — preferably more — for each skill area.
The questions pertaining to each skill area should be considered a subtest, and these subtests
should yield separate scores on the various elements needed for mastery of the skill.
 If the major purpose of the test is to rank a selected group of students in order of their
achievement, the questions should cover critical points of learning. Questions on critical
points often require understanding implications, applying information, and reorganizing
data. The questions should challenge students to do more than memorize and recall facts.
 Focus on assessing the most important and meaningful information, rather than small,
irrelevant facts. For example, rather than asking, “How many vitamins are essential for
humans? A.7 B.13 C.15 D.23,” consider asking “Name at least seven vitamins that are
essential for humans and explain why they are essential.”
 Never use questions or inconsequential details just to trick students.
 Create a test blueprint that will clearly describe the important content areas to be tested, the
number and type of items that will get at each content area, the scoring value for the items,
the length of time for the test administration, and other critical test components.

To be valid, classroom assessments need to be fair. In assessment terms, that means all students
must be given an equal chance to show what they know and can do. An assessment is not fair if it:
 measures things unrelated to its objectives is biased

Tests should be designed so that they are focused on the instruction that preceded the assessment,
and that ensure that testing, teaching and curriculum are all tightly aligned.
“Bias” is said to exist if the assessment includes content that offends or unfairly penalizes test takers
because of personal characteristics such as gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, religion, or
sexual orientation. Assessment bias affects validity because it may negatively influence students’
attitudes toward, and performance on, the assessment.
For example, an assessment that includes language or content that offends a specific group of
students may hurt the performance of those students by causing them to focus more on the offensive
language than on performing at their best. Test takers may also be disadvantaged if the assessment
includes content that, although not offensive, assumes prior knowledge likely to be unfamiliar to
one particular group of test takers but familiar to another.
An obvious example is the need to know something that can only be gained by visiting an art
museum, if some groups of students have no personal experience of ever visiting a museum with
family or friends.
Tests should be designed to afford students multiple opportunities to tell what they know about a
particular subject, not to present them with difficult, if not impossible, tasks. One way to let students
shine is to include a bonus question at the end of the test that asks something like, “Take this
opportunity to tell me something about this topic that was not included on the test.”
Standardized test: A standardized test is a test that is administered and scored in a consistent, or
"standard", manner. Standardized tests are designed in such a way that the questions, conditions for
administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent and are administered and
scored in a predetermined, standard manner.
Any test in which the same test is given in the same manner to all test takers is a standardized test.
Standardized tests do not need to be high-stakes tests, time-limited tests, or multiple-choice tests.
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There are two types of standardized test score interpretations: a norm-referenced score
interpretation or a criterion-referenced score interpretation.

 Norm-referenced score interpretations compare test-takers to a sample of peers. The goal is

to rank students as being better or worse than other students. Norm-referenced test score
interpretations are associated with traditional education. Students who perform better than
others pass the test, and students who perform worse than others fail the test.
 Criterion-referenced score interpretations compare test-takers to a criterion (a formal
definition of content), regardless of the scores of other examinees. These may also be described
as standards-based assessments, as they are aligned with the standards-based education
reform movement. Criterion-referenced score interpretations are concerned solely with whether
or not this particular student's answer is correct and complete. Under criterion-referenced
systems, it is possible for all students to pass the test, or for all students to fail the test.
Either of these systems can be used in standardized testing. What is important to standardized
testing is whether all students are asked equivalent questions, under equivalent circumstances, and
graded equally. In a standardized test, if a given answer is correct for one student, it is correct for
all students. Graders do not accept an answer as good enough for one student but reject the same
answer as inadequate for another student.
A standardized test may include items such as multiple choice, very short answer, short answer and
essay type test items.
1. Multiple-Choice test Item/question: This is the most common objective-type item. The multiple-
choice item is a test question which has a number of alternative choices from which the examinee
is to select the correct answer. It is generally recommended that one use 4 or 5 choices per question,
whenever possible. Using fewer alternatives often results in items with inferior characteristics. The
item choices are typically identified on the test copy by the letters A through E.
 Stem: This is the part of the item in which the problem is stated for the examinee. It can be
a question, a set of directions or a statement with an embedded blank.
 Options/Alternatives: These are the choices given for the item.
 Key: This is the correct choice for the item.
 Distractors: These are the incorrect choices for the item

The general rules used for writing multiple-choice items are described below. Recognize that these
are general rules; not all rules will be applicable to all types of testing.
1. The stem should contain the problem and any qualifications. The entire stem must always
precede the alternatives.
2. Each item should be as short and verbally uncomplicated as possible. Give as much context
as is necessary to answer the question, but do not include superfluous information. Be
careful not to make understanding the purpose of the item a test of reading ability.
3. Avoid negatively stated items. If you have to use this kind of item, emphasize the fact by
underlining the negative part, putting it in capital letters or using italics. (For test
construction purposes, if possible, put all such items together in a single section and indicate
this with separate directions).
4. Keep each item independent from other items. Don't give the answer away to another item.
If items require computation, avoid items that are dependent on one another.
5. If one or more alternatives are partially correct, ask for the "best" answer.
6. Try to test a different point in each question. If creating item clones (i.e., items designed to
measure the exact same aspect of the objective), be certain to sufficiently change the
context, vocabulary, and order of alternatives, so that students cannot recognize the two
items as clones.

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 7. If an omission occurs in the stem, it should appear near the end of the stem and not at the
beginning.
8. Use a logical sequence for alternatives (e.g., temporal sequence, length of the choice). If
two alternatives are very similar (cognitively or visually), they should be placed next to one
another to allow students to compare them more easily.
9. Make all incorrect alternatives (i.e., distractors) plausible and attractive. It is often useful to
use popular misconceptions and frequent mistakes as distractors. In the foreign languages,
item distractors should include only correct forms and vocabulary that actually exists in the
language.
10. All alternatives should be homogeneous in content, form and grammatical structure.
11. Use only correct grammar in the stem and alternatives.
12. Make all alternatives grammatically consistent with the stem.
13. The length, explicitness and technical information in each alternative should be parallel so
as not to give away the correct answer.
14. Use 4or 5 alternatives in each item.
15. Avoid repeating words between the stem and key. It can be done, however, to make
distractors more attractive.
16. Avoid wording directly from a reading passage or use of stereotyped phrasing in the key.
17. Alternatives should not overlap in meaning or be synonymous with one another.
18. Avoid terms such as "always" or "never," as they generally signal incorrect choices.
19. To test understanding of a term or concept, present the term in the stem followed by
definitions or descriptions in the alternatives.
20. Avoid items based on personal opinions unless the opinion is qualified by evidence or a
reference to the source of the opinion (e.g., According to the author of this passage, . . . ).
21. Do not use "none of the above" as a last option when the correct answer is simply the best
answer among the choices offered.
22. Try to avoid "all of the above" as a last option. If an examinee can eliminate any of the
other choices, this choice can be automatically eliminated as well.

Essay type test item/question: Writing Essay Test Items Essay items are useful when examinees
have to show how they arrived at an answer. A test of writing ability is a good example of the kind
of test that should be given in an essay response format. This type of item, however, is difficult to
score reliably and can require a significant amount of time to be graded. Grading is often affected
by the verbal fluency in the answer, handwriting, presence or lack of spelling errors, grammar used
and the subjective judgements of the grader. Training of graders can require a substantial amount
of time and needs to be repeated at frequent intervals throughout the grading.
The following rules may be useful in developing and grading essay questions:
1. The shorter the answer required for a given essay item, generally the better. More objectives
can be tested in the same period of time, and factors such as verbal fluency, spelling, etc.,
have less of an opportunity to influence the grader. Help the examinees focus their answers
by giving them a starting sentence for their essay.
2. Make sure questions are sharply focused on a single issue. Do not give either the examinee
or the grader too much freedom in determining what the answer should be.

Guidelines for Writing All Types of Items Some additional guidelines to consider when writing
items are described below:
1. Avoid humorous items. Classroom testing is very important and humorous items may cause
students to either not take the exam seriously or become confused or anxious.

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 2. Items should measure only the construct of interest, not one’s knowledge of the item
context.
3. Write items to measure what students know, not what they do not know.

The following guidelines are recommended for reviewing individual test items. While reviewing
an item, write comments on a copy of the item indicating the suggested changes. If an item is not
worth retaining, suggest it be deleted.
1. Consider the item as a whole and whether
a. It measures knowledge or a skill component which is worthwhile and appropriate for
the examinees who will be tested;
b. there is a markedly better way to test what this item tests;
c. It is of the appropriate level of difficulty for the examinees who will be tested.
2. Consider the stem and whether it
a. presents a clearly defined problem or task to the examinee;
b. contains unnecessary information;
c. could be worded more simply, clearly or concisely.
3. Consider the alternatives and whether
a. they are parallel in structure;
b. they fit logically and grammatically with the stem;
c. they could be worded more simply, clearly or concisely;
d. Any are so inclusive that they logically eliminate another more restricted option from
being a possible answer.
4. Consider the key and whether it
a. is the best answer among the set of options for the item;
b. actually answers the question posed in the stem;
c. Is too obvious relative to the other alternatives (i.e., should be shortened, lengthened,
given greater numbers of details, made less concrete).
5. Consider the Distractors and whether
a. there is any way you could justify one or more as an acceptable correct answer;
b. they are plausible enough to be attractive to examinees who are misinformed or ill-
prepared;
c. any one calls attention to the key (e.g., no distractor should merely state the reverse of
the key or resemble the key very closely unless another pair of choices is similarly
parallel or involves opposites).

The following are general rules, intended as guidelines for assembling test forms. When reviewing
a test prior to administering, verify that the test conforms to the following test construction
guidelines.
Test Construction Rules for Multiple-Choice Tests.
1.Set the number of items so that at least 95 percent of the examinees can answer all items.
2. The correct choice should appear about an equal number of times in each response position.
3. Do not use any pattern of correct responses, e.g., ABCDE, etc.
4. Directions to examinees should be written on the test to indicate whether guessing is
permitted or not.

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Test Construction Rules for Essay Tests.
1. All examinees must take the same items. Do not give them a chance to choose which items
they want to answer. Meaningful comparisons normally can be made only if all examinees
take the same test.

Grading Essay Tests

Because of their subjective nature, essay exams are difficult to grade. The following guidelines are
helpful for grading essay exams in a consistent and meaningful way.
1. Construct a model answer for each item and award a point for each essential element of the
model answer. This should help minimize the subjective effects of grading.
2. Essay items must be graded anonymously if at all possible in order to reduce the subjectivity
of the graders. That is, graders should not be informed as to the identity of the examinees
whose papers they are grading.
3. Grade a single essay item at a time. This helps the grader maintain a single set of criteria for
awarding points to the response. In addition, it tends to reduce the influence of the
examinee's previous performance on other items.
4. Unless it is a test of language mechanics, do not take off credit for poor handwriting, spelling
errors, poor grammar, failure to punctuate properly, etc.
5. Ideally, there should be two graders for each item. Any disagreements between these two
graders must be resolved by a third grader. Normally, this third grader is the head grader or
course instructor.

(a) Validity:
Tests should have validity, that is, they should actually measure what they purport to measure.
Validity is generally regarded as the most important. The degree to which a test measures what it
purports to measure. Three types of validity are:

1. curricular (content)
2. empirical (criterion-related)
o concurrent
o predictive
3. logical (construct)

1. Curricular (content) - concerned with the extent to which the test items are a representative
sample of the entire subject matter area.

2. Empirical (criterion-related)

 Concurrent Validity - If the test correlates with a criterion measure taken at essentially the
same time, we have concurrent validity.
 Predictive Validity - If the test correlates with a criterion taken some time after the test.

3. Construct Validity - If the purpose of the test is to measure the amount of some hypothetical
trait a student possesses. It is established by a series of exploratory studies involving hypothesis
formulation, experimentation, and correlation. Size of Validity Coefficients - it depends on the
situation.

Reliability – it refers to consistency of measurement. Reliability is essential to validity but the

opposite is not true. A test may be reliable without being valid, whereas the validity of a test depends
in part on its reliability; therefore validity of a test is limited by its reliability. No test is of value
unless it has a high degree of reliability. This is usually determined by one of three methods.
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 1) By giving the test to the same group at two separate times and correlating the resultant series
of test scores.
2) by giving two or more different (but equivalent) forms of the same test and correlating the
resultant test scores,
3) But the so-called split-half or odd even, method.
When reliability is determined by the latter method, the test is given but once, but the items are
divided and scores on one-half of the items are correlated with scores on the other half.
Factors affecting reliability of test stems from two sources:

1. The situation in which the test is used including physical and psychological state of the individual

a. conditions of testing

b. did person giving test follow directions

c. noise in environment

d. individual fatigue

e. motivation

f. illness

2. The test itself. These principal factors include the quality of the individual question and length
of the test.

a. Quality of items - practice and experience in making tests and a thorough knowledge of
subject matter are important.
b. The length of a test is important in that reliability of a test is proportional to its length that
is the longer a test, the more reliable it tends to be.

Spearman - Brown Prophecy Formula This shows how much the length of a test must be
increased to attain a desired reliability or how much the reliability of a test will be increased if its
length is doubled or tripled.

Where: rnn = estimate reliability

n - length of test is increased n times

r = reliability

If test is increased 3 times its present size, r goes from .70 to .875

Five methods of determining the reliability of instruments are

1. self-correlation (test-retest) coefficient of stability

2. equivalent forms (alternate form) coefficient of equivalence

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 3. Split halves coefficient of internal consistency: If the reliability of a test was .60 using
split-half method and I wanted to determine the reliability of the whole test the Spearman-
Brown prophecy or step-up formula is used.

4) KR 20

If the Kuder-Richardson formula is used one does not have to split the test in half.

KR20 Formula

To calculate p and q for every item is time consuming if the test has many items.

5) KR 21

If we assume the items in the test are of equal difficulty we can use the KR21.

This formula requires less information than KR20.

Standard Error of Measurement

It provides answers to questions such as, what is the probability that the observed score will not
differ = from the individual's actual score. This is the method of determining how reliable a single
score on a test is. We employ a formula: = 8, r = .75

If the individual's score was 75 the chances are 2 to 1 (68%) that the score will not vary above 79
or below 71 and 95% of the score will not be above 83 or below 67.

Usability: It refers to the economy of time, effort and money in testing. In other words, a test should
be easy to design, easy to administer, easy to mark, and easy to interpret the results.

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Moreover, the test that is usable needs to be within the means of financial limitations, appropriate
time constraints, easy to administrator, score, and interpret.

Objectivity - competent persons agree on the scoring of answers. It is objective to the extent that
the opinion or judgment of the scorer is eliminated from the scoring process. Teacher can attain
objectivity by

 Stating question specifically and precisely.

 Requiring specific, precise short answers.
 Using a previously determined scoring key.

The conventional essay test, which consists of a few questions asking the students to discuss,
describe, is lacking objectivity. Essay tests emphasize such matters as judgment, opinion, and
interpretation, both on the part of the student and the person who evaluates his answers. Different
people competent in the field will evaluate the same exam differently. We can make this type of
test objective by:

 Carefully phrasing questions.

 Prior preparation of answers.
 Prior agreement among readers or judges on rules for evaluating answer.

Ease of Administration - it is reasonable to assume the simpler a test is to administer the less
probability of making mistakes which will affect the results.

Ease of Scoring (objective) No separate answer sheet below 4th grade

Ease of interpretation - A test may meet all above criteria yet present great difficulties when it
comes to interpretation. Ease of interpretation depends on two factors:

1. The mechanics of interpretation tables. Transmutation of raw scores to some derived score.
2. The second factor is the most common and serious fault of standardized tests. After tests are
given what do the results mean?

Adequate Norms: The main purposes of the process of standardization are to establish norms.

Equivalent Forms - As a rule standardized test should have two or more equivalent forms.

Economy - cost is a real consideration. No test is a bargain if it is inferior in other important

respects.

Observation of learning process by self, by peer, by teacher

Self observation: When an individual can see himself or herself while learning, it may positively
affect corrective feedback, introspection, and the sense of self-assessment resulting in learning
gains. Self-observation (seeing oneself) positively affects learning. Observing self-action is called
enactive learning. Observing the actions of others while they learn is called vicarious learning,
because learners gain knowledge by modelling the behaviours of others.
While learning, self-assessment promoted self-confidence, additional effort, awareness of
competence, and mastery in learning, suggesting that self-assessment facilitates autonomy and
lifelong learning skills.
According to Schunk (2011), “Learning occurs either enactively through actual doing or
vicariously by observing models perform (e.g., live, symbolic, portrayed electronically). Enactive
learning involves learning from the consequences of one’s actions.”

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Thus, self-observation can be enactive because it displays the consequences of actions onscreen.
However, self-observation can also be vicarious when students feel that the technology mirrors
them in a learning context, and this observation feels similar to watching a television.
Peer Observations: Peer observation is the observation of student’s learning by another student
(peer) or a group of student (peers), usually, though not always, on a reciprocal basis.

Peer observation is perhaps the most challenging mode of student involvement in one another’s
learning. Peer observation is a powerful way of focusing attention on the learning process and
enhancing the quality of teaching and learning. The lens of peer feedback more often involves
discussion than direct observation.
Peer observation is part and parcel of Collaborative Learning which is emphasized constructivists
learning situation and it can be referred to as the process of relationship among learners that
requires positive interdependence, individual accountability, interpersonal skills (communication,
trust, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution), face-to-face promotive interaction,
and processing.
Observation by teacher: Teacher observation, that is, observation of a student by a teacher, is one
of those techniques of assessing students’ progress in learning. It can be used in conjunction with
other techniques.
Teacher observation is a legitimate source of information for recording and reporting student
demonstrations of learning outcomes in early childhood education. As the student progresses to
later years of schooling, less and less attention typically is given to teacher observation and more
and more attention typically is given to formal assessment procedures involving required tests and
tasks taken under explicit constraints of context and time.
However, teacher observation is capable of providing substantial information on student
demonstration of learning outcomes at all levels of education. For teacher observation to contribute
to valid judgments concerning student learning outcomes, evidence needs to be gathered and
recorded systematically.
Teacher observation can be characterised as two types: incidental and planned.
a) Incidental observation occurs during the ongoing (deliberate) activities of teaching and
learning and the interactions between teacher and students. In other words, an unplanned
opportunity emerges, in the context of classroom activities, where the teacher observes some
aspect of individual student learning. Whether incidental observation can be used as a basis
for formal assessment and reporting may depend on the records that are kept.
b) Planned observation involves deliberate planning of an opportunity for the teacher to
observe specific learning outcomes. This planned opportunity may occur in the context of
regular classroom activities or may occur through the setting of an assessment task (such as
a practical or performance activity).

Table 1: Arguments against teacher observations and argument in support of teacher

observation

Arguments against teacher observations Argument in support of teacher observation

Lack of representativeness Learning outcomes that have not been
Students may not demonstrate all relevant demonstrated can be deliberately prompted.
learning outcomes in natural settings. They Assessment should be planned as well as
may know or know how but the context may incidental. Teachers can ensure that
not prompt them to demonstrate this. assessment is comprehensive.

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 Lack of observation Over time, teachers have many opportunities
Teachers may not observe the demonstration for observation. It is not critical if particular
of a learning outcome when it occurs, either opportunities for observation are missed.
because their attention is elsewhere or because Some observation is deliberate and focused.
they fail to recognise it.
Lack of control of influences No single occasion is sufficient for judging a
The student can derive unintended cues and student’s demonstration of learning outcomes.
prompts from the setting, even from the Multiple opportunities and a variety of
teacher, and these can be unnoticed by the contexts allow cross-checking the robustness
teacher. Student performance may then be of the student’s performance.
misinterpreted.
Lack of standardisation Quality requirements for teacher judgments
All students do not undertake the same tasks are ‘evidence-based’ and ‘defensible’.
under the same conditions. Teacher judgments Tailoring and adaptation allow optimum
of student demonstrations of learning student performance and holistic
outcomes are therefore undependable. interpretation of the evidence (taking
contextual factors into consideration).
Lack of objectivity All assessment involves sequences of
Teacher judgments are subjective and prone to subjective decisions; mechanistic marking
inconsistencies. Too much is left to the schemes reflect earlier design decisions.
discretion of the teacher. Procedures to strengthen and verify teacher
judgments can be introduced.
Possibility of stereotyping Stereotyping is not inevitable. Each
Subjective judgments allow the possibility of assessment occasion can be approached as a
stereotyping of students in terms of other fresh opportunity to test hypotheses derived
performances or characteristics. Conscious from prior impressions.
bias is unethical.
Possibility of bias Unconscious bias requires constant vigilance.
Subjective judgments allow the possibility of It is difficult for bias to survive evidence-
conscious or unconscious bias for or against based justification to students and their
particular individuals or groups. parents (a form of accountability).

A strong justification for using teacher observation in assessment is its capacity to enhance
assessment validity. By extending the range of possible assessments, teacher observation allows
assessment to be more:
 comprehensive — ensuring recognition of all desired learning outcomes, especially those
not otherwise assessable than in classroom contexts;
 connected — situated within familiar learning contexts and closely related to curriculum
frameworks, learning experiences and pedagogical planning;
 contextualised — sensitive to the effects of context on performance and deriving assessment
evidence from a variety of situations and occasions; ·
 authentic — interesting, challenging, worthwhile and meaningful to students;
 holistic — emphasising relatedness and connections in learning and involving performance
on complex wholes rather than separate components.

All of these characteristics can be supported as important for high quality learning and assessment.
Assessments with these characteristics have better representation of, clearer relevance to, and
stronger consequences for desirable learning outcomes. Appropriate representation, relevance and
consequences are often now recognised as the requirements of valid assessments.
Constructing portfolio – A very interesting form of assessing students’ performance is portfolio
assessment. It requires a collection of different students’ works which are gathered for a longer
period of time and analysed according to some objectives and criteria established earlier by the
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teacher. A portfolio is supposed to present certain progress in the process of learning, and it may
include drawings, written compositions, video recordings and self-made test samples.

Portfolios are useful as a support the instructional approaches that emphasize the student's role in
constructing understanding and the teacher's role in promoting understanding. For example, in
writing instruction, portfolios can function to illustrate the range of assignments, goals, and
audiences for which a student produced written material. In addition, portfolios can be a record of
the activities undertaken over time in the development of written products. They can also be used
to support cooperative teaming by offering an opportunity for students to share and comment on
each other's work.

Portfolios are valued as an assessment tool because, as representations of classroom-based

performance, they can be fully integrated into the curriculum. And unlike separate tests, they
supplement rather than take time away from instruction. Moreover, many teachers, educators, and
researchers believe that portfolio assessments are more effective than "traditional-style" tests for
measuring academic skills and informing instructional decisions.

The following suggestions will help prospective teachers effectively design a student portfolio.
1. Set a Purpose for the Portfolio. First, decide the purpose of the portfolio. For example, is
it going to be used to show student growth or identify specific skills? Are we looking for a
concrete way to quickly show parents student achievement, or are we looking for a way to
evaluate our own teaching methods? Once we have figured out our goal of the portfolio,
then we think about how to use it.

2. Decide How to Grade it. Secondly, we will need to establish how we are going to grade
the portfolio. There are several ways we can grade students work, we can use a rubric, letter
grade, or the most efficient way would be to use a rating scale. We can use the grading scale
of 4 to 1. 4 = Meets all Expectations, 3 = Meets Most Expectations, 2 = Meets Some
Expectations, 1 = Meets No Expectations. Then, determine what skills we will be evaluating
then use the rating scale to establish a grade.

3. What will be Included in it. Assessment portfolios usually include specific pieces that
students are required to know. For example, work that correlates with the learning
outcomes. Working portfolios include whatever the student is currently working on, and
display portfolios showcase only the best work students produce. Let us keep in mind that
we can create a portfolio for one unit and not the next. We get to choose what is included
and how it is included. If we want to use it as a long-term project and include various pieces
throughout the year, we can. But, we can also use it for short- term projects as well.

4. How much will we involve the Students? How much we involve the students in the
portfolio depends upon the students’ age and grade level. It is important that all students
should understand the purpose of the portfolio and what is expected of them. Older students
should be given a checklist of what is expected, and how it will be graded. Younger students
may not understand the grading scale so we can give them the option of what will be
included in their portfolio. Then let us ask them questions such as, why did you choose this
particular piece, and does it represent your best work? Involving students in the portfolio
process will encourage them to reflect on their work.

5. Will we use a Digital Portfolio? In this age of information and communication technology
(ICT), paper portfolios may become a thing of the past. Electric portfolios (e-
portfolios/digital portfolios) are very attractive to teachers because they are easily
accessible, easy to transport and easy to use. Today's students are tuned into the latest must-
have technology, and electronic portfolios are part of that. With students using an
abundance of multimedia outlets, digital portfolios seem like a great fit. The use of these
portfolios is the same, students still reflect upon their work but only in a digital way.
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An example of student portfolio rubrics is given below:
Ability 0 1 2 3
a an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, etc.
b an ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and
interpret data

c an ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired

needs

d an ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams

e an ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems

f an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility

g an ability to communicate effectively

h the broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering

solutions in a global and societal context

i a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in life-long

learning

j a knowledge of contemporary issues

k an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools

necessary for engineering practice

l an ability to question approaches, procedures, tradeoffs, and results

related to engineering problems.

Qualitative and quantitative aspects of assessment: appropriate tools for each

A student is a multidimensional phenomenon having so many characteristics such as physical,

social, emotional, philosophical and psychological. Thus characteristics of a student are classified
into:

 Variable - it is the characteristics of a student which can be quantified and / or its variance
can be identified in terms of score or data.
 Attribute – it is the characteristics of a student which cannot be quantified but be assessed
or evaluated qualitatively.

Both quantitative and qualitative tools can be employed to analyze student learning data.
Quantitative data are often easier to calculate and can aid in comparisons across years or across
groups, whereas qualitative data can reveal the why or how behind the numbers.

Qualitative and quantitative tools are, in fact, complementary. Each has strengths and weaknesses
that the other doesn’t, and together, they can present a clearer picture of the situation than either
would alone. Often, the most accurate information is obtained when several varieties of each
method are used. That’s not always possible, but when it is, it can yield the best results.

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Quantitative assessment – the assessment which tried to quantify/measure the characteristics of a
student which can be quantifiable in terms of frequency on a nominal scale or in terms of score on
equal interval scale is known as quantitative assessment. For example, achievement, intelligence,
aptitude, attitude is all variable. Tests, rating scales and inventories are designed to measure them.
Appropriate tools for quantitative assessment are:

1. Oral test/assessment :- It is the oldest form of assessment. These tests are mostly used in the
lower classes. But even in the higher classes oral assessments are used in science subjects. The
viva voce as used in the graduate and post graduate classes is nothing but oral assessment. An
advantage of this type of assessment is that a large number of areas can be covered and
knowledge of the student can be assessed. Another advantage is that both the examiner and
examinee sit face to face with each other and the examiner can give a proper turn the test, as
the situation demands. Furthermore it is less time consuming. However the chief limitations
of this type of assessment are:
 It is difficult to assess each pupil on the basis of total curriculum.
 It is difficult to ask the same questions from every pupil.
 The teacher does not have any written proof regarding the pupil’s attainment.
 Much depends upon the examiner’s personal choice.

2. Written test/ assessment : It is also known as paper pencil test and has three main forms viz.
Essay type, short answer type and objective type.

Essay type demanding long answers have ever remained the most popular form of written
assessment of pupil’s achievement. Generally an essay type paper carries ten questions and the
pupils are to attempt five questions of their choice and the time allotted for answering these
questions is three hours. This form of assessment has a number of defects.
Short answer type is gaining favour day by day because of the several positive reasons. Questions
of this form can be made highly thought provoking and the questions can be framed to ask what we
actually want to ask. Moreover, these save pupils from falling into the bad habit of writing irrelevant
answers and short answer are easy to score.
Objective type is so named because the system of scoring is objective, rather than subjective as in
the case of an essay type. An objective assessment may consist of many more items than an essay
type, and usually each item can be answered by making a single mark. This is the most useful but
the most abused type of written assessment.

3. Performance test/ assessment : - It is a type of assessment which requires motor or manual

response on the examinee’s part, generally but not always, involving manipulation of concrete
equipment or materials. It involves a minimal use of paper and pencil. It can be also used in
another, sense to denote tests which are actually work sample. Here, it may include the use of
paper and pencil. For example performance test in accounts or shorthand, materials other than
paper and pencil may not be required but the test response will be called a Performance
assessment. Such types of assessment are useful for: Deaf examinees, examinees with speech
defects, illiterate testees and foreign examinees.

Qualitative assessment – it is the process of measuring the attributes of a student or characteristics

of a student which cannot be quantified but qualitatively assessed or evaluated. For example, faith,
devotion, honesty, confidence, beauty, integrity, are all attributes. Some of the appropriate tools for
qualitative assessment are:

1. Interviews: - Interviews comprise a number of open-ended, questions that result in

responses that give information about student's experiences, perceptions, opinions,
feelings, and knowledge. It is common to engage in face-to face verbal interviews with one
student; however, interviews may also be conducted with a group and administered via
mail, telephone, etc.

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Though questions and format may differ, an essential component of any interview is the "trust
and rapport to be built with respondents". Open-ended questions can also be given to students
at the conclusion of a programme or an event to receive quick and immediate feedback.

2. Observations : - Observations, on the other hand, do not require direct contact with a study
participant or group. Rather, this type of data collection involves a teacher providing
information-rich descriptions of behaviour, conversations, interactions, organizational
processes, or any other type of human experience obtained through observation.

Such observation may be either participant in which the teacher is actually involved in the
activities, conversations, or organizational processes, or nonparticipant, in which the research
remains on the outside of the activity, conversation, or organizational process in scope. In keeping
a record of observations, many methods can be used.

One way is to take notes during the observation; another method commonly employed is to
create a checklist or rubric to use during the observation. The checklist or rubric not only gives
the observer a set of criteria to observe, but it also allows the observer to show student progress
over time and to correlate a number with a qualitative process.

3. Documents/ Interpretation of records, transcripts, etc : - Finally, documents include

written materials such as journals, project report and other documents from co-curricular
programmes records; anecdotal records; and cumulative record cards. Records and
personal documents are the two primary categories of documents one might use when
doing outcomes-based assessment or research. This document can enhance the overall data
collected in an assessment programme. It is important to note, however, that the
authenticity of documents must be determined prior to using them for assessment.

In addition to the aforementioned documents, many student affairs professionals also use
portfolios, student reflections, reports, or other forms of classroom-type documents for outcomes-
based assessment data collection. Again, criteria checklists or rubrics can be used in the analysis
of documents to identify whether outcomes are met.

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 CPS – 04
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
(Sir. Dr. N. Sanjoy Singh)

UNIT – 4 : TEACHER COMPETENCIES IN EVOLVING APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT TOOLS

AND ISSUES AND TRENDS

Visualizing appropriate assessment tools for specific context, content and student

Visualizing assessment tools appropriate to Context: The context in which learning takes place
is essential to determining the authenticity of the task. Context is an integral part of the learner’s
concept of meaning, and their cognitive experiences must be situated in authentic experience in
order for them to pursue solution to their tasks. If we were to reflect on the context learning has
taken place in education, we would visualize a room with desks lined in a row, an instructor in the
front of the room and students whose participation usually took place in response to an inquiry
made by the instructor.

The emphasis then is on authentic learning by making the assessment as ‘as authentic as possible
in the context of the unit’ and oriented towards the world external to the unit itself. An authentic
assessment task has four main components. Its

 Involves real-world problems that mimic the work of professionals

 Includes open-ended inquiry and higher order thinking skills
 Engages students is social learning
 Empowers students by choice to direct their own learning

Developing Tasks: Developing performance tasks usually consists of three steps:

Step-1: For developing a performance tasks, the first important step to be taken up is the listening
of the skills and knowledge which we wish to have students learn as a result of completing a task
and identification of the types of knowledge and skills students are expected to learn and practice.
In order to be authentic, these should be of high value, worth teaching to, and worth learning. In
other words, they should be similar to those of the real life situation.

According to Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters (1992), teachers need to ask themselves five
questions as they identify what is to be learned or practiced by completing a performance task. The
five questions, with examples, are as follows:

 What important cognitive skills or attributes does a teacher want his/her students to
develop? (e.g. to communicate effectively in writing; to analyze issues using primary
source and reference materials; to use algebra to solve everyday problems).

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  What social and effective skills or attributes does a teacher want his/her students to
develop? (e.g. to work independently, to work cooperatively with others, to have
confidence in their abilities, to be conscientious).
 What Metacognitive skills does a teacher want his/her students to develop? (e.g. to
reflect on
the writing process they use; to evaluate the effectiveness of their research strategies, to
review their progress over time).
 What types of problems does a teacher want his/her student to be able to solve? (e.g. to
undertake research, to understand the types of practical problems that geometry will help
them solve, to solve problems which have no single, correct answer)
 What concepts and principles does a teacher want his/her students to be able to apply?
(e.g. to understand cause-and-effect relationships, to apply principles of ecology and
conservation in everyday lives).

Step-2: Next important procedure is the designing of a performance task which requires the
students to demonstrate those identified skills and knowledge. The performance tasks should
motivate and challenging, yet achievable for the students. That is, they must be designed so that
students are able to complete them successfully. In addition, one should seek to design tasks with
sufficient depth and breadth so that valid generalizations about overall student competence can be
made.

Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters (1992) have a list of questions which are helpful in guiding the
process of developing performance tasks. Those questions, with their recommendations, follow:

 How much time will it take students to develop or acquire the skill or accomplishment? Here,
it is suggested that assessment tasks should take at least one week for students to complete.
There are no rules regarding the appropriate length or complexity of a task, however.
 How does the desired skill or accomplishment relate to other complex cognitive, social, and
affective skill? Priority should be given to those which apply to a variety of situations.
 How does the desired skills or accomplishment relate to long-term school and curricular
goals? Skills or accomplishments which are integral to long-range goals should receive the
most attention.
 How does the desired skill relate to the school improvement plan? Priority should be given to
those which are valued in the plan.
 What is the intrinsic importance of the desired skills or accomplishment? Emphasis should
be given to those which are important, while others should be eliminated.
 Are the desired skills and accomplishments teachable and attainable for your students?
Priority should be given to tasks which represent goals for teaching and learning.

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Step-3: The final step is the development of the explicit performance criteria which measure the
extent to which students have mastered the skills and knowledge. It is recommended that there be
a scoring system for each performance task. The performance criteria consist of a set of score points
which define in explicit terms the range of student performance.

Well-defined performance criteria will indicate to students what sorts of processes and products are
required to show mastery and also will provide the teacher with on “objective” scoring guide for
evaluating student work. The performance criteria should be based on those attributes of a product
or performance which are most critical to attaining g mastery. It also is recommended that students
be provided with examples of high quality work, so they can see what is expected of them.

Authentic assessment tends to focus on contextualised tasks, enabling students to demonstrate their
competency in a more ‘authentic’ setting. Examples of authentic assessment categories include:

 Performance of the skills, or demonstrating use of a particular knowledge.

 Simulations and role plays.
 Studio portfolios, strategically selecting items.

This assessment may begin the same way curriculum design begins, with the question: What should
students be able to do? Once the teacher answers the question, they can then devise a rubric to
evaluate how well a student demonstrates the ability to complete the task. Because most authentic
assessments require a judgement of the degree of quality, they tend toward the subjective end of
the assessment scale.

Rubrics are an “attempt to make subjective measurements as objective clear, consistent, and as
defensible as possible by explicitly defining the criteria on which performance or achievement
should be judged.”

An example of a task: Subject: Social Science Class: VIII

Topic: women, Caste and Reform
Task: Dramatization
Procedure:

 Students will be divided into groups. They will in their groups, discuss and prepare a short
skit on any of the social ills prevalent in the Indian Society at different periods of time.
 The social ills may include Sati, Child Marriage, Female Infanticide, Denial of Education
to Women and Gender Disparity.
 Each group will prepare a small skit and perform it. Each student will be asked to speak
some dialogue.
 After the presentation, students will have a discussion.

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Learning Objectives:

 To enable the learners to gain an insight into the social evils prevalent in India at different
periods of time.
 To provide an opportunity to the learners to reflect on social evils and verbalize their
feelings.

Skills: To develop in the students the ability to

1) Write scripts
2) Deliver dialogue
3) Act
4) Work in teams

Assessment: The performance of the groups will be assessed on the basis of content, dialogue-
delivery and clarity of concept.

Time: Discussion and script writing: 2 periods;

a) Presentation: 1 period

Follow-up: The presentations could be discussed by the class. Wherever the concept is not
clear, teacher could encourage students to give their comments. The teacher could also revisit any
part of the lesson that has not been clearly understood by the students.

Designing questions to assess process of thinking

Questions are commonly used in tests and these are more specific, related to thinking skills and
facts, and can be responded to in a short time. The marks too are specified and the response is
evaluated only on the aspects identified in the marking scheme.

Form of Questions: The form of question depends on the objective and the content area to be
tested. Some forms are better than the others for testing certain abilities. A good question paper
should have the questions based on:-

 Remembering - e.g. How many....?, Can you name....?, Who spoke to....?, What happened
after?
 Understanding - e.g. How would you explain....?, Who do you think....? , Can you clarify....?
 Applying - e.g. Which factors would you change if....?, From the information given, can you
develop a set of instructions about....?, Do you know of another instance where...?, etc.
 Analysing - e.g. Which events could not have happened...?, How is .... Similar to....?, why
did....changes occur? , What was the turning point?, What was the problem with....?
 Evaluating e.g. Is there a better solution to ....?, What are the alternatives.....? What are the
pros and cons of ...?, How effective are...? Do you think.... is a good or bad thing?
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  Creating e.g. Can you design a....to...?, What would happen if....?, Can you see a possible
solution to...? Can you develop a proposal which would....?

Some questions here illustrate the range that questions can cover in thinking abilities.

Knowledge based

1. How does a tornado occur?

2. What is the difference between conventional and non-conventional energy resources?
3. Explain the concept of separation of powers.

Opinion based

4. How does a society benefit by educated and healthy people?

5. Analyze the similarities and differences in Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman views of law,
reason and faith, and duties of the individual.

Fact and inference

6. Minerals are easily identified by colour, but it is not always possible to make a correct
identification. Why?

Understand and reason

7. Explain imperialism from the perspective of the colonizers and the colonized and the varied
immediate and long-term responses by the people under colonial rule.

Multiple choice question formats can also be used effectively in assessment for learning. It is
futile to have just 5 or 6 questions in a test which also has other forms of questions. Multiple choice
types are most effective to assess all levels of thinking. However there are many stages of review
and improvement before they can be used. There is really no point in using badly made multiple
choice questions when better free response questions can be framed

Some examples of multiple choice questions are given below:

8. The English philosopher John Locke argued that life, liberty, and property are
1) Natural rights that should be protected by government.
2) Political rights to be granted as determined by law.
3) Economic rights earned in a capitalistic system.
4) Social rights guaranteed by the ruling class.
9. Between 1815 and 1848, the congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe suppressed
nationalism by
1. Ensuring a balance of power between nations.
2. Promoting democratic institutions.

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 3. Sharing colonies among the great powers.
4. Establishing international economic ties.
10. Gandhi used his philosophy of non-violence, non –cooperation in an effort to
 From a Marxist government in India.
 Convince his fellow Indians to support the Allies in World War II.
 Persuade Pakistanis to separate from India.
 Achieve India’s independence from Great Britain.
11. In an area where a river has cut deep into Earth, there are several layers of very different
rock exposed. The oldest rock layer is most likely to be the layer that is
 Below the other layers.
 The thickest layer.
 The most rich in fossils.
 Igneous intrusive rock.

Performance assessments measure what is taught in the curriculum. There are two terms that are
core of depicting performance assessment:

 Performance: A student’s active generation of a response that is observable either

directly or indirectly via a permanent product.
 Authentic: The nature of the task and context in which the assessment occurs is relevant
and represents “real world” problems or issues.

The most important part of having so much evidence of the child’s learning through assignments,
unit tests, projects, debates, exhibitions, is that developing some of the qualities of inquiry,
investigation, reasoning and organizing can be verified. The continuous internal assessment (unit
tests, assignments, and other formative techniques of assessment) would provide a basis for
organizing the remedial inputs.

With such evidence about the development of the faculties, it would now be possible to use the
assessment of learning more as a means to rank, promote and select. The raising of the standards of
the learning would be consciously done herein, as there would be more opportunity to create
thinking opportunities in a learning class room and not just create a stressful examination.

Teachers collect considerable information, both objects, reports, project books and observation
based on direct interaction, and do make portfolios year to year to update student progress. More
structured portfolios, explicitly connecting teacher understanding about curriculum, evidence,
profiling and updating, to monitor progress over time could focus teacher’s attention on the nature
of information that is being collected, and permit a more focussed and systematic approach to
enable teachers, students and parents access to a body of assessment evidence showing progression
(regression or stabilising) over time.

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Student and Context:

Learning context is defined as the situation in which something is learned or understood, a situation
that can impact how something is learned or what is taught. An example of learning context is the
external learning environment including the quality of equipment and facilities and the training
level of the teacher. Learning context is an area which must be addressed if meaningful learning is
to take place. All learning must be placed in the leaner’s’ context if it is to have meaning. There
is actually no such thing as “new” knowledge. In order to acquire new information, the brain must
place it in the context of something that is already known. There are many factors that affect how
a person learns from a particular learning environment. Here are a few:

 Cognitive abilities of the learner.

 Previous experiences of the learner.
 Motivation.
 Personal learning style.
 Clarity of the message.
 Interaction with the learning environment.

The learning context thus is the setting where the actual learning will take place. We should
familiarize ourselves with the facilities where the learning will occur, and to identify any limitations
of the setting that might affect the learning because the contexts in which learning take place have
both direct and indirect influence on student learning, including their engagement in what is being
taught, their motivation to learn, and their sense of well being, belonging, and personal safety.

Formulating tasks and questions that engage the learners and demonstrate the process of
thinking; the scope for original responses

Asking secondary students insightful questions has many benefits in teaching learning
process. Whether the response is intended to be written, spoken, dramatized, or conveyed in some
other manner, it will provide feedback on how successful the lesson was in stimulating their thought
processes. The students will reflect on their learning through higher-level thinking processes such
as analysis, synthesis, comparison, or summation. Finally, students are more likely to remember
what they have learned when they explore the implications of their learning.

Benjamin Bloom is credited with developing a way to categorize levels of reasoning skills in the
1950s.

His taxonomy of questions is a widely-accepted framework that many teachers use to guide their
students through the learning process. Though not necessarily sequential, the hierarchy of Bloom’s
Taxonomy is often depicted as a pyramid, with simple knowledge-based recall questions at the

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base. Questions higher on the pyramid are more complex and demand higher cognitive skills from
the students.

Bloom’s Taxonomy provides a structure for developing questions that encourage students to think
on different levels. In order, the levels are:

a. Knowledge (facts, recall, recognition)

b. Comprehension (translation, interpretation, extrapolation)
c. Application (to new or unfamiliar situations)
d. Analysis (break into parts)
e. Synthesis (combine elements into a new pattern)
f. Evaluation (apply criteria to defend the conclusion)
Within each level, closed-ended and open-ended questions can be constructed to engage students
in different kinds of cognition.

Closed-ended and Open-ended Questions: Let us consider two common forms of

questions: closed-ended and open-ended. A closed-ended question (sometimes called a convergent
question) is a way to find a specific answer. These questions can usually be answered with one or
two words. Closed questions work well for simple recall, to determine whether students understand
a concept or for review.
Closed-ended questions are common in everyday communication situations. We use them when
we need specific information quickly:

a. What time is dinner?

b. How much did that cost?
c. Have you finished your work?
d. Who won the cricket match?
Closed-ended questions and statements are appropriate on a pop quiz, to check for understanding,
or to determine whether students completed their homework. However, for other purposes, their
effectiveness is limited. For example, they are not effective when you want students to open up
and freely express feelings or ideas. Closed questions do not usually encourage reflective dialogue
or creative thinking. Faced with a barrage of closed-ended questions, students sometimes feel that
they are being interrogated. Similarly, they may interpret a series of closed questions as an attempt
by the teacher to control the direction of the discussion.

Another often-overlooked danger in closed-ended questions is that the question itself could be
misleading. For example, young children will ask, “Is Santa Claus real?” Phrasing the question in
this manner suggests that Santa Claus has physical characteristics; taken as a closed-ended question,
it precludes discussion of the spirit of Christmas or the nature of contemporary Christmas
traditions. Indeed, most children who ask this question are just becoming aware of symbols and
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metaphors, so I prefer to interpret the query as a child’s effort to begin a discussion about Christmas
and gift-giving. It is an opportunity to enter into an open-ended dialogue about who or what Santa
Claus represents, the reason(s) that people give gifts, whether a true gift needs recognition of the
giver, our own roles in our families and communities, and other related ideas as the conversation
unfolds.

Many questions at the lower levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy – particularly knowledge and
comprehension – are closed-ended questions. Higher order reasoning such as synthesis and
evaluation is stimulated through the use of open-ended questions.

Asking an open-ended question (sometimes called a divergent question) is a way to elicit

discussion, brainstorm solutions to a problem, or create opportunities for thinking outside the box.

The highest-order open-ended questions engage students in dynamic thinking and learning, where
they must synthesize information, analyze ideas and draw their own conclusions. Some examples
are:

a. Why did the Vietnam War take place?

b. How did you solve the numbers problem?
c. What do you think will happen in this experiment?
Open-ended questions can also be phrased as commands or statements:
a. Describe how photosynthesis works.
b. Please explain the main character’s motives.
c. Discuss the fairness of Canada’s judicial system.
When students believe that teacher has a “correct answer” in mind, they are slow to respond. On
the other hand, a true open-ended question sincerely invites authentic reflection and discussion.

Questions such as the above invite the students to elaborate on their thoughts without limiting the
direction of the discussion. That’s because, like the response to Robbie’s questions, a respectful
answer will be longer than a word or phrase. Instead, an appropriate response requires at least a
few sentences or paragraphs. Beware! Answers to open-ended questions can surprise and baffle
even the most experienced educators.

For the purpose of student engagement, an open-ended question is a powerful tool that any teacher
can employ.

In order to become fully contributing members of our society, adolescents need to become critical
thinkers, find their own voice, and be recognized for having opinions that matter. Innovative
thinking is valued in our fast-changing society, and our classroom questioning techniques can help
prepare young adults for what lies ahead.

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Formulating open-ended questions is often more difficult than designing closed-ended
questions. Open-ended questions or statements are most appropriate when teacher want to:

a. Brainstorm ideas
b. Problem-solve
c. Look for lots of information
d. Encourage thinking “outside the box”
e. Resolve conflict
f. Negotiate agreement
g. Elicit higher-level thinking such as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation
Effective teachers use a combination of open and closed questions, depending on their purpose. In
designing lesson plans, we keep in mind learning outcomes. As our lesson plan becomes more
specific and detailed, we ask ourselves, “What is my objective?” Or “What kind of question will
help achieve the learning outcome?”

Let us say that we are teaching a lesson on poetry. We have already motivated the students by
linking poetry with music. Perhaps we have discussed how the lyrics and melody of a song
reinforce the theme. Now it is time to see if the learners understand a poem that was assigned for
homework. Whether we ask the initial questions orally or in writing, we want to “warm up” our
students with some relatively straightforward, closed questions (simple recall) such as:

1. What is the name of the poem you read last night?

2. Who is the author?
3. What is the subject of the poem?
4. Did you understand it? Did you like it?
After three or four such closed questions, students are ready to think about and respond to some
open-ended, higher-level questions, such as:

1. Why do you think the author wrote this poem?

2. What mood did he intend to convey?
3. What did you like or dislike about this poem?
A similar technique can be utilized in designing quizzes. In setting the questions, we can usually
begin

the quiz with relatively straight-forward recall or recognition questions before moving to more
complex, open-ended questions.

Once students are familiar with different questioning styles, they can be asked to design their own
questions. For example, students who are dissecting a frog might be required to compose three
closed-ended questions and three open-ended questions about that activity. The nature and depth

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of their questions will often surprise even the most experienced educators. They might be ready to
explore the concept of metacognition and/or Bloom’s taxonomy of questions.

Since the term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell in the 1970s, the concept has become
an important part of the ongoing dialogue about student learning. Metacognition – i.e., an
individual’s awareness of his or her thought processes – requires an ability to stand back and
observe oneself. Most adolescent learners are mature enough to review their progress, identify their
achievements, and chart their direction.

Inside and outside the classroom, we all need to be mindful of open-ended questions that
masquerade as closed questions. When a student asks me, “Should I go to college?” he/she has
phrased his/her question as if it is closed-ended. In reality, this is an example of an open-ended
question disguised as a closed question. The person asking the question does not want a one-word
answer “Yes” or “No.” The underlying message we take from this question is that the student wants
to talk about the implications of pursuing a post-secondary education, whether making the
commitment is a good idea, how much it will cost, and who knows what else.

In conclusion, questions should be tailored to meet different objectives or to reach out to specific
communities of learners.

Evolving suitable criteria for assessment

Learning and Assessment goes together. So the purpose of assessment should align learning
outcomes. Otherwise teaching will be haphazard and student will be confused. A teacher should be
very careful while identifying and determining the goals of assessment. Once the goals of
assessment have been determined it is necessary to describe the criteria that will be used to judge
whether the desired level of performance has been achieved or not. Learning objectives consist of
three parts:

1. the student action;

2. the content; and,
3. The standard required to meet the objective.

Assessment criteria relates to the third part of the objective, the standard of performance. Criteria
are
developed by analyzing the learning outcomes and identifying the specific characteristics that
contribute to the overall assignment. These are the standards by which learning is judged. Capturing
the multiple dimensions of student performance is at the heart of criterion development. A range of
diverse performance measures can be formulated for any given performance. The main question is,

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how many criterion are needed that contain neither irrelevant nor miss important areas. The criteria
then need to be linked with marks in some form of combined composite score.

Constructively aligned assessment criteria begin with a noun that complements the verb in the
assessment tasks objective. For example, if the objective is for students to "explain how concepts
in the subject interrelate" one of the criteria might be "Clarity of explanation". That is, the
criterion describes the quality in the assessment task that will be judged during marking. Other
commonly used quality words used in criteria include:

1. Accuracy
2. Depth
3. Impact
4. Legibility
5. Originality
6. Succinctness
7. Relevance
8. Validity
9. Practicability/usability

Working in groups has become an accepted part of learning as a consequence of the widely
recognised benefits of collaborative group work for student learning. When groups work well,
students learn more and produce higher quality learning outcomes. Reviews of student feedback
demonstrate that many students benefit from learning in groups as long as the groups are well
managed and there are clear and fair assessment requirements. In a group assignment the students
want a system that gives them every opportunity to receive a high grade that also reflects the level
of contribution made by individual students.

The students' concerns about group assignments can be reduced by addressing three aspects of
assessing group assignments:

1. helping students understand the criteria for the group product and processes,
2. informing students about the intend to measure individual contributions to the group,
3. Informing students about the process of allocating the grades between individuals in the
group.

The preferred approach for assessing students is to use pre-determined assessment criteria against
which the students' individual performance can be gauged. This is also known as criterion-
referenced assessment. In most cases the criteria we use will probably be tailored to a specific
assignment and will incorporate elements relating to the course/module learning outcomes as well
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as more generic components. Teacher ensuring the assessment criteria to be clearly defined will
make it easier for the students to understand what is expected of them in a particular assignment. It
will also help teacher to focus his/her subsequent feedback on the assignment to the students.

Writing assessment criteria is a central component of assessment design. The following are some
of the points that may help a teacher while writing assessment criteria:

1. Criteria should be clearly related to the learning outcomes to be assessed;

2. The criteria should also be related to the level of the course (i.e. first, second or third grade
students);
3. Make use of colleagues' feedback while drafting criteria that will ensure the components
being used to evaluate students' performance are reflected within the criteria;
4. Make the criteria clear and concise. This is particularly important as it can help shape the
structure of the feedback to students.
5. Avoid lengthy, overly-specific criteria, which can make marking work even more time-
consuming and may encourage students to adopt a mechanistic approach to the assignment.
Preparation of test items, development of blueprints

A test is made up of various individual questions or test items, so it follows naturally that for the
test to be good each individual question also needs to be good. Each test question must meet three
requirements for it to be classified as a good question.

 The question must evaluate an important aspect, an area which is crucial for the test-
taker/examinee to be good at in order to succeed in the outcome associated with the
assessment. However, question quality is not solely governed by the aspect it covers.
 It is also essential that the questions are well structured, avoiding flaws that benefit the test-
wise examinee and are of appropriate difficulty levels.
 The question should rate high on both subjective and objective evaluations and adhere to
standards.

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Figure 1: Three steps in the test development process

The primary step in developing a test is the definition of the outcome or objective which would be
used as the basis for discriminating between test takers. This is done by, at the outset, defining the
stage at which the test would be administered i.e.

 Pre-instructional: Tend to cover a broad range of skills and topics

 Interim Mastery: Tend to be brief and specific
 Mastery: Tend to be infrequent but very critical, having long term implications

Understanding the instructional objective is also crucial in order to arrive at the testing objective,
which would involve researching the curriculum and teaching methodology, to be able to draw
insights from what the students are learning and the purpose of the instruction (fundamental
concepts, advanced concepts, vocational training etc.)

This would lead to defining of objective or outcome of the assessment. Figure 1 showcases one of
the most widely accepted lists of learning objectives as given by Bloom (in the triangle) and
question cues for each of these learning objectives as generally accepted (on the right).

Figure 2: Bloom’s taxonomy defining objectives for the cognitive domain mapped against question
cues

Once the learning objectives have been defined, the next task is to formulate a test blue print which
specifies domain area wise learning outcome and enlists the skills that need to be tested for each
domain along with relative importance of each. Figure 2 gives a sample test blue print for class X
social sciences.

Dimension 1: Weightage to content

geography
Unit marks

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 1 6
2 4
3 5
4 5
5 1
6 2
7 2
8 2

history
unit marks
1 6
2 6
3 5
4 3
5 4
6 3

Political science
unit marks
1 7
2 6

Economics
unit marks
1 7
2 6
Total unit=18 Total mark=80

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 Dimension 2: Weightage to objectives

Area/objectives K U A S TOTAL MARKS

Marks 25 35 15 5 80
Percentage of marks 31.25 43.75 18.75 6.25 100
Note: K=Knowledge, U=Understanding, A=Application, S=Skill

Dimension3: Weightage to forms of questions

Forms of question VSA SA1 SA2 LA Total number

of questions
No. of questions 2+2+2= 3+3+6=12 3+3+4=10 1+1+2=4 32
6
Marks 6 24 30 20 80
Note: VSA=very short answer, SA=short answer and LA=long answer type questions

Essentially a test blue print has three dimensions

 Dimensions 1 – Weightage to content.

 Dimension 2 – Weightage to objectives.
 Dimension 3 – Weightage to forms of questions.

Examples of questions/items for assessing the students are given below:

 Why does India need both thermal and hydel power plants all over the country? (objectives
– U,
 forms of questions – VSA)
 Name the two major types of soil of Manipur. Mention its distribution. (objectives – K,
forms of questions – SA)
 Draw a full page outline map of India and mark and label therein the following: a) area of
mangroves forest and b) Mumbai port. (objectives – S, forms of questions – SA)
 Compare and contrast the geographical conditions necessary for the cultivation of cotton
with those of jute. (objectives – A, forms of questions – LA)

Organising and Planning for student portfolio and developing rubrics for portfolio
assessment

A portfolio is a purposeful collection of work that demonstrates one’s competence or range of

effort. They can be all-inclusive, e.g., the portfolio includes all the relevant work created by a
student in a specific course or a programme, or they can be selective, e.g., the portfolio includes
selected items of a student’s work. Self-reflection by students about their work included is often a
part of a portfolio and can be of value to both the teacher and the learner.

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Uses and purposes of portfolio: There are several potential uses for portfolios. They can be used
to promote learning as well as to assess learning. When used to promote learning, student
reflection about the contents and their use of judgment in identifying materials to include are very
important components. Portfolios can be used for a variety of types of assessments, including
student assessment.
Portfolios can be used as a comprehensive form of student assessment in a course in which specific
course work or products are collected and compiled for review by the teacher or other
stakeholders. In classroom use, points or a percentage of the final grade would be assigned for the
portfolio; these might include the presentation of the portfolio in addition to the portfolio contents
themselves. To assess the portfolio and determine the points or percentage grade that the student
will receive, a rubric might be necessary to evaluate the student’s work using various desired criteria
and performance expectations.

The following are strategies for portfolio organization:

 A portfolio should be organized around categories identified such as student’s skills, capabilities,
etc.
 A portfolio developed for a course could be organized around learning task requirements, such
as tests, papers, presentations, problem sets, etc.
 A portfolio used by teacher should be organized using Teaching, Research/Scholarship, etc. as
major categories.
 A portfolio used by a programme to assess student learning could be organized around formal
programme student learning outcomes or competencies, or it could be organized using categories
determined by the student, such as courses, presentations, papers, thesis and/or dissertation work,
etc.
 How the work or products created will be labelled or documented within the portfolio.
While planning the use of a portfolio for learning assessment, let us consider the following:

 The specific learning outcomes to be assessed.

 The student works to be included, or only a selection of their work.
 The role(s) of the student in the portfolio process.
 The role(s) of the teacher(s) in the portfolio process.
 Frequency of the portfolios to be reviewed.
 The person to review the portfolio.
 The specific criteria to be used for portfolio evaluation. In this case, a rubric may be
developed. The criteria or rubric to be used for all the works in the portfolio, or for a
selection of works.
 The points or a grade to be assigned to the criteria used or rubric.

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  Whether self-reflection by students be incorporated as part of the portfolio or not.

In summary, a portfolio can be a very useful tool for a variety of assessment purposes. Careful
thought and planning must go into a portfolio to ensure that it is organized and used appropriately
and effectively.

Steps for Developing and Implementing a Portfolio Assessment

1. Decide what assessment information is needed to document learner attainment of the

objective (or curriculum standard) and how that information can be obtained.
2. Involve stakeholders, including the learners, in determining the desired outcomes.
3. Decide on the range of selections for inclusion in the portfolios. Develop a plan and timeline
for placing selections into portfolios, scoring individual entries, and evaluating the
portfolios as a whole. Determine the type(s) of learner reflections (written or oral or both)
to be included and when and how they will be added.
4. Develop scoring criteria and standards of performance. Decide on common goals for student
learning and performance and how they will be assessed, Develop scoring rubrics and
checklists, and agree on standards of performance to be attained.
5. Align assessment tasks with the identified objective and proposed learner outcomes.
6. Provide professional development related to the purpose, implementation, and anticipated
results of using portfolio assessment to all staff who will be involved in the process.
7. Implement the portfolio process. Once all steps above have been completed, implement the
portfolio process in designated classes.
8. Provide training in scoring student entries using the identified scoring criteria and rubrics.
Training should include discussion of the need for interpreter reliability as well as learners’
levels of proficiency or special needs identified or other educational plans and the impact
of these educational circumstances on scoring decisions.
9. Score the portfolios. Team members score the portfolios based upon predetermined criteria
and rubrics.
10. Report results. All stakeholders receive feedback about the results of the portfolio
assessment in a timely fashion in ways that make the results meaningful to everyone,
including teachers, students, and community members.
11. Evaluate the process. Develop a plan and timelines for evaluating the effectiveness of the
portfolio process. Consider the impact on students, instructors, and other stakeholders, what
made a difference and why, and recommendations for future use.

(Note: example and steps for developing rubric is given in unit 3 - Using Rubrics assessment
procedure in learning situation -)

 Using assessment feedback for further learning

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Feedback is an essential part of effective learning. It helps students understand the subject being
studied and gives them clear guidance on how to improve their learning. Assessment feedback is
more strongly and consistently related to achievement than any other teaching behaviour. Feedback
can improve a student's confidence, self-awareness and enthusiasm for learning. Providing students
engage with feedback, it should enhance learning and improve assessment performance.

Feedback can be of as either formative or summative:

 Formative feedback is diagnostic information given before the work is completed. it is

intended to help the student revise and improve the work.
 Summative feedback is a final analysis of the work, on which final grades are based. It can
also point toward improving future work of the same type.

In a psychological sense, there is little learning without feedback. However there is more learning
if the following conditions surround it:

 Feedback contributes to learning when it is noticed

 Feedback contributes even more to learning when the learner reflects on the lessons for next
time
 Feedback containing advice originating from the student's own recent work is more likely
to be given attention, understood and acted upon
 Feedback can fuel constructive reflection by the learner.

Feedback on performance is so important that feedback to the students on their assignments was
the single most powerful influence on student achievement. In fact, an item about the importance
and quality of feedback shows up on almost all student evaluations of teaching. So we will look at
some strategies for giving students feedback in ways that will be the most helpful in improving
their learning. Feedback needs to be:

 Timely - the sooner the better. There has been plenty of research into how long after the
learning event it takes for the effects of feedback to be significantly eroded. Ideally feedback
should be received within a day or two, and even better almost straightaway, as is possible
(for example) in some computer-aided learning situations, and equally in some face-to-face
contexts.
 Intimate and individual. Feedback needs to fit each student's achievement, individual
nature, and personality. Global ways of compiling and distributing feedback can reduce the
extent of ownership which students take over the feedback they receive, even when the
quality and amount of feedback is increased. Each student is still a person.
 Empowering. If feedback is intended to strengthen and consolidate learning, we need to
make sure it doesn't dampen learning down. This is easier to ensure when feedback is
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 positive of course, but we need to look carefully at how best we can make critical feedback
equally empowering to learners. We must not forget that often feedback is given and
received in a system where power is loaded towards the provider of the feedback rather than
the recipient - for example where we are driving assessment systems.
 Feedback should open doors, not close them. In this respect, we have to be particularly
careful with the words we use when giving feedback to students. Clearly, words with such
'final language' implications as 'weak' or 'poor' cause irretrievable breakdowns in the
communication between assessor and student. To a lesser extent, even positive words such
as 'excellent' can cause problems when feedback on the next piece of work is only 'very
good' - why wasn't it excellent again? In all such cases it is better to praise exactly what was
very good or excellent in a little more detail, rather than take the short cut of just using the
adjectives themselves.
 Manageable. There are two sides to this. From our point of view, designing and delivering
feedback to students could easily consume all the time and energy we have - it is an endless
task. But also from students' point of view, getting too much feedback can result in them
not being able to sort out the important feedback from the routine feedback, reducing their
opportunity to benefit from the feedback they need most.

Feedback can be provided to the students in number of ways. Some of the strategies that can help
a teacher are as follows:

 Handwritten comments on (or about) students' assessed work: This is one of the most
widely used forms of feedback to students. It includes our written feedback on essays,
reports, solutions to problems, and so on. Not so long ago, there were few alternatives to
this way of giving students feedback on their work, usually accompanied by an assessment
judgement of one kind or another.
 Word-processed overall comments on each student's assessed work: This is feedback
which we compose, then print out, for each student, summarising our reactions to their work.
It may be accompanied by an assessment judgement.
 Model answers or solutions, issued to students along with their marked work: This
category covers a wide range of feedback aids, including model answers, perhaps supported
by 'commentary' notes highlighting principal matters arising with students' work as whole,
worked solutions to calculations or problems, and so on.
 Assignment return sheets: These are normally pre-prepared Performa, where we provide
detailed written word-processed or electronic feedback comments to students on each of a
number of assessment criteria applied to their work.
 Word-processed overall class reports on an assignment: These might be issued to a whole
(large) group of students, after their work has been marked, along with (or even in advance

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 of) returning to them their marked work. Ideally, such an overall report can be debriefed in
a whole-group session with the students.
 Codes written on students' work, debriefed in a whole-group session: instead of writing
individual positive or critical comments directly onto students' work, write only a code (a
letter, or a number, or a symbol), and alongside compile the 'glossary of codes' on overheads,
paper, to use when debrief the work to the whole group (and to issue as a translation-device,
so that students can revisit their work and remind themselves of the feedback).
 Face-to-face feedback: Face-to-face feedback can carry with it very high learning payoff
for students. It can be memorable, and can help students to change attitudes and approaches.
 Face-to-face feedback to whole classes: This includes giving oral feedback to a whole class
after having marked their assignments, before or after returning their actual work to them.
Alternatively, we can give face-to-face feedback to the whole group about the task
immediately after collecting their work from them, but before we have marked it, so that
they get at least some feedback on the task as soon as possible, while the task is still fresh
in their minds.
 Face-to-face feedback to individual students: This can include one-to-one appointments
with students, individual discussions out of class or in practical settings, and so on.
 Computer-delivered feedback: This broad category includes the use of (pre-prepared)
feedback responses to structured self-assessment questions in computer-based learning
packages.
Computer-based feedback can be programmed into learning packages on floppy disk or CD
Rom, and can also be programmed into web-based packages delivered through Intranets or
the Internet.

 Non detention policy in the RTE act 2009

The ‘non detention policy’ is a clause under the Right to Education (RTE) Act, which states that
until class VIII, no child can be held back or expelled from school. The larger purpose of this
blanket rule is to ensure compulsory education up to the age of 14 years, and prevent dropout rate
in schools.

To make the education child centred the NPE -1986 (WITH MODIFICATIONS UNDERTAKEN
IN 1992) has stated that “The policy of non detention at the primary stage will be retained, making
evaluation as disaggregated as feasible. Corporal punishment will be firmly excluded from the
educational system and school timings as well as vacations adjusted to the convenience of children”.

Regarding the implementation of non detention policy POA-1992 says “The non detention policy
has also been accepted in principle for quite some time. In practice, however, for one reason or
other, a large percentage of children still repeat their classes. Non detention policy will be

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effectively implemented up to class VIII, while also insuring that the minimum learning
competencies are reached. For this purpose various measures referred to in the selection on
Examination Reform will be taken”.

Accordingly, the no-detention policy up to Class VIII, a decision taken at the instance of then HRD
Minister Kapil Sibal has been implemented in all the CBSE affiliated schools with the introduction
of CCE. CCE or Comprehensive Continuous Evaluation system is an evaluation format for CBSE
affiliated schools introduced from 2010-11. In each term of six months, two Formative Assessments
carrying 10% weight each are carried out and one Summative assessment with 30% weight is held.
SA-1 and SA-2 are written tests. Formative Assessments are based on co-curricular activities and
projects. Simultaneously, the provision for non-detention became a part of the RTE Act.

However, most of the schools have limitations in following the ‘non-detention policy’. Firstly, the
schools should offer bridge course for slow learners, but there is little focus on that. Classes with
large student strength also make it difficult for teachers to offer extra care and attention to slow
learners.

Rashtriya Madhymik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) introduced a programme to help slow learners but
that could not address the problem as it is just a three-month programme offered for students of
class IX before the final exams. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation promises to address
this issue to a good extent. It emphasises on evaluating a child through the year and not just based
on performance in one or two term exams. Conducting unit tests, for fewer marks, could also be of
help to make students accountable without adding to the stress.

Secondly, pedagogically ‘non detention policy’ demands the teacher to be professionally equipped,
committed, works in a congenial environment, is not over and is looking after only a stipulated
number of learners. She/he should be in a position to assess individual learning needs, appreciate
individual differences and be committed to provide remedial inputs to each learner as per his/her
requirement. The teacher is also responsible to ensure that at no stage does the learner come under
undue stress.

Lastly, the abolition of class X examination has also accentuated non-learning at the elementary
stage. Children from rural areas who have to migrate to another city for Plus-II courses without
passing the Class X examination face ridicule and are often shown the door. It is no problem,
however, for the children of the prestigious ‘public schools’.

Here, it is interesting to note that the top-level advisory body in education, the Central Advisory
Board of Education (CABE), has decided to review the non detention policy up to class VIII. A
study of the MHRD has stated the obvious: the commitment of students to education has declined
after no detention up to Class VIII was introduced. The committee finds that this provision has
made students lackadaisical and teachers ‘non-serious’.

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CHANGE IN NORMS

Earlier: Till last year, there were no passing marks for the two SAs. A student was promoted as
long as he secured an overall D grade, which he used to manage mostly through the FAs.

New: To increase the importance of written exams, the CBSE has made appearance in the two SAs
mandatory and a minimum score of 25% marks in both combined SAs for promotion from Classes
IX to X, from the session. For Class X, the change will be implemented from 2014-2015.

It is easy to blame learners for their non-achievements; no one blames the deplorable conditions
under which they are supposed to acquire knowledge and skills. No one also dare to think of
children who study in schools with absentee and unqualified teachers, leaking roofs, no electricity,
not even drinking water and toilets. How could they be expected to stand on equal footing with
those who study in air-conditioned schools, with qualified teachers in the right teacher-taught ratio?

 Commercialization of assessment linking to the market of tuition

The mushrooming of tuition centres all over the state of Manipur highlights the growing trend of
students opting for tuition apart from the regular curriculum. Once upon a time coaching was a rare
phenomenon generally unheard of. It was only taken by those who were weak in their studies. But
now it is a way of life for students, aggressively promoted by the teachers and too some extent by
the parents also. But does private tuition really help in scoring good marks in school or in
competitive examinations? Is it advisable for the school students to opt for coaching? When is the
right time to join coaching? Does it take away time of self-study and make student dependent on
coaching centre? Or does it give your career the right boost and direction?

These are some of the questions which every student and their parents face. The attractiveness for
tuition has led to opening of private coaching centre in every nook and corner of the state selling
dreams of guaranteed success.

One can see the newspapers, magazines or roads filled with advertisements like 'student can learn
English in 30 days' or 'score 90% in Boards with our guidance' or 'clear PMT/IIT with our two year
package'. More and more students are flocking these centres as an alternative or supplement to
school teaching. Many experts believe that education is a natural process of learning. For the regular
and attentive students coaching is not really required till class XII.

However for professional courses like entrance examinations of CPMT and IIT professional
guidance is required in today's competitive world. A student has no background and idea of the
examination he/she is appearing for. He or she needs proper study material and guidelines on the
important topics, examination patterns, and short-cut methods of solving numerical and analytical
questions. It is here when the tuition centres play an important role in helping students. They plan
each topic methodically and time schedules to complete the modules. The students feel that the

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tutors know what the important and less important topics are. The minute details like the sections
of question paper that need to be solved first are explained by these teachers.

The private tuition classes also help students prepare for interviews and face group discussions. For
those who cannot attend regular classes, correspondence coaching is helpful. They are relatively
cheaper also as they charge one fifth of the regular courses. The students can benefit from the study
material and model papers that are sent to them regularly. There are a number of factors that need
to be taken into consideration before selecting a coaching centre. The quality, experience and
expertise of the teachers should be the top priority. One should also talk to other students before
taking admission. The standard of coaching can best be analyzed by the success rate and academic
performance of the students studying there. Whether to join a coaching or not is an individual's
decision. If a student is sincere and hardworking with good grasping power he or she can prepare
for competitive exams even at home. But if professional help is required then select the coaching
centre which offers the best options.

However, with the tuition menace continuing unabated, schools and colleges have apparently failed
to cater to the learning needs of the students. The students, who are bewildered by an increasing
pressure to excel, have made such coaching centres much sought-after places.

The tuition menace has enveloped the entire education scenario in the state. The ‘business’ has
proved lucrative for tutors. A school teacher, who pockets Rs 4,000 to 5,000 per month from his
job, earns four times more from the tuition business. Housewives, who want to busy themselves in
part-time jobs, also take up tuition work. Besides morning and evening shifts, even vacations are
spent in earning big money.

Such coaching centres are easily identifiable in the state. A couple of two-wheelers or even four-
wheelers, parked outside a house, indicate such centres. These ‘shops’ have a way of luring students
by promising them “sure success.”

Parents feel that their children are being regularly tutored. Their ambition for their children to score
well finds an easy outlet at these centres. The parents feel that tuition can help their children to be
regular in their studies. “We can’t let our children lag behind. Only a tutor can give them the right
help”.

Teachers at schools and colleges encourage the continuation of the system. A school teacher said
on condition of anonymity that some of the teachers did not answer the queries inquisitive children.
They coerced them into taking private tuitions from them. The students who fail to take tuitions
from such teachers were humiliated in the class and underwent a lot of mental stress.

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There are some institutions where tuitions are discouraged, but the children care a fig as the real
instigators are the parents and, in some cases, the teachers. The mushrooming of private coaching
centres all over the state has put the future of conventional education system in schools/colleges in
danger. It seems that students and their parents just can't do anything without private tuition. The
worst thing that has happened because of the proliferation of coaching centres is a kind of
apprehension and inferiority complex among those reluctant to resort to the 'guidance' provided by
the coaching classes.

There was a time, not long ago, when the parents had to meet the principals and the head teachers
and convince them to grant permission for private tuition. It used to be a matter of concern for the
school authorities that the students were having private tuition. In other words, the teaching at
schools was not good enough, causing students to have a private teacher along with the regular
studies in school. Now no one is concerned because teachers in schools and colleges are just not
interested in teaching in the classes and they prefer to have their own classes where they can earn
extra money. Some of the strategies that can solve the problem of tuition are:

 Target-based teaching should be introduced in schools. Target-based teaching may be done

after identifying target-based groups among students through aptitude tests.
 External resource-persons to be hired to conduct classes. External resource-persons can be
paid by the school to conduct these classes and the classes should charge a nominal fee from
students so that they are not taken for granted. Students should pay a nominal fee so that
these classes are not taken for granted.
 School teachers should not be allowed to take tuition classes. Common transport facilities
to be provided, monetary incentives for teachers and school teachers being barred from
conducting tuition classes.
 Finding alternatives to tuition classes by providing a different, more efficient form of
performance-enhancement classes organised by schools themselves.

****************

CPS-04 (ATAO RAHAMAN) TIITET BISHNUPUR 25 | P a g e

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Unit V

DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING

STATISTICS IN ASSESSMENTAND EVALUATION:

Generally the schools or any educational organization deal with different kinds of data
related to students and administrative aspects, and such data need to be collected, organized
and interpreted to make valuable decisions that have long term effect. Many a times, the schools
find difficult to deal with large volume of data concerning their organizations and in such
situations, the mathematical technique, ‘statistics’ help them deal with the data. The
mathematical process of collecting, organizing, interpreting and analyzing the data are termed
as “statistics”. In statistics, data related to any individual/organization/behavior etc. are
expressed in numerical form.

Seligman defines “Statistics is the science which deals with the methods of collecting,
classifying, presenting, comparing and interpreting numerical data collected through some light
on any sphere of enquiry”. In fact, educationists and psychologists use statistics widely to study
human behavior. At the same time, statistics also help a teacher analyze and judge students’
performance.

MEANING AND NATURE OF DATA

In statistics data represents any kind of information obtained from an experiment, observation,
interview, or through any investigatory procedures. In the context of schools, the information
about the total number of students, the number of teachers, the periods allotted for each subject,
number of absentees each day, the marks scored by children in term end examinations and
assignments, participation in co-curricular activities, mode of transportation in reaching
schools, etc. represents data. These information (or data) would help a teacher in many ways
such as, to judge her children’s learning performance, recognize talents of children in extra
curricular activities providing guidance and counselling services and so on.

Data is any kind of information from which conclusions are made. Data are classified
into two; primary data and secondary data. Primary data is the first hand information or fact
that is reported by the actual observer or participant regarding a event, situation, happening,
etc. and secondary data is the second hand information or fact that is reported by others than
the original observers or participant about any event , situation, happenings, etc.

Discrete/Raw and Group Data:

We have already discussed that data are the evidences or facts that describe a
person/group from which conclusions are drawn. Generally the data are collected from the
population. For example, number of students who failed in Class – X examination during the
academic year 2015. Here the number of students failed (say for example 23 students)
represents the data. Apart from primary and secondary data, data could be qualitative or
quantitative; or continuous or discrete. Let understand each of these concepts.

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Qualitative Data/Series: The data (facts, Items. events, persons, phenomena, etc) expressed
in qualitative terms are called qualitative data. Qualitative data are not measurable on a scale.
For example, gender of students, type of school, mode of transportation of children, etc.

Quantitative Data/ Series: The data expressed in numerical format are called quantitative
data. Such data are measurable and countable. For example, the data showing the children who
passed tenth grade, children’s attendance in a particular day, etc.

Continuous Series/Data: The data expressed in a sequence form are called continuous data.
There will not be any gap in between the numbers. Continuous data are expressed as fractions.
For example, the height of the children may be 5’7’’ or 5’4’’ and so on.

Discrete Series/Data: If the data expressed have gaps in between, such data are called discrete
data. Discrete data are represented as whole numbers and not as fractions. For example, number
of children in a particular class, number of periods in a day, etc.

Frequency Distribution and their Graphical Representation

We have understood that statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection,
organisation, analysis, and drawing of inferences from the data. The methods or the tools used
to analyse this data are called statistical tools.

The basic unit of any statistical study is the data. Let us find out what is data. Any bit
of information that is expressed as a value or numerical number is data. Data is a collection of
information, measurement, or observations. For example, the marks a student scored in the
Mathematics exam, the amount of rain in a place on a particular day, the height of a student,
the value of your house, the age of children in a class are all data.

Let us collect some data. Let us take the marks scored by 10 students in Mathematics

47 74 63 29 48 55 74 47 59 82

This data by itself does not give any information except the scores

Let us go a step further and arrange them in the ascending order. It will be as under.

29 47 47 48 55 59 63 74 74 82

The data is arranged. What information do you get?

The lowest mark scored = 29

The highest mark scored = 82

The difference between the highest and the lowest score is called the range.

Range = 82 – 29 = 53

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If a score is obtained by more than one student/child, then the number of students who have
obtained the same score is called the frequency.

In our data given above, two students have scored 47 and two students have scored 74
So we say, frequency of 47 = 2. Similarly, the frequency of 74 = 2

This kind of arrangement of data is easy when the quantity of data is less. Let us
consider the following example

Marks obtained by 30 students of Class 10 of Rashtriya Vidyalaya school:

10 20 36 92 95 40 50 56 60 70 92 88 80 70 72 70 36 40 36 40 92 40 50 50 56 60 70 60
60 88

Now recall the concept of frequency. Using that we can tabulate the data as follows.

The first score is 10. Put a tally against 10, the second score is 20. Put a tally against 20
and so on, till you cover all the scores. If a score is repeated, put a second tally against it. The
total of all the tallies for each score gives the frequency of that score.

A score of 36 is obtained by 3 students. Hence, there are 3 (|||) tallies. Similarly, 4

students have obtained a score of 60. The total of all the frequencies gives the total number of

students in this case.

The frequency is generally represented by ‘f’ and the total of all the frequencies by ‘n’.

The symbol used to express the sum or total is ∑ read as (summation)

Graphical Representation of Data

Bar- Diagram

A bar diagram is a chart that uses bars to show comparisons between categories of data.

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The bars can be either horizontal or vertical. Bar graphs with vertical bars are sometimes called

vertical bar diagrams. A bar diagram will have two axes. One axis will describe the types of

categories being compared, and the other will have numerical values that represent the values
of

the data. It does not matter which axis is which, but it will determine what bar diagram is
shown.

If the descriptions are on the horizontal axis, the bars will be oriented vertically, and if the
values

are along the horizontal axis, the bars will be oriented horizontally.

a. Types of Bar- Diagram

There are many different types of bar diagrams. They are not always interchangeable.

Each type will work best with a different type of comparison. The comparison you want to
make

will help determine which type of bar diagram to use. First we'll discuss some simple bar

diagrams.

A simple vertical bar diagram is best when you have to compare between two or more

independent variables. Each variable will relate to a fixed value. The values are positive and

therefore can be fixed to the horizontal value.

Vertical Bar Graph

If your data has negative and positive values but is still a comparison between two or

more fixed independent variables, it is best suited for a horizontal bar diagram. The vertical

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axis can be oriented in the middle of the horizontal axis, allowing for negative and positive

values to be represented.

Horizontal Bar Graph

A range bar diagram represents a range of data for each independent variable.

Temperature ranges or price ranges are common sets of data for range diagrams. Unlike the

above diagrams, the data do not start from a common zero point but begin at the low number
for that particular point's range of data. A range bar diagram can be either horizontal or vertical.

Range Bar Graph

The difference between a histogram and a simple bar graph is that in a histogram, each

bar represents a range of dependent variables instead of just one data point.

Pie- Diagram

Pie- Diagram is otherwise called as sector graph or angular graph. It is called Pie-diagram
because it resembles pie and with the help of a circle the data will be presented hence, also

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referred as circle graph or sector graph. A circle may be sub-divided into sectors by subtending
the angles at the centre of the circle. The given data is equated to 360 degrees. And each data
is expressed in degrees. The sectors formed by the angle measured by the degrees of the data
is proportional to the magnitude of the selected data.

Construction of Pie- Diagram

For the following data the Pie- diagram is contructed and represented by means of the

given data. In a country out of the total population 60% are Hindus, 25% are Muslims and 15%

are other religions say. We can contruct a pie-diagram as following.

Since the total degree in a circle are 360 degree, 60% of 360 degree is equal to 216
degree. So by using protractor 216 degree are measured to prepresent the proportion of Hindus.
After presenting this sector, the sector presenteing the proportion of Muslims should be
marked. Muslim constitute 25%. So allotted to the other religions.

Religions
15%

25% 60%

Hindu Mushlim Others

Pie-Chart/Pie-Diagram

Histogram:

Histogram is essentially a bar graph of a frequency distribution. But histogram is used

when the statistical data is arranged in class intervals. Here the frequency is represented using
vertical adjacent rectangles. Generally the class interval is depicted in x axis and frequency on
y axis. Thus the base of the rectangle represents the class interval and height its frequency.
Thus histogram is the graphical representation of grouped data in the form of verticalbars
(equal width) whose area is proportional to the frequency represented. It is to be noted that,
histograms cannot be constructed with open end classes.

To construct histogram using a frequency distribution table, the following process is to

be followed:

• First the limits of the class intervals are calculated. To compute limits, both lower limit
and upper limit of each class interval is found out. For example, the lower and upper
the limits of class interval 5-9 is 4.5 and 9.5 respectively and the class interval is written
as 4.5-9.5.
• The lower limit and upper limits are plotted in the x axis.

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• The frequencies are plotted on the y axis.

• Thereafter, each class interval is depicted using adjacent rectangular bars of equal
width.
• Keep in mind to select appropriate scales for both x axis and y axis.
• While constructing histogram, 75% rule is followed i.e. the height of the figure should
be approximately 75% of its width.

Class Interval (Inclusive Frequency Limits

Class)

55 - 59 1 54.5 – 59.5
50 – 54 4 49.5 – 54.5
45 – 49 8 44.5 – 49.5
40 – 44 12 39.5 – 44.5
35 -39 20 34.5 – 39.5
30 – 34 16 29.5 – 34.5
25 – 29 11 24.5 – 29.5
20 – 24 9 19.5 – 24.5
15 – 19 5 14.5 – 19.5
10 – 14 3 9.5 – 14.5
5-9 1 4.5 – 9.5

N = 90

Here,

Limit of Class 5 – 9 = Lower limit of 5 is 0.5 less than 5 i.e. 4.5 and upper limit of 9 is
0.5 more than 9 i.e. 9.5. s9.5o, the limit of the class 5 – 9 is 4.5 – 9.5.

The histogram of the above data is represented by the following graph:

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Illustration:

Given Data: 41, 5, 32, 10, 23, 32, 20, 35, 26, 29,

30, 16, 31, 43, 19, 34, 21, 25, 34, 27,
22, 24, 30, 25, 26, 37, 29, 38, 45, 28

Solution:

Class Interval Frequency Mid-point Cum. f.

50- 55(Extra Class) 0 52 30
45 – 50 1 47 30
40 – 45 2 42 29
35 – 40 3 37 27
30 - 35 7 32 24
25 – 30 8 27 17
20 - 25 5 22 9
15 – 20 2 17 4
10 - 15 1 12 2
5 – 10 1 7 1
0 – 5 (Extra Class) 0 2 0

N=30

Now,

Range= Max. Score – Min. Score = 45-5=40

Class size= 5
40
No. of Classes = = 8 / (8 + 1 )class may be required while tabulating the scores
5

Then,

1. Polygon:

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2. Cumulative Frequency Polygon:

3. Frequency Polygon and Cumulative frequency polygon:

MEASUIRES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

In statistics, a central tendency (or, more commonly, a measure of central tendency) is

a central or typical value for a probability distribution. It may also be called a center or location
of the distribution. Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often called averages. The
term central tendency dates from the late 1920s. The most common measures of central
tendency are the arithmetic mean, Geometric mean ,Harmonic mean, the median and the mode.
A central tendency can be calculated for either a finite set of values or for a theoretical
distribution, such as the normal distribution. Occasionally authors use central tendency to
denote "the tendency of quantitative data to cluster around some central value." Tate in 1995
defined the measures of central tendency as, ‘A short of average or typical value of the items
in the series and its function is to summarize the series in terms of this average value.’ A
measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central tendency
are sometimes called measures of central location. They are also classed as summary statistics.
Arithmetic mean, Geometric mean and Harmonic means are usually called Mathematical
averages while Mode and Median are called Positional averages.

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The most common measures of central tendency are –

i) Arithmatic mean or Mean,

ii) Median, and

iii) Mode.

1. Arithmatic Mean or Mean:

This is also commonly known as simply the mean. Even though average, in general,
means any measure of central location, when we use the word average in our daily routine, we
always mean the arithmatic average. The term is widely used by almost every one in daily
communication. We speak of an individual being an average student or of average intelligence.
We always talk about average family size or average family income or Grade Point Average
(GPA) for students, and so on. It can be defined as the sum of all the values of the items in a
series divided by the number of items. It is represented by the symbol M. Mean can be
calculated by adding sum of the observations/scores by dividing by total number of cases. The
formula of calculating Mean is as follows:

∑𝑋
Mean (M) =
𝑁

Where, ∑ = Sum of all the scores/values

N = Total number of cases

Mean can be calculated both in ungrouped data as well as grouped data

Calculation of Mean for Ungrouped Data

When only raw data is given, Mean can be calculated by adding all the raw scores and
dividing it by the total number of the raw scores.

Example: The scores of ten students in a class is given as follows. Calculate the Mean of the
scores.

Scores: 15, 37, 22, 11, 40, 29, 32, 45, 20, and 30. (N = 10)

∑𝑋
Mean (M) =
𝑁

[‘X’ is the individual score and ‘N’ is total number of cases]

= (15+37+22+11+40+29+32+45+20+30) / 10

= 281 / 10

= 28.1 (Answer

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Calculation of Mean for Grouped Data

We can calculate Mean in three situations, i.e.

1. When the scores and the frequencies are given

2. When data is arranged in frequency distribution table i.e. Class Intervals as well as
Frequencies are given.
3. When data is arranged in frequency distribution table i.e. Class Intervals as well as
Frequencies are given. (by using Assumed Mean Method is also called as short
method)

Calculation of Mean when Scores and Frequencies are given

We can calculate Mean by using a simple formula when scores and frequencies are
given. Let us solve with an example.

Example: Calculate mean of the following data:

Score 25 31 33 42 46 51 55 58 60 72

Frequencies 3 7 9 12 13 6 4 3 2 1

Solution:

∑𝑓𝑋
Mean (M) = Where, ∑fX = Summation of frequencies multiplied with the scores
𝑁

N = Total frequencies
Scores (X) Frequency (f) fX
25 3 75
31 7 217
33 9 297
42 12 504
46 13 598
51 6 306
55 4 220
58 3 174
60 2 120
72 1 72
N = 60 ∑fX =2583

∑𝑓𝑋
Mean (M) =
𝑁

2583
= = 43.05 (Answer)
60

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Calculation of Mean when Data are given in Class Intervals with Frequencies

In group data, when the class intervals as well as frequencies are given, we can calculate
Mean by using the same formula. This method is also called as long method for calculating
Mean. The formula for calculating Mean is as follows:

∑𝑓𝑋
Mean (M) =
𝑁

Where, X = Mid-point of the Class Interval

f = Frequencies

N = Total number of cases

Example : Compute the Mean for the following frequency distribution.

Class Interval 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14

Frequencies 3 5 10 14 8 6 4

Score (X) Frequency (f) Mid-point (X) fX

40-44 3 42 126
35-39 5 37 185
30-34 10 32 320
25-29 14 27 378
20-24 8 22 176
15-19 6 17 102
10-14 4 12 48
N = 50 ∑fX = 1335

∑𝑓𝑋
Mean (M) =
𝑁

= 1335/50 = 26.70 (Answer)

Calculating Mean by using Assumed Mean Method

In group data, when the data is presented in class intervals with frequencies, we can
calculate Mean by using long method as well as assumed mean or short method. Assumed
mean method is widely used to calculate mean in this situation as because to avoid lengthy
calculations of multiplications of mid-points of class intervals with their corresponding
frequencies. In assumed mean method, we assume a class, assuming that the mean lies in that
class. We follow certain steps to calculate Mean in assumed mean method. The following
formula is used to calculate Mean in assumed mean method:

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∑𝑓𝑑
Mean (M) = 𝐴. 𝑀. + 𝑁 x c.i.

Where, A.M. = Assumed Mean

f = Frequencies

d = Deviation from assumed mean

N = Total number of frequencies

c.i. = Size of the Class Interval

Steps followed for calculating Mean in Assumed Mean Method:

Step 1 : Calculation of assumed mean

(Assumed mean is generally the mid-point of the class having highest frequency).

Step 2 : Calculate the mid-point of the Class

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠+𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

[Mid-point = ]
2

Step 3 : Calculation of deviation (d)

[Deviation (d) can be calculated by using the method like :

𝑀𝑖𝑑−𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠−𝐴.𝑀.

[d= ]
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

Step 4 : Find out multiplications of frequency and corresponding deviation and place
the obtained value in the column headed by fd.

Step 5 : Find the sum of the column, i.e.

Step 6 : Apply the formula

Let us calculate mean by using Assumed Mean method by an example:

Example: Find out Mean of the distribution by using Assumed Mean method.

ClassInterval 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14

Frequencies 2 3 5 7 10 6 4 2 1

Classs (X) Mid-point (X) Frequency (f) Deviation (d) Fd

50-54 52 2 +4 8
45-49 47 3 +3 9
40-44 42 5 +2 10

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35-39 37 7 +1 7
30-34 32 (A.M.) 10 0 0
25-29 27 6 -1 -6
20-24 22 4 -2 -8
15-19 17 2 -3 -6
10-14 12 1 -4 -4
N = 40 ∑fd = 10

For calculating the values, the above mentioned steps are used.
A.M. = 32, N = 40, C.i. = 5,

∑𝑓𝑑 10
Mean (M) = 𝐴. 𝑀. + 𝑁 x c.i. = 32+ x 5 = 32+1.25 = 33.25 (Answer)
40

Use of Mean

Mean is called as the most appropriate measure of central tendency as it considers the
value of each and every score of the group for calculating the mean. Mean is referred because
of its high reliability and its applicability to inferential statistics. Mean provides a clear idea
about how the scores are varied from the central value. Mean is used when:

• The data is distributed symmetrically, i.e. distributions are not marked skewed.

• We wish to know the centre of gravity of a sample.

• Central tendency with greater stability is wanted.

• Other statistics (standard deviations, coefficient of correlation etc.) for inferential

purposes are to be calculated.

• Group performances are to be calculated with accuracy and precision.

• Comparing the intra and the inter group students.

Limitations of Mean

Besides the use of Mean it has also its own limitations. The limitations can be listed as
follows:

• A single extreme score (may be lowest or highest) may influence the value of mean.

• There are situations, where mean may not provide meaningful information.

• Works only when all values are equally important.

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THE MEDIAN

You have studied in the section 14.4.1 of this Unit that Median is used when the scores
are presented in ordinal scale, i.e. possible to organize either in descending order or ascending
order. Median is defined as it is the ‘mid point of the series below and above which lie exactly
50 percent of the cases’. For calculating Mean, scores are given importance whereas for
calculating Median, number of items are given importance. It may be noted that median is
defined as a point on the series and not as a score or any particular measurement. The score is
identified indirectly calculating from the numbers. As like Mean, Median can also be calculated
by Calculation of Median for Ungrouped Data

Calculation of Median for Ungrouped Data

For calculating Median in ungrouped data, we use a very simple formula i.e. (N+1)/2
th item in the series in order of ascending or descending order. There are certain changes in
calculating Median, when the number of items in the series is in odd or even numbers.

Median in Ungrouped Data (When number of items are odd)

We use the following formula for calculating Median when the total number of items
in the group are odd.

𝑁+1
Median = th item in the series
2

Where, N = the total number of cases

Let us calculate ot with an example:

Example: Find the Median of the following scores (when the number of items
are odd):

Scores: 9, 22, 32, 19, 12, 26, 15 (N = 7)

Solution:

Step 1 : Arrange the scores either in ascending or descending order (Let us arrange it in
ascending order).

Step 2 : Use the formula for calculating Median

Step 3 : Determine the Median score from the item

Scores (in ascending order) : 9, 12, 15, 19, 22, 26, 32

N=7

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𝑁+1
Median = th item in the series
2

𝑁+1
= th item
2

7+1
= th item
2

8
= th item = 4th item = 19 (Answer)
2

(4th item of the series in ascending or descending order is 19.)

Calculation of Median for Ungrouped Data (when the number of items is even):

Scores : 9, 12, 15, 19, 22, 25, 26, 32 (N =8) (Ascending order)

𝑁+1
Therefore, Median = th item in the series
2

8+1
= th item in the series
2

9
= th item in the series
2

= 4.5th item

4𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚+5𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚

=
2

19+22
= (Note: 4th item is 19 and 5th item is 22)
2

41
= = 20.5 (Answer)
2

Calculation of Median for Grouped Data

You have studied that the Median is the mid point of the series in order below and above
which 50 percent of the cases lie. For calculating Median in grouped data, the assumption made
is that frequencies are evenly distributed within the class interval. The following formula we
use for calculating Median in grouped data:

𝑁
−𝐹
2
Median = L + x C.i.
𝑓𝑚
Where : L = Lower limit of the median class
N = Total number of the cases
F = Cumulative Frequency below the median class

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fm = Frequency of the median class

c.i. = Size of the Class

Steps followed for calculation of Median :

Step 1 : Find out the Median Class (the class which follows N/2th value; can be seen
from the cumulative frequency).

Step 2 : Calculate Lower Limit of the Median Class by subtracting 0.5 from the Lower
Step 3 : Find out cfb; is the cumulative frequency below the Median Class.

Step 4 : Find out fm; is the exact frequency of the Median Class.

Step 5 : Find out the size of the class

Step 6 : Apply the formula to calculate Median

Example : Calculate median for the following frequency distribution

Class Interval 90-94 85-89 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49

Frequencies 2 3 3 4 7 12 9 4 2 2

Solution:

Class Interval (C. I.) Frequency (f) Cumulative frequency (cf)

90-94 2 48
85-89 3 46
80-84 3 43
75-79 4 40
70-74 7 36
65-69 (Median Class) 12 (fm) 29
60-64 9 17(F)
55-59 4 8
50-54 2 4
45-49 2 2
N = 48

L = 64.5, N/2 = 24, F = 17, fm = 12, C.i. = 5.

𝑁
−𝐹
2
Median = L + x C.i.
𝑓𝑚

24 −17
= 64.5 + x 5 = 64.5 + 2.92 = 67.42 (Answer)
12

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Use of Median

Median is used in the following situations :

• If few scores are not known.
• When the point dividing the distribution into two equal parts is needed.
• When a distribution is markedly skewed.

Limitations of Median

The major limitations of Median are as follows:

• Individual scores are not considered in calculating the Median. Even in the absence of an
individual score, Median can be calculated.
• Median is not an accurate measure of central tendency.
• It can not be used as the centre of gravity of the distribution.
• It can not be used for inferential statistic analysis.

Calculation of Mode for Grouped Data

Calculation of Mode in group data is called as the true mode. It can be calculated by employing
direct as well as indirect methods. In indirect method, mode is calculated by using the following
formula:

Mode in Indirect Method:

Mode = (3 x Median) – (2 x Mean)

(i.e., for calculating Mode, there is need to calculate Median and Mean first and than to calculate
Mode. Let us take an example and calculate Mode in indirect method.)

Mode in Direct Method:

In a grouped frequency distribution, it is unrealistic to calculate the Mode by looking only the
frequencies. A direct technique therefore needs to be employed to calculate the Mode. For this, the
following method can be used to calculate Mode.

𝑓 −𝑓
Mode = L + 2𝑓1 −𝑓0 x C.i.
1 2

Where, L = Lower Limit of the Modal Class,

c.i. = Size of the class interval
𝑓1 = Frequency of the model class,
𝑓0 = Frequency of the class preceeding of the model class
𝑓2 = Frequency of the class succeeding of the model class

Let us calculate Mode in direct method by using the above example.

Example: Calculate Mode of the following data in direct method.

Class Interval 90-99 80-89 70-79 60-69 50-59 40-49 30-39 20-29 10-19

Frequencies 2 3 4 7 10 6 5 2 1

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Step
Step 1 : Identification of the Modal Class [The class having the highest frequency, i.e.
50-59]
Step 2 : Lower Limit of the Modal Class 50-59 is 49.5
Step 3 : Calculation of ‘f1 ’ (is the frequency of the Modal Class, i.e. 10)
Step 4 : Calculation of ‘f0 ’ (is the frequency of just preceding the Modal Class, i.e. 6)
Step 5 : Calculation of ‘f2 ’ (is the frequency of just succeeding the Modal Class, i.e.
7)
Step 6 : Size of the Class is 10.

Class Interval (C.I.) Frequency (f)

90-99 2
80-89 3
70-79 4
60-69 7 (𝑓2 )
50-59 10 (𝑓1 )
40-49 6 (𝑓0 )
30-39 5
20-29 2
10-19 1
N = 40

𝑓1 −𝑓0
Mode = L + x C.i.
2𝑓1 −𝑓2

10 −6
= 49.5 + x 10
2 𝑥 10 −7

= 49.5 + 5.71 = 55.21 (Answer)

Use of Mode
Mode is used in the following situations:
• Mode is used, when it requires to find the most frequently occurred item as the measure of
central tendency.
• When a quick and approximate measures of central tendency is required.
• When data is incomplete and skewed.

Limitations of Mode
The following are some of the limitations of Mode:
• Mode can only be used as a rough estimate of measures of central tendency, it can never be an
accurate measure of central tendency.
• There may be possibility of more that one mode in a distribution, whereas, it is not possible for
the case of Mean and Median.
• In case, all observations/scores in a group are different or there is no repetition of scores, it is
difficult to get the Mode as all scores can be represented as Mode.
• Mode is only a crude measure which can be of value when a quick and rough estimate of central
tendency is required.

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Measures of Dispersion:

Dispersion, in general sense, indicates the lack of uniformity in the size of items of a
series. Dispersion is said to be significant when variation or lack of uniformity in the size of
items of a series is great and substantial. If the variability is less, dispersion is significant.

The word dispersion here means the measure of variation of the item. According to L.R.
Corner, “Dispersion is a measure of the extent to which the individual items vary.” The measure
of dispersion gives ideas of the scatteredness of the distributed data or the homogeneity or
heterogeneity of the distribution.

Measure of dispersion is also called average of the second order because in the precise
study of dispersion, the deviation of the size of items from a measure of central tendency are
calculated and then these deviations are averaged. This average deviation or dispersion is
nothing else, but the average of the second order. Thus these second order average represent
the series and help in comparisons with other similar series.

Types of Measure of Dispersion:

There are four commonly used measures of dispersion to indicate the variability within
a set of measures. They are –
i) Range
ii) Quartile Deviation
iii) Average / Mean Deviation
iv) Standard Deviation

Calculation of Mean Deviation:

Mean deviation is also known as Average Deviation or First Moment of Dispersion.

The mean deviation is the simplest measure of dispersion that takes into account all the scores
of the distribution. It is the mean of the deviations of all the separate scores in a series taken
from their mean. While taking deviations mathematical signs of plus (+) or minus (-) are
ignored. All deviations whether having plus or minus sign are treated as positive only.
Therefore, the method doesn’t fulfill the assumptions of algebraic properties and hence it is
not possible to use this method in higher statistics.

The following formulae may be used to calculate the Mean Deviation (MD):

𝛴|𝑥|
MD = (For ungrouped data) ........ (8)
𝑁

𝛴|𝑓𝑥|
MD = (For grouped data) ........ (9)
𝑁

Where, x = X – M (Deviation of mean from the score/ mid scores)

|𝑥| = Absolute value of ‘x’ (regardless of sign)

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Illustration:

1. Mean Deviation from Grouped Data:

Class f (Mid- point) fX │x│ = │X – M│ |fx|

Interval X M = 17
30
30-34 2 32 64 15
50
25-29 5 27 135 10
40
20-24 8 22 176 5
0
15-19 10 17 170 0
40
10-14 8 12 96 -5
40
5-9 4 28 28 -10
45
0-4 3 2 6 -15
N = 40 ΣfX = 675 Σ|fx|= 245

𝛴𝑓𝑋
Now, Mean = 675/40 = 16.875 or 17
𝑁

𝛴|𝑓𝑥| 245
Then, Mean Deviation = = = 6.125
𝑁 40

2. . Mean Deviation from Ungrouped Data:

Students Score (X) |x = X - M|

A 13 -4.75
B 14 -3.75
C 16 -1.75
D 18 0.25
E 22 4.25
F 18 0.25
G 17 -0.75
H 10 -7.75
ΣX = 128 Σ|x|= 23.5

𝛴𝑋
Now, N = 8, Mean = 128 /8 = 17.75
𝑁

𝛴|𝑥| 23.5
MD = = = 2.93
𝑁 8

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Calculation of Quartile Deviation:

Quartile deviation is one of the measures of dispersion which is developed to overcome

the drawback of dispersion of range method that counts only the extreme values in the given
distribution. This measure is based on the first quartile (𝑄1) and the third quartile (𝑄3 ). It is
half of the distance the 75th and 25th percentiles of the series. The 75th percentile is known as
𝑄3 and 25th percentile as 𝑄1.

According to Mills, “Quartile deviation is the semi-interquartile range, half the distance
along the scale between the first and third quartile.” In simple words, quartile deviation (Q. D.)
is half of the difference between 𝑄3 and 𝑄1 of the series and hence, it is also known as semi-
interquartile range.

Here quartiles are three points of the distribution that are divided into four equal parts.
The process of calculation of quartile deviation or semi-interquartile range of the distribution
is a simple one. We have to compute the value of third or upper quartile (𝑄3 ) and the first or
lower quartile (𝑄1 ) and then the following formulae are used for absolute and relevant
measurement.

𝑄3− 𝑄1
Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) = 2

Illustration:

1. Calculation of Quartile Deviation for an Ungrouped Data of small data:

23, 34, 16, 25, 35, 42, 20, 40, 18, 28, 30, 24.

Step:

i. Arrange the given scores in sequential order either ascending or descending

order,
𝑁+1 𝑡ℎ
ii. Calculate the 𝑄1 by using ( ) score. In case N is odd, it will find the
4
absolute value. However, if the case of ‘N’ is even, the average of two scores
𝑁+1 𝑡ℎ
that falls the ( ) score, will the value of 𝑄1 .
4
3(𝑁+1) 𝑡ℎ
iii. Then, formulate the 𝑄3 by using [ ] score, the similar condition will be
4
applied in this process too as step ii above.
𝑄3− 𝑄1
iv. Substitute the values of 𝑄1 and 𝑄3 in the formula to find out Q.D.
2

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Solution:

Serial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Ascending 16 18 20 23 24 25 28 30 34 35 40 42
Order
(Score)

12+1 𝑡ℎ
Here. 𝑄1 = ( ) score = 3.25𝑡ℎ score = 3rd score + 0.25 (4th score – 3rd score) = 20 +
4
0.25 (23 – 20) = 20.25

3(𝑁+1) 𝑡ℎ 3(12+1) 𝑡ℎ
And, 𝑄3 = [ ] score = [ ] score = 9.75𝑡ℎ score = 9th score + 0.75 (10th
4 4
score – 9th score) = 34 + 0.75 (35 – 34) = 34.75

𝑄3− 𝑄1 34.5− 21.5 13 34.75− 20.25 14

Therefore, Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) = = = = 6.5 or ( = = 7)
2 2 2 2 2

𝑄3− 𝑄1 34.5 −21.5

Co-efficient of quartile deviation = = = 0.23
𝑄3+ 𝑄1 34.5 +21.5

2. Calculation of Quartile Deviation of discrete data i.e. large data:

Scores (X) Frequency (f) Cum. f.

60 1 1
61 3 4
th
63 (𝑄1 ) 5 9 (8 score)
65 7 16
72 (𝑄3 ) 10 26 (24th score)
75 3 29
78 1 30
80 1 31

N = 31

𝑁+1 𝑡ℎ 31+1 𝑡ℎ
Now, 𝑄1 = ( ) score = ( ) score = 8𝑡ℎ score = 63
4 4

3(𝑁+1) 𝑡ℎ 3(31+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄3 = [ ] score = [ ] score = 𝑄3 = 24𝑡ℎ score = 72
4 4

𝑄3− 𝑄1 72 − 63 9
Therefore, Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) = = = 2 = 4.5
2 2

𝑄3− 𝑄1 72−63
Co-efficient of quartile deviation = = = 0.67
𝑄3+ 𝑄1 72+63

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3. Calculation of Quartile Deviation of Grouped Data:

Class Interval Frequency (f) Cum. f.

50 -60 2 30
40 – 40 5 28
(𝑄3 )30 – 40 8 23
(𝑄1 )20 – 30 10 (𝑓𝑞) 15 (𝑭𝟐 )
10 – 30 4 5 (𝑭𝟏 )
0 – 10 1 1

N = 30

N/4 = 30/4 = 7.5 cases, and 3N/4 = 3x30/ 4 = 22.5, C.i. = 10

𝑁
− 𝑭𝟏
4
Now, 𝑄1 = 𝐋𝟏 + [ ] x C.i. Where, 𝑭𝟏 = Cum.f. below the 𝑄1 falls
𝑓𝑞

𝒇𝒒 =Frequency of the 𝑄1 lies

𝐋𝟏 = Lower limit of the 𝑄1 falls

7.5 −5
= 19.5 + [ ] x 10 = 19.5 + 2.5 = 22
10

3𝑁
− 𝑭𝟐 22.5 −15
4
𝑄3 = 𝐋𝟐 + [ ] x C.i. = 29.5 + [ ] x 10 = 29.5 +7.5 = 37
𝑓𝑞 8

𝑄3− 𝑄1 38.88 − 22 16.88

Therefore, Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) = = = = 8.44
2 2 2

Calculation of S.D. of Grouped Data:

a) Long /Direct Method:

For the grouped data, the following formula can be used:

𝜮𝒇𝒙𝟐
σ =√ ,
𝑵

Where, x = deviation of individual scores from the mean

Σ = sum total of

N = total number of cases.

f = frequency of the distribution

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Example:

Class Frequency Mid-point fX x = (X – M) 𝒙𝟐 𝒇𝒙𝟐

Interval (f) (X)
45 – 49 3 47 141 23.37 546.16 1638.47
40 – 44 5 42 210 18.37 337.46 1687.28
35 – 39 10 37 370 13.37 178.76 1787.57
30 – 34 15 32 480 8.37 70.06 1050.85
25 – 29 20 27 540 3.37 11.36 227.14
20 – 24 30 22 660 -1.63 2.66 79.71
15 – 19 15 17 255 -6.63 43.96 659.35
10 – 14 10 12 120 -11.63 135.26 1352.57
5–9 7 7 49 -16.63 276.56 1935.90
0–4 5 2 10 -21.63 467.86 2339.28
N = 120 ΣfX = Σ𝑓𝑥 2 =
2835 12758.13

𝜮𝒇𝑿 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟓
Now, Mean (M) = = = 23.63
𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎

𝜮𝒇𝒙𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟖.𝟏𝟑
Then, σ =√ =√ = √𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟑𝟐 = 10.31
𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎

b) Short-cut Method (Assumed Mean Method):

Class Frequency Mid-point d = (X – fd 𝒅𝟐 𝒇𝒅𝟐

Interval (f) (X) AM)
45 – 49 3 47 25 75 625 1875
40 – 44 5 42 20 100 400 2000
35 – 39 10 37 15 150 225 2250
30 – 34 15 32 10 150 100 1500
25 – 29 20 27 5 100 25 500
20 – 24 30 22 0 0 0 0
15 – 19 15 17 -5 -75 25 375
10 – 14 10 12 -10 -100 100 1000
5–9 7 7 -15 -105 225 1575
0–4 5 2 -20 -100 400 2000
N = 120 Σ𝒇𝒅 = 195 Σ𝒇𝒅𝟐 =13
075

Now, Assumed Mean = 10

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𝜮𝒇𝒅𝟐 𝜮𝒇𝒅 𝟐 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝟏𝟗𝟓 𝟐

Thus, σ =√ −( ) =√ − (𝟏𝟐𝟎)
𝑵 𝑵 𝟏𝟐𝟎

= √𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟗𝟓𝟖 − 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝟏

= √𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟑𝟏𝟕 = 10.31

3. Standard Deviation by Step Deviation Method :

Class Frequency Mid-point x′=

( 𝑿−𝑨𝑴) fx′ x′² fx′²
𝑪.𝒊.
Interval (f) (X)
45 – 49 3 47 5 15 25 75
40 – 44 5 42 4 20 16 80
35 – 39 10 37 3 30 9 90
30 – 34 15 32 2 30 4 60
25 – 29 20 27 1 20 1 20
20 – 24 30 22 0 0 0 0
15 – 19 15 17 -1 -15 1 15
10 – 14 10 12 -2 -20 4 40
5–9 7 7 -3 -21 9 63
0–4 5 2 -4 -20 16 80
N = 120 Σ fx′ = 39 Σ fx′² =
523

Here, Assumed Mean (AM) = 22

C. I. = 5

𝜮𝑓𝑥′ 𝜮𝑓𝑥′ 𝟐 𝟓𝟐𝟑 𝟐

𝟑𝟗 𝟐
Thus, σ = C. i. √ 𝑵 − ( 𝑵 ) = 5 √𝟏𝟐𝟎 − (𝟏𝟐𝟎)

= 5 √𝟒. 𝟑𝟓𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟔

= 5 √𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟐

= 5 x 2.062

= 10.31

Concept of correlation:

You may want to study the possibility of a relationship between two variables and see
what kind of relationship exists. For example, if you want to study the relationship between
height and weight - whether the change in one will bring a change in other or not. Or if you

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want to find the relationship between hours of study and achievement etc., you can do so by
finding correlation between them.

In simple words, we can say that the statistical tool which helps us to study the
relationships between two or more than two variables is called correlation. According to Tuttle,
“Correlation is an analysis of the co-variation between two or more variables”. With the
change in one variable, the other related variable changes is known as correlation. You know
that as the child grows, the height as well as weight increases. Similarly, if a person has more
height than the other, the person is likely to have more weight than the latter and we can say
height and weight are positively correlated.

Correlation helps us know whether there is any relationship or not between any two
pairs of variables and how strong is this relationship. This relationship is perfect or not can be
determined by further analysis of observations. This is a measure of simultaneous variation of
variables described by an integer. This can also be called the measure of relationship.

Thus the correlation is simply a degree of relationship between the variable of a bi-
variate data. This correlation can tell you just how much of the variation in one variable is
related to the other paired or correlated variable. Like all statistical techniques correlation is
only appropriate for certain kind of data. Correlation works only with the quantifiable data in
which numbers are meaningful, usually in quantities of some sort. It cannot be used for purely
non quantifiable data like categorical data such as gender, socio economic status, goodness,
etc. Correlation is just a co-variation and does not manifest any kind of causation of functional
relationship.

2. CO-EFFICIENT OF CORRELATION

The coefficient of correlation is always symbolized either by r or r (Rho). The notion

‘r’ is known as product moment correlation co-efficient or Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of
Correlation. The symbol ‘r’(Rho) is known as Rank Difference Correlation Coefficient or
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient. Sometimes it is also written as 𝑟𝑥𝑦 which means
coefficient of correlation between x and y variables.

The degree of association or the degree of relationship between two variables is

measured quantitatively in the form of an index which is termed as co-efficient of correlation.

Co-efficient of correlation is a single number that tells us to what extent the two
variables are related and to what extent the variations in one variable changes with the
variations in the other.

This coefficient of correlation is determined to find the relationships because it is simple

to understand and convenient to express. It is a constant.

The measurement of correlation between two variables results in a maximum value that
ranges from –1 to +1, through zero. The ±1 values denote perfect coefficient of correlation.

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Specifically, when the coefficient correlation is ‘+1’, it is called as perfect positive correlation
and when it is ‘-1’, it is called as perfect negative correlation.

Interpretation of result:

According to Guilford, the rule of thumb for interpreting the size of a correlation
coefficient is presented in the following table:

Size of Correlation Interpretation

±1 Perfect Positive/negative Correlation

± .90 to ± .99 Very High Positive/Negative Correlation
± .70 to ± .90 High Positive/Negative Correlation
± .50 to ± .70 Moderate Positive/Negative Correlation
± .30 to ± .50 Low Positive/Negative Correlation
± .10 to ± .30 Very low Positive/Negative Correlation
± .00 to ± .10 Markedly Low and Negligible Positive/Negative Correlation

3. Computing Co-efficient of Co-relation by Product Moment Method (r) (Karl Pearson’s

Product Moment Method)

The concept of product moment method of calculating correlation was first used by
Bravais, a French statistician of the 19th century. His work was further improved by Galton.
The formula to find out correlation by product moment method is as follows:
𝜮𝒙𝒚
r=
√𝜮x².𝜮𝑦²

Where, 𝜮 = sum total of

x = mean deviations from the variable in X scores
y = mean deviations from the variable in Y scores

Steps to compute correlation by product moment method:

1. Compute mean of each variable given say X and Y
2. Compute deviations from each variable from the actual mean calculated above.
3. Square the deviations obtained to get x² and y²
4. Multiply the deviation of x and y to get xy
5. Find the sum of x² and y² to get 𝛴x 2 and 𝛴𝑦²
6. Substitute the values to the formula to get the value of co-efficient of correlation
7. Interpret the result obtained using the table.

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Illustration:

Calculate the co-efficient of correlation using Product Moment Method of the following
date:

Test 1(X) 45 70 65 30 90 40 50 75 85 60

Test 2 (Y) 35 90 71 40 95 40 60 80 80 50

Solution: Long Method ( Mean Deviation Method):

Test 1(X) Test 2(Y) x=X- y=Y - xy x² y²

𝑴𝒙 𝑴𝒚
45 35 -16 -29 464 256 841
70 90 9 26 234 81 676
65 71 4 7 28 16 49
30 40 -31 -24 744 961 576
90 95 29 31 899 841 961
40 40 -21 -24 504 441 576
50 60 -11 -4 44 121 16
75 80 14 16 224 196 256
85 79 24 15 360 576 225
60 50 -1 -14 14 1 196
ΣX = 610 ΣY = 640 Σxy = Σ x ² = 3490 Σy²=
3515 4372

N = 10

𝚺𝐗
Now, Mean of X = = 610/10 = 61
𝑁

𝚺𝐘
Mean of Y = = 640/10 = 64
𝑁

𝛴𝑥𝑦
Thus, r=
√𝛴x².𝛴𝑦²

3515
=
√3490 x 4372

3515
=
√15258280

3515
= 3906.18

= 0.899 /0.90

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Another Method: (Assumed Mean Method) Short Cut Method:

Test Test 2(Y) x=X - y=Y- xy x² y²

1(X) 𝑨𝑴𝒙 𝑨𝑴𝒚
45 35 -5 -5 25 25 25
70 90 20 50 1000 400 2500
65 71 15 31 465 225 961
30 40 -20 0 0 400 0
90 95 40 55 2200 1600 3025
40 40 -10 0 0 100 0
50 60 0 20 0 0 400
75 80 25 40 1000 625 1600
85 79 35 39 1365 1225 1521
60 50 10 10 100 100 100
ΣX = ΣY = 640 Σx = 110 Σy = 240 Σxy = Σ x ² = 4700 Σy²=
610 6155 10132

N = 10, Now, Assumed Mean of X = 90

Assumed Mean of Y = 40
𝑁𝛴𝑥𝑦− 𝛴𝑥.𝛴𝑦
So, Co-efficient of correlation (r) =
√[𝑁𝛴𝑥 2 −(𝛴𝑥)2 ] [𝑁𝛴𝑦 2 −(𝛴𝑦)2 ]

10 x 6155 − 110 x 240

=
√[ 10 x 4700 −(110)2 ] [ 10 x 10132 −(240)2 ]

61550 – 26400
=
√[ 47000 −12100] [ 101320 −57600]

35150
=
√[ 34900 x 43720]

35150
=
√1525828000

35150
= 39061.85 = 0.899 or 0.90

Interpretation:

The correlation value of 0.90 shows that there is very high positive correlation between
the given two test scores of the data.

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4. Computing Co-efficient of Co-relation by Rank Difference Method (ρ-rho)

(Spearman’s Rank Difference Method)

This is one of the methods devised by Charles Edward Spearman, psychologist of

Britain in 1904. This method is known as ‘Rank Difference Method’. It is considered more
appropriate in finding out correlation between those qualitative facts.

The following formula is used to compute the value of co-efficient of correlation. That
𝟔𝜮𝑫𝟐
is - r or rho (ρ) = 1- 𝑵( 𝑵𝟐 −𝟏)

Where, N = Number of pairs

ρ = Rank difference correlation coefficient

D = Difference between two ranks assigned to the individual

Steps:

• Arrange the scores of the test scores from highest to the lowest.

• Change the serial number of the students according to this order.

• Rank the first score giving rank 1 to the highest score, rank 2 to the next highest score

and so on. Enter these ranks 𝑅1 . If two students get the same score give them average

rank. If rank 3 and 4 gets the same mark, then their rank will be given as 3+4/2=3.5.

• Obtain the difference between the ranks test 1 & 2. Enter that as D.

• Square the difference D and designate it as 𝐷2 .

• Find the sum the square of the differences obtained (𝛴𝐷2 ).

• Substitute the values in the above formula to ascertain rho.

Illustration:

Calculate co-efficient of correlation by rank difference method with the following data:

X 15 25 38 25 13 12 40 25 32 28

Y 28 37 28 24 30 26 35 25 31 30

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Solution:

X Y 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 D=𝑹𝟏 − 𝑹𝟐 𝑫𝟐
15 28 8 6 2 4
25 37 (5+6+7)/3=6 1 5 25
38 28 2 7 -5 25
25 24 (5+6+7)/3=6 10 -4 16
13 30 9 4+5/2=4.5 4.5 20.25
12 26 10 8 2 4
40 35 1 2 -1 1
25 25 (5+6+7)/3=6 9 -3 9
32 31 3 3 0 0
28 30 4 4+5/2=4.5 -0.5 .25

N=10 Σ𝑫𝟐 =104.50

6𝛴𝐷 2
Now, r or rho (ρ) =1 - 𝑁( 𝑁2−1)

6𝑥104.50
=1 -
10(102 −1)

627
=1 - 10(100−1)

= 1 – 0.63

= 0.37

Interpretation:

The result value 0.37 shows that there is low positive correlation between the given
two variable X and Y.

Normal Probability Curve/Normal Distribution Curve:

The normal distribution curve is the most important and most widely used distribution
in statistics. It is sometimes called the ‘bell shaped curve’ or ‘ Gaussian Curve’ after the
mathematician Karl Friendrich Gauss who discovered it. The first Abraham De Moivre
described normal distribution in 1733, which was rediscovered by Gauss in 1809 and by
Laplace in 1812.

The normal probability curve is based on the law of probability. It is technically known
as Normal Probability Curve and the corresponding frequency distribution of scores, having
equal values of all three measures of central tendency, is known as Normal Distribution.
According to J.P.Guilford, “Normal probability curve is a well defined and well structured
mathematical, curve having a distribution of scores, mean and SD. Curve itself a mathematical

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conception.” This normal curve has great significance in cognitive and educational
measurement. In measurement of behavioural aspects, the normal probability curve has often
been used as reference curve.

Characteristics of Normal Probability Curve:

By now you must have understood the meaning of normal distribution from the above
discussion that it is a peculiar distribution and has its own specific properties, which make it
so important. It is more important for you to understand its important properties as they will
be useful for you in times to come. Some of the properties of a normal distribution curve or
normal probability curve are –

i) The Normal Curve is Symmetrical: The normal distribution curve is a symmetrical

curve around the mean i.e., if we draw a curve with mean as a variant, then the number
of cases above the mean value and the number of cases below the mean value will be
equal. It is not only equal number of cases but even their distribution on either side i.e.,
below and above the mean value will be equal. The curve will be symmetrical around
the vertical axis.

ii) The normal curve is unimodal: Since there is only one point in the curve which has
maximum frequency, the normal probability curve is unimodal, i.e. it has only one
mode.

iii) The normal curve is asymptotic to the X-

axis: The Normal Probability Curve
approaches the horizontal axis
asymptotically i.e., the curve continues to
decrease in height on both ends away from
the middle point (the maximum ordinate
point); but it never touches the horizontal
axis. It extends infinitely in both directions
i.e. from minus infinity (-∞) to plus infinity
(+∞).

iv) Mean, median and mode coincide: The mean, median and mode of the normal
distribution are the same and they lie at the centre. They are represented by 0 (zero)
along the base line. [Mean = Median = Mode].

v) The maximum ordinate occurs at the centre: The maximum height of the ordinate always
occurs at the central point of the curve that is, at the mid-point. The ordinate at the mean is the
highest ordinate and it is denoted by Y0. (Y0 is the height of the curve at the mean or mid-point
of the base line).

vi) The height of the curve declines symmetrically: In the normal probability curve the height
declines symmetrically in either direction from the maximum point. Hence the ordinates for
values of X = µ ± K, where K is a real number, are equal.

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vii) The points of Influx occur at point ± 1 Standard Deviation (± 1 a): The normal curve changes
its direction from convex to concave at a point recognized as point of influx. If we draw the
perpendiculars from these two points of influx of the curve on horizontal axis, these two will
touch the axis at a distance one Standard Deviation unit above and below the mean (± 1 σ).
viii) The total percentage of area of the normal curve within two points of influxation is
fixed: Approximately 68.26% area of the curve falls within the limits of ±1 standard deviation
unit from the mean as shown in figure below.

ix) The normal curve is bilateral: The 50% area of the curve lies to the left side of the maximum
central ordinate and 50% lies to the right side. Hence the curve is bilateral.

x) Greater percentage of cases at the middle of the distribution: There is a greater percentage of
cases at the middle of the distribution. In between -1σ and + 1σ, 68.26% (34.13 + 34.13), nearly
2/3 of eases lie. To the right side of +1σ, 15.87% (13.59 + 2.14 + .14), and to the left of-1σ,
15.87% (13.59 + 2.14 + .14) of cases lie. Beyond +2σ. 2.28% of eases lie and beyond -2σ also
2.28% of cases lie, that can be cleared with the following diagram:-

USING THE FEEDBACK FOR REPORTING TO DIFFERENT SHAREHOLDER

A stakeholder is anyone who is involved in the welfare and success of a school and its
students, including administrators, teachers, staff, students, parents, community members,
school board members, city councillors and state representatives. Stakeholders may also be
collective entities, such as organizations, initiatives, committees, media outlets and cultural

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institutions. They have a stake in the school and its students, which means they have personal,
professional, civic, financial interest or concern in the school. Stakeholder engagement is
considered vital to the success and improvement of a school. The involvement of the broader
community of the school with it can improve communication and public understanding and
allows for the incorporation of the perspectives, experiences and expertise of participating
community members to improve reform proposals, strategies, or processes. Parent, family and
community involvement can have a different meaning for different people. A research-based
framework developed by Joyce Epstein of John Hopkins University, describes six types of
involvement:

i. Parenting: Help families by providing them with parenting skills and family support;
make them understand the phases of child development, its complexities and ways to
cope with it. Help schools understand backgrounds and cultures of families and their
goals for children.
ii. Communicating: Create reliable communication channels between school and home to
communicate with families about school programs and student progress.
iii. Volunteering: Enable educators to work with volunteers who support students and the
school. Involve families as volunteers and as audiences at the school.
iv. Learning at Home: Encourage the involvement of families in their children’s academic
learning at home through curriculum-related activities such as including homework and
goal setting.
v. Decision Making: Make families participants in school decisions, governance and
advocacy activities.
vi. Collaborating with the Community: Co-ordinate resources and services for families,
students and the school with community groups such as businesses, cultural and civic
organizations, colleges or universities.

Reporting is an essential part of the assessment process. Without it, any assessment
loses much of its credibility. Reporting can be to any of the stakeholders. They are those who
take important role in the welfare and success of the school and its students. Their engagement
and feedbacks for reporting is considered vital to the success and improvement of the school.
Good reports are documents that are accurate, objective and complete. They should be well
written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader’s attention and meets
their expectations. Rightly or wrongly, the quality and worth of the work are judged by the
quality of written report – its clarity, organisation and content. The key purpose of reporting is
to support students learning by providing information to students and parents about students’
achievement and progress and to indicate areas for future development.

Feedback for reporting to Students

Students expect feedback on their work because it helps them to improve and provide
hints so that they don’t repeat mistakes in the future. Quality feedback is a reflection of quality
teaching, accountability and transparency. We expect students to hand work in one time and
they expect us to promptly and professionally assess and return their work. Feedback of
students involves –

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• Start with a positive comment,

• Provide comments on specific weakness in the work,
• Offer guidance on how to correct or improve the weakness,
• Comment upon and reinforce new or creative ideas,
• Conclude with an encouraging summery,
• If necessary, it provides both written and oral feedback.

Reporting to student feedback is very important. It is the process of communicating

information about student’s achievement and progress gained from the assessment process.
The purpose of reporting is to support learning and teaching by providing feedback to students.
Students learning achievement and progress may also be valuable for teacher and systematic
wide planning and reporting.

Reporting back to students can be done via formal and informal methods. In the main,
if the feedback is being given as part of an assessment process, then detailed written feedback
should provide students with a report on their level of achievements of the learning outcomes
related to the task. The marking criteria can be of great assistance in developing a written report
which provides students with relevant and accurate feedback on their performance and
achievement.

Feedback is any response made in relation to students' work or performance. It can be

given by a teacher, an external assessor or a student peer. It is usually spoken or written.
Feedback is ... most effective when it is timely, perceived as relevant, meaningful and
encouraging, and offers suggestions for improvement that are within a student's grasp (Brown,
Bull, & Pendlebury, 1997). It is intended to acknowledge the progress students have made
towards achieving the learning outcomes of a unit. Good feedback is also constructive, and
identifies ways in which students can improve their learning and achievement. Providing a
mark or a grade only, even with a brief comment like "good work" or "you need to improve"
is rarely helpful.

Here are some common examples of feedback that is not helpful to students
(Chamberlain, Dison & Button, 1998). It is widely recognized that feedback is an important
part of the learning cycle, but both students and teachers frequently express disappointment
and frustration in relation to the conduct of the feedback process. Students may complain that
feedback on assessment is unhelpful or unclear, and sometimes even demoralizing.

Additionally, students sometimes report that they are not given guidance as to how to
use feedback to improve subsequent performance. Even worse, students sometimes note that
the feedback is provided too late to be of any use or relevance at all. For their part, lecturers
frequently comment that students are not interested in feedback comments and are only
concerned with the mark. Furthermore, lecturer express frustration that students do not
incorporate feedback advice into subsequent tasks.

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Feedback for reporting to Parents:

Reporting has two main purposes – i) it provides clear, positive and constructive
feedback about children’s and young people’s learning and progress, looking back on what has
been achieved against standards and expectations; ii) it creates an agenda for discussion
between learners and those teaching and supporting them about their next steps in learning.

Reporting allows information to be shared and exchanged among children and young
people, parents and staffs. At the centre of reporting are informed discussion between teachers
and parents on their child’s learning. It focuses on what information is needed to ensure that
parents know what their child has achieved and how she/he is doing against expectations. It
provides a summary of what the learner has aimed for, describes progress in terms of what the
learner has achieved so far, and sets out for the learner, parents and staffs what needs to be
done to ensure continued progress and improved standards of achievement.

Reporting makes the child’s learning and achievement explicit to all and helps engage
parent’s activity in their child’s learning. It encourages active parental involvement as well as
providing information and feedback to them on their child’s progress and achievements.

Reporting is able to provide parents with regular information about their children’s
strengths and development needs, an opportunity to discuss with their progress in different
aspects of the curriculum and a chance to give their views on their children’s progress.

It also allows staffs to response, helping parents to understand how they ca support their
children to develop their further learning. Learners themselves should be in a good position to
contribute to discussions about written reports and about their progress in learning at
consultation meetings with parents. They should be informed about any gaps in their children’s
progress and ways that they can help.

Feedback for reporting to Administrator:

To assess student progress toward the established district standards and to facilitate the
planning of various types of instruction, administration should ensure that teachers are utilizing
information from a variety of valid and appropriate sources before they begin planning lessons
or teaching. This could include data regarding students' backgrounds, academic levels, and
interests, as well as other data from student records to ascertain academic needs and to facilitate
planning appropriate initial learning. It is important for the administration to note that
information regarding students and their families is used by the staff for professional purposes
only and is kept confidential as a matter of professional ethics.

Administrators should determine if teachers are using the numerous formative and
summative diagnostic processes available to assist in planning meaningful instruction.
Formative measures include ongoing teacher monitoring of student progress during the lessons,
practice sessions, and on daily assignments. Measures administered periodically like criterion-
referenced tests, grade level examinations or placement tests that are teacher-made or part of
district adopted material, also provide helpful information on the status of student learning as

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instruction progresses. Summative measures like minimum competency examinations, district

mastery tests and standardized tests provide a different perspective from the ongoing formative
measures. This type of data enables the teacher to evaluate the long-term retention rate of their
students and to compare student learning on a regional, state or national basis.

The administrators should verify that teachers are preparing and maintaining adequate
and accurate records of student progress. This will include the regular and systematic recording
of meaningful data regarding student progress on specific concepts and skills related to the
standards for each subject for the grade level or course they are teaching. Once students' success
levels have been identified from the records, the teacher should use the information to plan
instruction and any necessary remediation and enrichment. By utilizing ongoing information
on achievement, teachers can maintain consistent and challenging expectations for all students.
Students and parents should be informed of the students' progress toward achieving district
goals and Objectives through comments on individual work, progress reports, conferencing,
report cards and other measures. Students should be encouraged to participate in self-
assessment as a way of motivating students to improve academic achievement.

A report to school administrator can ensure the following –

a) enforce discipline and attendance rules,

b) confer with parents and staffs to discuss educational activities, policies and
student behavioural or learning problems,
c) observe teaching methods and examine learning materials to evaluate and
standardized curricula and teaching techniques and to determine areas where
improvement is needed,
d) collaborate with teachers to develop and maintain curriculum standards,
develop mission statements and set performance goal and objectives,
e) recruit, hire, train and evaluate primary and supplemental staff,
f) evaluate curricula, teaching methods and programme to determine their
effectiveness, efficiency and utilization and to ensure that school activities
comply with federal state and local regulations,
g) counsel and provide guidance to students regarding personal, academic,
vocational issues,
h) establish, co-ordinate and oversee particular programmes across school
districts, such as programmes to evaluate students’ academic achievement,
i) set educational standards and goals and help establish policies and procedures
to carry them out,
j) plan and lead professional development activities for teachers, administrators
and support staffs.

To assess students’ progress, teachers’ effectiveness in preparing, maintaining quality

assurance and recording students’ progress, reporting to administrators provides meaningful
information to plan instructions, necessary remediation and enrichment program consistent
measures for quality improvement of students, teachers as well as parents’ expectations.

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Reporting

Reporting is a process used to communicate knowledge gained from assessing students

learning or students’ profile. It is the second most essential part of the assessment process.
Without it, any assessment loses much of its credibility. Reporting can be to one or more of
many groups. In educational setting, this can be to the system, school and its staffs and students
and their families.

Report communicates information which has been compile as a result of research and
analysis of data and of issues. Report can cover a wide range of topics, but usually focus on
transmitting information with a clear purpose to a specific audience.

Good reports are documents that are characterized by accurate, objective and complete.
They should also be well-written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the
reader’s attention and meets their expectations. Rightly or wrongly, the quality and worth of
that work are judged by the quality of the written report – its clarity, organization and content.
Often reports are structured in a way that reflects the information finding process and the
writing up of the findings; that is, summery of the contents, introduction or background,
methods, results, discussion, conclusion and recommendations. The inclusion of
recommendations is one reason why reports are a common form of writing in industry, as the
informed recommendations are useful for decision making. Often a good report should have
such characteristics:

i) it should be factual,
ii) it should be clear and easily understandable,
iii) it should be free from errors and duplication,
iv) it should facilitate the decision maker in making the right decision,
v) its result focused and result oriented,
vi) it should be well organized and well structured, and
vii) it should be ethical reporting style.

The scope and style of reports varies widely. It depends on three key factors: the report’s
intended audience, the report’s purpose and the type of information to be communicated; for
example, technical reports communicate technical information, so the degree of technicality in
the report will depend on the reader’s familiarity and understanding of technical concepts.

Purposes of Reporting:

The purpose of reporting is to provide relevant information about students’ progress to

students, parents, support staffs and other teachers. A good report is the document that are
accurate, objective, wellwritten, clearly structured expressed in a way that hold the reader’s
attention and meets their expectations. The main purpose of reporting to students’ profile are

i) To communicate to students and parents: Children have the right to know how they
are progressing. Communicate to the pupil helps to understand what they have achieved and
attained and what they need to do in order to progress further. Whereas, the parents have the

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key role to play in the pupil’s learning and development. So, reporting to parents has to be
effective, meaningful and coherent. Reporting to parents serve to get purposeful feedback to
the teachers and student to their active participation and involvement towards children’s
progress and development by reporting students’ strength, progress and weakness and their
limitations and informing further expectations.

ii) Placement of students: Placement of students in suitable position or relevant

category on the basis of their profile and assessment records is another purpose of reporting.
Reporting to different stakeholders especially – teachers and administrators – highlights the
knowledge to do a fair comparison across their profiles and performances which help them to
the placement of students in different positions, categorization of them with similar
performances. The purpose of reporting is also to place students into a course, course level or
academic programme which they like and interested. It is very important to understand before
a course or programme begins and sometime before categorizing or grouping students of same
performance. It is to match students with appropriate learning experiences that address their
distinct learning needs.

iii) Certification of students: The purpose of reporting is also to provide students’

progress and educational achievement against expectations. It includes progress reports,
progress cards, certificates etc. that reflect the progress, merits, worth and significance and
level of students’ achievement. Reporting to students’ assessment report through certification
shows the completion of the courses, the level of achievement on the course they have studied.
This also one of the purposes of reporting to parents and students.

STUDENT PORTFOLIO

A student portfolio is a compilation of academic work and other forms of educational

evidence assembled for the purpose of (1) evaluating coursework quality, learning progress,
and academic achievement; (2) determining whether students have met learning standards or
other academic requirements for courses, grade-level promotion, and graduation; (3) helping
students reflect on their academic goals and progress as learners; and (4) creating a lasting
archive of academic work products, accomplishments, and other documentation. Advocates of
student portfolios argue that compiling, reviewing, and evaluating student work over time can
provide a richer, deeper, and more accurate picture of what students have learned and are able
to do than more traditional measures—such as standardized tests, quizzes, or final exams—that
only measure what students know at a specific point in time.

Portfolios come in many forms, from notebooks filled with documents, notes, and
graphics to online digital archives and student-created websites, and they may be used at the
elementary, middle, and high school levels. Portfolios can be a physical collection of student
work that includes materials such as written assignments, journal entries, completed tests,
artwork, lab reports, physical projects (such as dioramas or models), and other material
evidence of learning progress and academic accomplishment, including awards, honors,
certifications, recommendations, written evaluations by teachers or peers, and self-reflections
written by students. Portfolios may also be digital archives, presentations, blogs, or websites

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that feature the same materials as physical portfolios, but that may also include content such as
student-created videos, multimedia presentations, spread sheets, websites, photographs, or
other digital artefacts of learning. Online portfolios are often called digital portfolios or e-
portfolios, among other terms. In some cases, blogs or online journals may be maintained by
students and include ongoing reflections about learning activities, progress, and
accomplishments. Portfolios may also be presented—publicly or privately—to parents,
teachers, and community members as part of a demonstration of learning, exhibition, or
capstone project. It’s important to note that there are many different types of portfolios in
education, and each form has its own purpose. For example, “capstone” portfolios would
feature student work completed as part of long-term projects or final assessments typically
undertaken at the culmination of a middle school or high school, or at the end of a long-term,
possibly multiyear project. Some portfolios are only intended to evaluate learning progress and
achievement in a specific course, while others are maintained for the entire time a student is
enrolled in a school. And some portfolios are used to assess learning in a specific subject area,
while others evaluate the acquisition of skills that students can apply in all subject areas.

The following arguments are often made by educators who advocate for the use of
portfolios in the classroom:

• Student portfolios are most effective when they are used to evaluate student learning
progress and achievement. When portfolios are used to document and evaluate the
knowledge, skills, and work habits students acquire in school, teachers can use them to
adapt instructional strategies when evidence shows that students either are or are not
learning what they were taught. Advocates typically contend that portfolios should be
integrated into and inform the instructional process, and students should incrementally
build out portfolios on an ongoing basis—i.e., portfolios should not merely be an idle
archive of work products that’s only reviewed at the end of a course or school year.

• Portfolios can help teachers monitor and evaluate learning progress over time. Tests
and quizzes give teachers information about what students know at a particular point in
time, but portfolios can document how students have grown, matured, and improved as
learners over the course of a project, school year, or multiple years. For this reason,
some educators argue that portfolios should not just be compilations of a student’s best
work, but rather they should include evidence and work products that demonstrate how
students improved over time. For example, multiple versions of an essay can show how
students revised and improved their work based on feedback from the teachers or their
peers.

• Portfolios help teachers determine whether students can apply what they have learned
to new problems and different subject areas. A test can help teachers determine, for
example, whether students have learned a specific mathematical skill. But can those
students also apply that skill to a complex problem in economics, geography, civics, or
history? Can they use it to conduct a statistical analysis of a large data set in a spread
sheet? Or can they use it to develop a better plan for a hypothetical business. (Educators

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may call this ability to apply skills and knowledge to novel problems and different
domains “transfer of learning”). Similarly, portfolios can also be used to evaluate
student work and learning in non-school contexts. For example, if a student participated
in an internship or completed a project under the guidance of an expert mentor from the
community, students could create portfolios over the course of these learning activities
and submit them to their teachers or school as evidence they have met certain learning
expectations or graduation requirements.

• Portfolios can encourage students to take more ownership and responsibility over the
learning process. In some schools, portfolios are a way for students to critique and
evaluate their own work and academic progress, often during the process of deciding
what will be included in their portfolios. Because portfolios document learning growth
over time, they can help students reflect on where they started a course, how they
developed, and where they ended up at the conclusion of the school year. When
reviewing a portfolio, teachers may also ask students to articulate the connection
between particular work products and the academic expectations and goals for a course.
For these reasons, advocates of portfolios often recommend that students be involved
in determining what goes into a portfolio, and that teachers should not unilaterally make
the decisions without involving students. For related discussions, see student
engagement and student voice.

• Portfolios can improve communication between teachers and parents. Portfolios can
also help parents become more informed about the education and learning progress of
their children, what is being taught in a particular course, and what students are doing
and learning in the classroom. Advocates may also contend that when parents are more
informed about and engaged in their child’s education, they can play a more active role
in supporting their children at home, which could have a beneficial effect on academic
achievement and long-term student outcomes.

Learner Profile:

A learner profile is a document, project, or even conversation that helps teachers learn
more about their students. A learner profile is basically relating to individual learners who are
engaged in the learning environment. In any course, it is always important to know who your
learners will be, where they come from, their prior knowledge and their expectations from the
course. A learner profile documents the ways a student best learns. Developing a learner profile
will enable us to better plan the course in a learner-centred way and to deliver the instruction
in a manner that suits the individual preferences of the learner.

In other words, a learner profile is something created of a student to identify who yours
learns are, what they are going. In short, a learner profile describes how your students learn
best so you can tailor your course design to them. A learner profile describes the way in which
a student learns best. So, a learner profile is a formal document or process that include
information about a student’s skills, strengths, interests, its potential barriers to learning.

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A learner profile needs to be dynamic as individual learners are constantly growing and
changing. A learner profile can take the form of a formal document or process or can simply
be a series of conversations with students. It

–i) can include information about a student’s skills, strengths, interests, etc.;

ii) can highlight potential barriers to learning;

iii) make recommendations about what is needed to support learning. This information
sits alongside assessment data.

Learner profile can help school staff build relationships with students and understand
things from their perspective. This can inform planning, classroom layout, timetabling and
supports to enable students to participate and contribute in all classroom learning. Learner
profiles can be created for a variety of purposes. The purpose is agreed between the student
and parents. This will inform the discussion, questions and information provided by learners
and their families. It’s useful to develop a profile of all of your students and to use this as the
basis of a class profile.

Components of Learner Profile:

It is important to identify which type of learner profile is best suits each school context
and individual student. For this reason, no two learners’ profile will not be the same. Generally,
a well-designed learner profile will include the following:

i) history and background information of the learner,

ii) diagnostic or assessment information (summery),

iii) summery of interests, strengths and learning styles,

iv) current level of development,

v) priority of learning needs.

It is important that the learner profile focuses on student strength to build on and
develop further skills rather than a deficit model.

Development and maintaining a Comprehensive Learner Profile:

A comprehensive learner profile is a composite information of learners including

information on students’ interests, learning styles, and learning preferences and differences
related to gender, culture and personality. It also might include information on students’
teaching strengths, needs and types of supports that have been successful in the past.

A learner profile builds on the framework developed in the planning matrix and can
assist teachers and parents to:

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i) understand learning strengths and characteristics of autism (disorder in the student),

ii) know which autism specific areas may impact on skill development including
communication, social interaction, repetitive behaviour and restricted interests, sensory
processing and information processing.

iii) understand what motivates and interest individual students to support

communication, social communication and positive behaviour supports.

iv) gain insight into a student’s learning style and strength which can guide classroom
adjustments,

v) identify who already is or needs to be involved with the student.

Developing a learner profile is a critical starting point for teachers in developing

effective educational programme and learning outcomes for children on the autism spectrum
on any educational setting. While developing ad maintaining a learner profile, the key questions
which seeks details of the learner may include –

a) who is the student?

b) what the student needs to learn?

c) what is his adjustment required for this student to meaningfully engage and
participate in learning?

d) what whole of school adjustment and change are required?

e) what classroom adjustment are required?

f) have all keys input areas for this student been considered (social, communication,
respect behaviour, information processing, sensory)?

Learner profile can be created by the student or collaboratively with parents and
teachers. Senior students may prefer to just have a conversation. Before developing a learner
profile, discuss with the student and parents would be on –

i) the purpose of the profile,

ii) the format which will influence how easily it can be shared and whether it can be
added to over time,

iii) if they would like the learner profile to be linked to the school’s student management
system or from their school e-portfolio.

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For the development of a learner profile, the following procedure may be adopted:

i. Determining who the learner is – The learner profile identifies smart goals, hobbies
and interests, strengths and struggles, learning styles, reflection and preferences from each
learner.

ii. Determining what the learner does – he learner profile identifies how the learner
navigates their education. It is customized for each learner and offers them independence as
they need making learning more purposeful.

iii. Determining the evidence of learning-In this step, the learner profile establish how
the learner grows.

For this purpose, students and teachers can use a range of tools. So, they can select what
works best for them. Discuss with the students how they want to capture the attention of their
audience and what will be the most effective communication style to use. The types of tools
may include word documents or power point with images and videos, letter, voice thread,
discussion with a teacher taking notes, blog, story, picture, drawing or diagram, etc.

Nature of Learner Profile

Learner profiles may include information such as:

• Skills, strengths, and interests

• Aspirations and passions
• Likes and dislikes
• How the student likes to learn
• things they’re good at
• interests
• hopes and dreams
• important people in their lives
• pets
• life experiences (activities, places, kinds of people they like)
• things that make it difficult for them to learn
• what they do when they need help
• how they describe and experience school
• what makes them excited, grumpy or frustrated and how they express this
• about their support team
• examples of supports that have worked in the past.
• Struggles or potential barriers to learning
• Anything else the student or teacher deems important

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It can take the form of a formal document or process, or can simply be a series of
conversations with students. Learner profiles can make recommendations about what is needed
to support learning.

Importance of learner profiles

Learner Profiles help teachers know more about their students. It is beneficial for both

the student and the teacher to know the student's interests and strengths.

It gives students the ability to express:

• who they are?

• address assumptions people may have about them or their disability
• express their aspirations and passions
• have a say in what goes on for them at school and in their learning

Benefits for Teachers

Teachers can use learner profiles to build effective relationships, develop an inclusive

classroom, and understand what technology, differentiation, or adaptations may be needed for

individual students.

Teachers can use the data from these profiles to help guide students with the
personalized choices they make about their learning. Learner profiles can help school staff
build relationships with students and understand things from their perspective. This can inform
planning, classroom layout, timetabling, and supports to enable students to participate and
contribute to all classroom learning.

Learner profiles can be created for a variety of purposes. The purpose is agreed upon
between the student, parents, and the teacher. This will inform the discussion, questions, and
information provided by learners and their families. It’s useful to develop a profile of all
students and to use this as the basis of a class profile.

• recognise and remove potential barriers to learning at the outset

• design learning environments and opportunities that build on student interests and
experiences to maximise engagement
• select curriculum materials and content that students will be able to access
• offer a range of options for demonstrating thinking and learning that will work well for
students
• support positive transitions to new environments. Alongside assessment data, a learner
profile supports teachers in knowing about the learner, providing information from the
student’s perspective.

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Creating and maintaining Learner Profiles

Learner profiles can be created by the student or collaboratively with parents and
teachers. Senior students may prefer to just have a conversation. Before developing a learner
profile, the teacher has to discuss with the student and their parents. The easiest and most
effective way to generate learner profiles is to have the students create their own. Student-
created learner profiles can take the shape of a PowerPoint presentation, video, letter,
infographic, poem, and so on. These profiles can incorporate both words and visuals that
describe the student.

In keeping with the overall purpose of the profile, a teacher can provide students with
a variety of choices. Give students a list of questions, then explain that they can respond to the
questions using a variety of tools, including:

• PowerPoint
• Google Slides
• Prezi
• Piktochart (allows students to create infographics)
• Windows Movie Maker

The format each student chooses will give you even more information about their learning
style and preferences. If, on the other hand, you want to easily compile this information, you
may prefer to assign your students a survey using tools such as Google Forms or Survey
Monkey.

Google Forms collects responses in a spreadsheet and allows you to view individual
responses, and with Survey Monkey you can create custom charts, see a summary view of your
data, and browse individual responses. One does not have to use technology to create a learner
profile, but using technology can help facilitate the process. You can create a survey to find
out more about each one of your students or have them create a project that depicts their
personality.

Management of Learner Profiles

The learner profiles can be prepared either by the teacher or students and maintained at

different levels

• School-level
• Class level
• Or at both levels

The information needed by the teachers and the school administrators will be different.
So, a teacher can encourage students to prepare their profiles fulfilling the data required by the
administrators.

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The teachers can prepare the profiles of their students including all the information
required by the teacher and students. This becomes handy for teachers to plan instruction and
other activities.

This gives data for students also needed for their work as well as to plan activities for
the whole class.

Learner Profile: A simple learner profile prepared by the student is given below. Other areas
can be added as per the need of the teacher.

Learner Profile – An Example

Name: ARUN KUMAR

Class: 7th standard

Section: ‘A’ Section

Sl. Areas Description

No.

1 Learning Styles I learn when the content is presented either on the blackboard or a
chart or a computer screen. It is easy for me to learn when I See
what I am learning. The problems have to be worked out on the
board for me to learn.

2 Interests Singing, dancing, playing football, observing nature

3 Learning speed Average speed

4 Learning needs Need explanation with examples and illustrations. I cannot stand
vague statements, I need better when content is presented in print
form, I cannot understand teacher’s handwriting.

5 Strengths I make friendship very fast. I have a beautiful handwriting. I can

read text fluently. I can sing well on the stage. I can be calm. I do
not take hasty decisions.

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