lecture 1

natural history = real world, plants and animals

where animals are found and why they’re found there

red fox carrying muskrat

some animals in ontario are found throughout the province (red fox)
some are only found in certain places like hudson bay tundra (arctic fox)
some are only found in western part of province (white tail jack rabbit)
some only found in southern part (yellow bird)

blue racer
-​ endangered species
-​ found only one island in canada

animals = fauna
-​ mammals (moose, skunk, mink, beluga)
-​ birds
-​ reptiles
-​ fish

plants = flora
-​ wildflowers
-​ trees
-​ plants

total number of species of flora and fauna = biodiversity

what is biodiversity?
-​ biological diversity
-​ total number and variety of living things (flora and fauna) found in an area

ontario’s biodiversity
-​ incredibly rich biodiversity
-​ better than any other province in country

animals in ontario
-​ reptiles and amphibians = herptiles = herps
-​ includes snakes, salamanders, frogs etc
-​ 50 species found in ontario
-​ mammals
-​ includes foxes, bears, mice etc
-​ 81 species in the province
 -​ fish
-​ some native, some non-native
-​ 150 species found in ontario
-​ birds
-​ 507 species found in ontario
-​ invertebrates
-​ odonates = dragonflies, damselflies
-​ 172 species
-​ butterflies
-​ 148 species
-​ moths
-​ about 1,000 species
-​ flies
-​ thousands of species
-​ wasps
-​ thousands of species
-​ beetles
-​ some native, some not
-​ thousands of species
-​ millipedes centipedes
-​ spiders
-​ total number of invertebrates = tens (hundreds?) of thousands of species

plants in ontario
-​ vascular plants (special circulation system)
-​ > 3,000 species
-​ mosses = bryophytes and lichens
-​ = > 800 species
-​ fungus
-​ all > 10,000 species

ontario's total biodiversity > 100,000 species

-​ extremely rich
-​ why is it so rich?
-​ size (> 1 million km^2)
-​ great range of abiotic factors (non-living)
-​ temperature
-​ precipitation
-​ wind (can move material)
-​ soil type
-​ fire
-​ rocks (rocks are made of minerals that affect the nutrient supply and soil
chemistry)
 -​ the rock under any given area is called bedrock
-​ some bedrock is flat, some is layered
-​ these rocks are formed from sediments and are called sedimentary
rocks = “young” rocks
-​ 400 - 500 million years old
-​ limestone is a sedimentary rocks (rich in calcium (calcium
carbonate) and is relatively soft and basic in pH)
-​ when you pour HCl on the rock… chemical reaction
(bubbles = effervesces)
-​ limestone (some) is made from animals whose fossil
remains are full of calcium
-​ poison ivy loves basic soil and calcium = calciphiles
(one that needs a lot of calcium)
-​ other rocks were formed from molten rock (magma) deep
underground = igneous rocks usually lack calcium, have lots of silica
and are hard and acidic
-​ pour acid on it and nothing happens
-​ granite is a common igneous rock
-​ igneous = “old” rocks, 1-3 billion years old
-​ some igneous rocks were formed on top of the earth’s surface
-​ basalt is a volcanic rock (but it isn't acidic)
-​ a third type of rock is formed from pre-existing rock transformed by
heat and pressure
-​ metamorphic rock
-​ retain the chemical characteristics of their parent rock
-​ granite becomes gneiss, which is acidic and lacks calcium,
nothing happens with HCl
-​ limestone can also be metamorphosed, marble which
contains calcium
-​ sedimentary rocks usually underlie flat terrain known as lowlands
-​ igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually underlie hilly terrain
known as highlands

-​ relief results in microclimates

-​ in any are the plants and animals affect other living things

-​ bedrock affects the lay of the land

-​ type of bedrock (lowlands/highlands)
-​ soil of the land dropped on top (overburden) and a lot of the soil comes from glacial
deposits
-​ the lay of the land and the glacial “gifts” affect drainage
-​ drainage affects what grows atop deposits
-​ ex. sand is very dry soil
 -​ clay does not drain very well (very wet areas)

-​ water is the most powerful force in ontario

-​ can break down rock, be ice
-​ water moves and sorts materials by size and weight

-​ the type of bedrock and the type of glacial deposits affect the land physically

rock type and lay of the land = physiographic regions

province can be broken down by these
-​ northern ontario (towards hudson bay) = lowland (hudson bay lowland)
-​ canadian shield = hilly and has bedrock being igneous and metamorphic
-​ great lakes and ottawa/st lawrence = lowlands

how are big rocks left behind? from glaciers (glacial erratic)

all these factors combine to create unique situations that influence the type of plants and animals
living in any region of ontario

each physiographic region contains a diversity of habitats

-​ some regions deciduous trees (oak and maples) are dominant
-​ other regions coniferous trees (spruces, fir) are dominant

dominant canopy-forming trees define forest regions

-​ tundra (no canopy overhead)
-​ hudson bay lowland (muskgag?)
-​ boreal (coniferous trees)
-​ fir trees, black spruce
-​ moose, black-backed woodpeckers, great gray owl
-​ great lakes – st. lawrence (mixture of coniferous and deciduous)
-​ scarlet tanager (in summer, migrate to brazil), gray jay → canada jay
-​ carolinian (deciduous, tulip tree)
-​ prothonotary warbler
-​ virginia opossum, scarlet tanager
lecture 2

forest regions = ecological regions

over the past million years, ice covered all of ontario several times
→ ice scraped all habitat and moving all overburden south
→ bottom of the glaciers there was debris caught up, as glaciers melted, the debris was dropped
this period was the ice age (the pleistocene)
→ weird bubble photo is from thick ice in the ice age (1-2 km thick)
→ so glaciation came in and every living thing in ontario was gone
→ only a small drop in average daily temperature can spawn glaciers
when precipitation falls, it falls as snow → colder temps → more freezing than melting → ice at
bottom of snow → it scrapes, taking all living things with it
→ when glaciers retreated and there was no life left, where did the life come from? the south
​ → glacial refugia (from wind and animals)
​ → lichens were first things back in ontario: symbiotic relationships between fungi and algae
​ ​ → the fungus provides a house for the algae and the algae provides food w/ photos-

lichens
→ leaf-like: foliose lichens
→ upright structures: fruticose lichens
→ reindeer lichen
→ arboreal lichens: tree lichens
→ crustose lichens: colonize bare rock
some lichen like acidic some like basic rock
some mosses are colonizers

wind carries silt-like material called loess (dust)

lichens and mosses physically trap wind blown particles and provide a site for other things to grow
→ allows for other growing things
→ as their parts die, it leaves soil (fundamental to growth)

lichens initiate succession

→ there isn't just bare left rock from the glaciers, there's material
→ on the bare rocks there succession
the dissolved and physically broken rock help form more soil – talus
→ the forests eventually support a diverse array of animals

glacial refugia — where life came from if glaciation caused it to vanish

poplar and white birch are often the first trees to colonize new soil – called: pioneer species
→ pioneer species, need sunlight
→ windblown seeds
→ a problem: they create shade but are sun lovers
​ → other trees grow under them, these will outgrow and outlive the trees above them
→ shade tolerant trees such as sugar maple or spruce outlive the shade-intolerant (sun-loving)
trees such as trembling aspen (poplar)
→ shade tolerant trees eventually replace pioneer trees as a result of succession

depends on different types of forest

→ site conditions: environmental conditions (temp, precipitation, bedrock type, soil type, glacial
deposits, physiography, drainage, etc)

after many centuries, a mature forest exists

→ mature forest can replace itself (maple can survive under the canopy)
→ if a forest can replace itself, it's called a climax forest

recall: the dominant (most common) canopy-forming trees are used to define forest regions

most northerly “ECOLOGICAL” or forest region is the tundra, which lies in the hudson bay lowland
physiographic region
→ tundra lacks tree canopy
→ but it does have trees (as tall as our ankles)
southernmost subarctic tundra in the world!
→ northern limit of the tundra ecological region is hudson bay
→ southern limit is the “tree line” — the tree line is a poorly defined border that menders at varying
distances (10-32 km) from the coast

polar bear provincial park — protected

there is many challengers for life in the tundra

1.​ cold
i.​ avg annual temp is -6 C
 ii.​ ground stays frozen all year — permafrost
iii.​ frozen soil = very little decomposition → few nutrients and no soil buildup
2.​ low and flat: 0-60 meters above sea level (ASL)
i.​ but it is rising. how? 1.2 meter every 100 years and gain 400 m every 100
years of land (being exposed by water)
ii.​ rising of the land is due to the weight being gone from all the heavy glaciers
that have since melted = isostatic rebound
3.​ windy: coldest windchill in north america
i.​ wind blows abrasive particles making it hard for things to grow and live
4.​ on top of bedrock, clay and silt deposits range from 5 to 75 m thick
i.​ forms barrier, water has trouble draining through it
ii.​ came from a glacial sea (extension of hudson bay) 8,000 years ago
1.​ tyrrell sea

tundra pools, ponds and lakes are freshwater habitats for ..

-​ northern diving ducks, greater scaup,
-​ long-tailed duck (only nest in ontario in the tundra)*,
-​ scoters, white-winged scoter, surf scoter, black scoter,
-​ northern pintail (also in southern ontario so they aren't indicator),
-​ tundra swan**
-​ many nesting canada geese and
-​ snow geese (white and blue, same species)
-​ blue morph (snow goose = snow goose + blue goose (lumped))
*indicator species: must got to specific place to see them (an indicator of a location)

hundreds of pairs of geese to millions of geese now in the tundra in 30-40 years
# of eggs depends on condition of females when they arrive on nesting grounds
→ more body fat, more eggs
→ they’re arriving in better shape bc the cornfields are providing food for them
→ they have negative effects on the tundra, they physically disturb the land from digging up things
and defecation adds nitrogen to ecosystem, physically changing it
​ → plants that need nitrogen are coming in, plants that cant sustain it are vanishing

tundra is so cold, any herps present?

→ for the most part these groups are absent

lecture 3​

the tundra
-​ could there be any kind of reptile/amphibian that could survive rough conditions?
-​ the wood frog and boreal chorus frog
-​ they are freeze-tolerant (spend winter in frozen state)
-​ ponds are breeding grounds for geese (tundra swan)
-​ three species of loons nest along coast of hudson bay
-​ common loon (not indicator)
-​ red-throated loon*
-​ pacific loon*
-​ sea ducks such as eiders nest along the coast of hudson bay
-​ hudson bay is saltwater but freshwater rivers flow into it
-​ ex. winisk river
-​ ex. brant river
-​ the rivers indirectly affect waterfowl in an unusual way
-​ aquatic birds are only present in summer. but doesn’t salt water not freeze?
-​ due to freshwater input, hudson bay = ⅓ salinity of oceans
-​ it freezes in winter – even so, one challenge hudson bay presents is salt

-​ hudson bay is habitat for marine mammals

-​ beluga whales in ontario
-​ seals are found in ontario
-​ ringed, bearded and harbor seals
-​ most unusual marine mammal found in ontario = atlantic walrus
-​ a colony of atlantic walrus is found off cape henrietta maria
-​ seals are food for polar bears
-​ southernmost population of polar bears in the world
-​ both beluga whale and polar bears are indicator species
-​ are ontarios polar bears protected? yes and no
-​ protected in ontario
-​ polar bears have started swimming over to quebec where they aren't
protected and are being harvested
-​ also can protect them from climate change
-​ female polar bears give birth in dens during the winter

-​ american dune grass — colonizes sand

-​ raised beach ridges: are important habitat for pants and animals including polar bears
-​ elevated area produced by water pushing up material
-​ ridge offer nesting sites for arctic terns* that feed along the coast and rivers
-​ often robbed of fish by parasitic jaegers*
-​ coastal flats and dunes are habitat for plants
-​ some plants are salt-tolerant = halophytic (salt-water gets dumped from storms)
-​ ex. seaside lungwort (or oysterleaf or bluebells)
-​ halophytic plants have fleshy leaves for storing water and for protection
-​ also salt glands for removing salt
-​ ex. the “lawn” in goosegrass, another halophytic plant
-​ further inland there are beach ridges far from water
 -​ how did they form? left behind by isostatic rebound
-​ stranded beach ridges important sites
-​ things like foxes can dig a den from the raised beach ridges
-​ small extremities, dense fur in winter, white in winter (artic fox)
-​ about a dozen species of arctic-nesting sandpipers and plovers nest here
-​ semipalmated plover
-​ hudsonian godwit
-​ dunlin: nest on sedge and moss hummocks
-​ least sandpiper
-​ different bill sizes allow (niche partitioning):
-​ the birds to live in the same area but not compete for food
-​ longer bill; deeper they can dig for food
-​ also nest in the arctic
-​ arctic circle: parallel or line of latitude around earth
-​ an imaginary line defined by where the sun does not
completely set for the summer solstice and never rises on
winter solstice
-​ one of 5 major circles of latitude
-​ further inland tundra is higher and drier
-​ longer period of isostatic rebound
-​ mosses and lichens are dominant groups
-​ sphagnum mosses are important wetland colonizers
-​ they help keep the ground frozen
-​ sphagnum dominates and creates its own habitat – peatland
-​ when growth > decomp, the moss layer gets thicker, creating its own form of “soil”
-​ organic soil (more later)
-​ lichen plateaus (lichen fields) are major feature
-​ why are these more prevalent farther inland from the coast?
-​ longer period of recovery from the weight of the glaciers
-​ caribou migrate from the hudson bay lowland and boreal forest to the tundra in late
spring
-​ after summer they head back south
-​ get eaten by gray wolf

lecture 4
-​ what birds do you not find in the tundra?
-​ woodpeckers – no trees
-​ what birds do you find in the tundra?
-​ ground-nesting birds
-​ ex. american pipit
-​ also breeds top of mountain (tundra habitat)
-​ ex. longspur** (lapland and smiths) – ground-nesting sparrow-like birds
-​ really northern
 -​ only indicator in the summer
-​ ex. horned lark – found in northern southern and northern ontario
-​ in southern ontario, birds sing from treetops – where do they sing in the tundra?
-​ they sing in the air (high in air)
-​ ground nesting songbirds
-​ grouse – willow ptarmigan
-​ feathered legs, feet and toes (adaptation to cold)
-​ totally white in the winter (white traps more body heat and camo)
-​ tundra also offers severe challenges for plants
-​ cold, permafrost, wind, nutrients, short growing season (< 140 days)
-​ some trees tolerate up to -80 C
-​ spruce trees alive there (small ones nonetheless)
-​ adaptations in cold environment:
-​ cold hardiness
-​ take water out and membrane becomes more flexible
-​ the size of the plants
-​ the plants are very small in size
-​ ex. dwarf birch, arctic willow, labrador willow exhibit dwarfism
-​ keeps them out of the wind
-​ uses less nutrients to keep them small
-​ genotypic dwarfism: dwarf labrador tea grows no larger if planted
farther south
-​ phenotypic dwarfism: dwarf birch grows larger farther south
-​ low, creeping, sprawling growth
-​ ex. crowberry
-​ they grow across the ground
-​ clump growth
-​ inner part of plant is protected by outer part that takes brunt
-​ white spruce: dead outer part of clump offers shelter to rest of plant
-​ spruces can reproduce vegetatively by layering (white spruce)
-​ retain leaves year round to retain nutrients
-​ health plants such as labrador tea have evergreen leaves
-​ hairy undersides prevent dessication
-​ mycorrhizal associations
-​ fungus-root associations
-​ dark colours absorb “warmer” wavelength of light
-​ prickly saxifrage
-​ grow in sheltered sites
-​ willow thickets develop behind stranded beach ridges
-​ insect gleaning birds that don't nest on the ground

-​ migratory songbirds such as – yellow warbler

-​ NOT indicator
 -​ blackpoll warbler – some songbirds eat insects and seeds
-​ finches, redpoll*
-​ hoary redpoll: also found nesting in ontarios tundra – now lumped together
-​ sparrows - american tree sparrow
-​ nest at the edge of the treeline
-​ white-crowned sparrow nest in the tundra forest region

-​ small mammals
-​ meadow voles and northern bog lemmings are found here
-​ meadow vole:
-​ not indicator
-​ plump bodies = bergmann's rule
-​ short tails = allen’s rule
-​ most important mammal in ontario
-​ undergo the greatest population cycle of any mammal in the world
-​ the population cycles greatly affect the number of their predators
-​ affects: arctic foxes, northern harrier (hawk), short-eared
owl, snowy owls (most northern owls in the world) – doesn’t
nest in ontario
-​ snow owl: major food source are lemmings
-​ northern bog lemming
-​ have nests
-​ spend winter in subnivean space
-​ would deer mice be found in the tundra?
-​ no!
-​ but one long-tailed mouse is: meadow jumping mouse
-​ they’re true hibernators (crawl into ball and survive winter without
waking up)
-​ groundhogs are also in the tundra – they’re also true hibernators
-​ obviously not indicator species

-​ almost all of the flora and fauna in tundra occurs also farther north, and a few farther south
-​ hudson bay endemic — found nowhere else in the world
-​ lepage wild flax (only found on the edge of hudson bay)
-​ tundra is the most northern and most inhospitable ecological region in ontario

lecture 5
next ecological region, just south of tundra
→ northern boundary is: edge of the tree line (the tundra)
to the south lies the boreal forest – continuous canopy forest
→ the west lies more boreal forest
→ western and southern boundaries are the canadian shield
→ to the east lies james bay
-​ hudson bay lowland is one of the wildest regions in the world
-​ there are no roads (yet) — currently building one, might be one to mine
-​ only way to get there is from planes
-​ there is a lot of water
-​ one of the most unexplored places in the world (untouched)

-​ unlike the tundra, the HBL forest region has some true first – mostly black spruce and
tamarack – like boreal forest
-​ the southern portion has some continuous forest. why?
-​ isostatic region
-​ but the boreal forest has continuous forest because it is on canadian field
-​ hudson bay lowland is underlain by sedimentary limestone
-​ sedimentary rock makes the land very flat (60 -150 m)
-​ winds off hudson bay still have an effect due to its flatness
-​ average annual temp of -3 to -6 C = short growing season
-​ HBL is cold
-​ discontinuous permafrost (some plants grow tall)
-​ HBL is also still recovering from effects of glaciers – land depression
-​ lots of clay and slit deposits because tyrell sea was once there
-​ flat, discontinuous permafrost + impervious deposits = poor drainage = lots of water
-​ cold + wet = ideal conditions for sphagnum moss
-​ sphagnum moss creates its own habitat – peatlands
-​ HBL is one of the largest expanses of continuous wetland in the world – unless u can
walk on water
-​ peatlands – bogs and fens
-​ sedges (such as carex, lasiocarpa, C. limosa, or C. chordorhiza colonize and grow out into
water)
-​ sphagnum moss comes in and starts to take over
-​ modifies the environment making it: acidic, nutrient poor, oxygen deprived
-​ cold wet oxygen poor environment = very little decomposition
-​ peatland mosses have another unusual feature – they form the soil
-​ slowly the mat grows thicker, choking water
-​ lower portion of the moss mat dies and more sphagnum grows on top of it
-​ growth > decomposition = peat
-​ peat > 45 cm thick and wet = muskeg
-​ trees in muskeg: stunted = black spruce and tamarack characterize
the HBL muskeg
-​ trees grow taller and form continuous forest where there is more
solid ground

-​ what kind of plants grow in muskeg?

-​ lichens
-​ heath (ericaceous) plants are a dominant group
-​ bog laurel
-​ cranberry
-​ bog rosemary
-​ leatherleaf
-​ labrador tea
-​ all have adaptations for growing in nutrient poor environments:
mycorrhizal associations (fungal pulls nutrients for them)
-​ leaves are retained in winter to conserve nutrients and the hairs help
prevent desiccation
-​ other plants have a different way of attaining nutrients
-​ they eat insects = pitcher-plants are carnivorous
-​ pitfall traps
-​ bladderwort (suction trap)
-​ sundews (adhesive traps)
-​ great sundew
-​ as the mat gets thicker, shrubs grow on it
-​ (speckled) alders … root nodules full of bacteria
-​ black spruce grow on older mounds and hummoakcs
-​ often spread by layering .. studnet in muskeg
-​ peatlands change through time
-​ safer to walk on peat in south.. more time since glaciers
-​ eventually the moss fills into the bottom of the pond – trees grow larger on top of the
grounded mat
-​ eventually black spruce forest forms
-​ as a peatland mat thickens and succession progresses, diversity drops
-​ the youngest edge of mat the sphagnum lawn supports the greatest diversity
of plants
-​ most carnivorous plants grow there too
-​ is a black spruce forest the climax? maybe! no…
-​ if the water level raises a little sphagnum moss can grow killing the trees and
getting a peatland there again == paludification == forest going back to
peatland
-​ a major way peatlands formed in HBL
-​ the hypsithermal was a great warming trend approx 7,000 - 5,000
years ago (major factor) – warmer = more forest
-​ climax pattern is a mixture of muskeg and forest
-​ string bogs or ribbed fens – perpendicular to gentle slope
-​ “ribs” or “strings” are peculiar, see them in muskeg, runs perpendicular to
slope
-​ shallow ponds are a major feature
-​ american toad – digs in the winter (not freeze tolerant)
-​ spring peeper also occur in HBL
 -​ they are freeze-tolerant frogs – still dominant group of herps in HBL
-​ bury themself, half freeze
-​ sandhill cranes are common
-​ the ponds are nesting habitat for 2 sandpipers
-​ greater yellowlegs nest in peatlands also through boreal forest
-​ lesser yellowlegs* nest only in HBL – indicator species
-​ stunted black spruce:
-​ northern shrikes* nest n HBL muskeg: in summer found primarily in
HBL (indicator)
-​ palm warblers nest in peatlands; peatland species (indicator for peatland
not HBL)
-​ rivers are important (are habitat and create habitat)
-​ move, sort, deposit material, creating drier substrates for plants
-​ they create raised banks along their shores (attawapiskat)
-​ the shoreline habitats allow for greater biodiversity of plants and animals
-​ recall type of rock underlying HBL – sedimentary limestone (has calcium)
-​ northern caliciphilic plant = alpine bistort and false (sticky) asphodel
-​ butterwort northern carnivorous plant (adhesive)
-​ many orchids are calciphiles
-​ northern green orchid
-​ small round leaved orchid
-​ sparrows-egg lady's slipper: ontario's most northern lady’s
slipper
-​ dry = peat moss, wet = muskeg

-​ zones of habitat
-​ trees
-​ dominant species: black spruce, poplars
-​ boreal-forest habitat
-​ like a western movie set
-​ have muskeg covering most of HBL
-​ have rivers with narrow fringe of shrubs
-​ higher banks with coniferous forest
-​ thin wall of forest and then long stretch of muskeg
-​ its a façade = an appearance that conceals a different reality
-​ the forest fringe is habitat for boreal forest species
-​ ex. bunchberry: grows as colony, one plant consists of many
little sub-plants, semi-shady habitats, has amazing
pollination mechanism (throws pollen up on pollinator)
-​ ex. one-flowered wintergreen: boreal flower, buzz pollination
-​ ex. mountain cranberry
-​ ex. black-backed woodpecker
-​ have 3 digits
 -​ specialized for northern coniferous forest for spruce
-​ not indicator
-​ boreal forest habitat bird
-​ canada jay/gray jay
-​ spruce grouse: eats spruce needles
-​ snowshoe hares: eats confider needles
-​ red squirrels: eats pinecones
-​ white winged crossbill: nomadic
-​ weasels such as fisher
-​ american marten
-​ wolverine
-​ trees provide food for animals
-​ conifer trees offer: seeds, needles, pinecones
-​ shrubs
-​ seasonal flooding covers part of shoreline
-​ recedes in the summer and that's where shrubs live
-​ lots of species of willows live in the shrubs
-​ wolf-willow (silverberry)
-​ orange-crowned warbler: bird that rest in shrubs
-​ fox sparrow: expect to encounter along rivers
-​ pine grosbeak

-​ major eastern boundary of HBL is salt water

-​ moosonee ← cochrane (a train called polar bear express)
-​ nelson sparrow and lecontes sparrow
-​ coastal in distribution, like salty habitats
-​ american dune grass, white throated sparrow, beach pea (colonizer), daisies (have funky
leaves for holding water and salt) – halophyte, red foxes, black bear, bladderwrack (a brown
algae), jellyfish, beluga,semipalmated plover, greater yellowlegs, least sandpiper, hudsonian
godwit, lesser yellowlegs, red knot (the “rufa” subspecies is endangered, fewer than 20,000.
each year red knots leave north america fly to south america), calidris canutus rufa
(stopover in james bay in august to fatten up before going south, in spring chesapeake bay to
fatten up on horseshoe crab eggs)
-​ james bay is an important staging area
-​ pan american shorebird program, tagging legs
-​ wolves are not to be afraid of

overview of HBL
-​ vast expanse of flat
-​ very little change of elevation
-​ high points = called relief
-​ one major exception
-​ small mountain range (precambrian rock)
 -​ sutton hills or sutton ridges
-​ precambrain (most granitic, some diabase (has some calcium)) very old (~2.5
billion years) surrounded by young rock
-​ sutton hills offer the only real source of relief in the HBL
-​ diabase sills
-​ forms when magma cools down slowly in fractures in the rock
beneath volcanoes (intrusive)
-​ contains the mineral plagioclase which has calcium
-​ has basic pH, not acidic
-​ golden eagles rest there
-​ eagles bring back baby caribou
-​ concentration of their nesting is in sutton hills
-​ disjunct population of plants
-​ rock polybody
-​ greenland sandwort (only found there)
-​ disjunct distribution in ontario is an excellent ex. of the
importance of site conditions
-​ alpine brook saxifrage
-​ to the south of HBL there is a lot of relief and continuous forest
-​ the great boreal forest

lecture 6
-​ boreal forest is characterized by relief
-​ up to 690m ASL (sleeping giant by lake superior is 563m ASL)
-​ biggest forest region in canada
-​ dominant trees: balsam fir, white spruce
-​ both these trees produce cones which produce seeds
-​ mast crop = tons of cones and seeds
-​ spruce needles are also food
-​ there are sawfly (type of wasp) – they eat needles
-​ spruce grouse (type of bird) – they eat needles
-​ crossbills: irruptive and nomadic
-​ move around across north america
-​ when they find crops they stay there and reproduce
-​ moose – balsam fir needles and twigs are main winter food
-​ moose can also bend their extremities to walk in snow easily
-​ snowshoe hares eat variety of plants and trees: balsam fir and white spruce
-​ have great fluctuations in their numbers with a peak approximately every
10-11 years
-​ suggested causes for the crash:
-​ starvation
-​ disease
-​ predation: red fox, american marten, fisher, great horned owls
 -​ main predator: lynx (also on a cycle)
-​ mirrors hares cycles with some lag time
-​ stress-induced hormonal change: stress hormone is passed on to the
female babies, causing them to reproduce less or not at all
-​ hares might eat hares (not sure)
-​ spruce budworm: caterpillar can occur in staggering numbers (a moth)
-​ balsam fir and spruce are food for it
-​ the trees look brown? caterpillars are eating the needles
-​ they enhance the survival or spruce
-​ they affect the survival of birds (as they are food for them)
-​ three species of warblers: gleaners
-​ cape may warbler: actively gleans caterpillars from tips of
branches at the top of trees
-​ tennessee warbler: actively gleans at outer branches at all
heights
-​ bay-breasted warbler: slowly works tangles of needles
mainly in middle of trees (slower than the other two, more
methodical)
-​ niche (resource) partitioning — dividing up a resource in
different ways so they can all live in same area without
competing for food
-​ commonly called: budworm warblers
-​ during budworm outbreaks, warblers nest twice, more young survive
-​ the abundance of warblers reflects abundance of budworm
caterpillars in their nesting habitat
-​ another bird: white-throated sparrows also benefit from budworm
outbreaks (two colour morphs)
-​ white-stripe and tan-stripe on their heads – unique because
for both forms male and female can have either colour and
most couples have opposite colour stripes
-​ white-stripe: better at defending
-​ tan-stripe: better at taking care of young
-​ after a few years of budworm outbreak, the trees die
-​ dead trees are full of life
-​ bark beetles eat the wood
-​ lie eggs in the middle and larvae dig outwards (angel
wings)
-​ flat-headed borer make wider patterns
-​ jewel beetle
-​ some beetles have smoke detectors in their legs
-​ longhorn beetles (grubs) bore deeper into wood
-​ some detect pheromones of bark beetles
-​ beetle grubs attract… woodpeckers (the northern strippers)
 -​ black-backed* (in HBL river edges)
-​ longer bill
-​ american three-toed woodpecker*
-​ both species males have yellow crown on
head
-​ shorter bill
-​ so resource partitioning
-​ leave their holes in the trees — cavity adopters take
vacancy
-​ spruces offer more than food
-​ canada jays are non-migratory year-round residents
-​ linked to spruce trees because of food storage
-​ store food under loose bark and lichens on spruce trees
-​ adaptations for storing food:
-​ enlarged salivary glands: coat food with saliva and it
preserves it somehow
-​ enlarged hippocampus: retrieving food using remarkable
spatial memory
-​ nest easy to allow time for food storage
-​ eventually the dominant young kicks out its siblings
-​ the dominant young remains with the parents on their territory all
winter
-​ canada jays, like many animals of boreal forest are very approachable
-​ boreal chickadee
-​ eats seeds and insects
-​ year-round resident
-​ trembling aspen (poplar) is also an important source of food
-​ bark is preferred by 2 mammals:
-​ tree-climbing porcupine
-​ beaver
-​ poplar buds are food
-​ black bear
-​ ruffed grouse
-​ process of eating buds: budding
-​ poplar leaves are also food
-​ leaf miners dine inside leaves
-​ eat the chlorophyll in leaves
-​ ex. makes snake like patterns as it chews:
serpentine miners (often found in poplar
leaves)
-​ luna moth caterpillars also eat poplar leaves (from
the outside)
 -​ canadian tiger swallowtail caterpillar eats poplar
leaves
-​ lots of poplars in boreal. why?
-​ they are what grows first after a fire: pioneer species
-​ butterflies find minerals in wet sand and mud
puddles
-​ puddings: bunch of butterflies on ground
getting minerals
-​ forest tent caterpillar: eats deciduous leaves (loves
willow and poplar)
-​ large number on the same plant
-​ can eat all leaves on whole trees
-​ in some years, large tracts of forests are
defoliated
-​ lots of caterpillars means lots of predators and lots of
parasitoids
-​ parasitoids: small insects whose immature
stages develop either within or attached to
the outside of other insects, referred to as
hosts (always kill host they’re on from inside
out)
-​ ex. flesh fly
-​ major breeding ground for wood warblers is in boreal forest

lecture 7
-​ outbreaks: huge number of caterpillars devouring vegetation
-​ fire often occurs after outbreaks
-​ fires have their ecological roles — very important in boreal forest
-​ black-backed* and american three-toed woodpecker* create cavities
-​ leave their holes in the trees — cavity adopters take vacancy
-​ tree swallows
-​ eastern bluebird
-​ northern saw-whet owl
-​ some birds prefer larger cavities
-​ ex. small ducks: common golden eye (female only)
-​ ex. hooded merganser (female only)
-​ ex. northern flying squirrel (only active at night)
-​ ex. northern hawk owl (found in old burns), great gray owl (does not live in
cavity)
-​ fireweed thrives in recently burned areas
-​ how are seeds dispersed? by wind
-​ other plants such as the elderberry grow (seeds are encased in fruit and are heavier)
 -​ choke cherry is a small tree, and blueberries whose seeds arrive with the help of
animals (like bears, foxes, birds, chipmunks)
-​ carried inside the animals when they eat the fruit and then defecate
-​ endozoochory
-​ fires create excellent foraging habitat for bears
-​ in spring, black bears eat new growth (dandelions)
-​ poplars can reproduce by cloning
-​ older poplar stands in the boreal forest almost always growing in what was a
burn
-​ poplars are shade intolerant
-​ spruces and balsam firs can grow in partial shade
-​ succession
-​ fire is an integral part of boreal forest ecology
-​ after a burn, small poplars and other new growth offer food for moose
-​ mature trembling aspen is food for porcupine and beaver
-​ beavers have been exploited commercially
-​ used to make hats
-​ beaver stamp
-​ beaver coin
-​ logos
-​ 2 species of beavers in the world
-​ north american beaver: castor canadensis
-​ eurasian beaver: castor fiber
-​ beavers build damns
-​ these dams create bonds called… beaver ponds
-​ these ponds are so full of life
-​ eat in safety of water
-​ easier to transport material on water
-​ deep enough that water doesn’t freeze to the bottom
-​ food pile
-​ put things they’re not gonna eat at the top
-​ the stuff they save for winter is at the bottom in the water
-​ few animals in the world with eats, eyes and nose at top of their head in a
line
-​ incredible tail full of scales
-​ counterbalance on water's surface
-​ rudder for swimming
-​ portable stool
-​ thermoregulation: concurrent heat exchanger
-​ communication: beaver tail slap
-​ beavers eat the flowers in the pond
-​ as they chew, inner part wears faster than outer — teeth are self sharpening
-​ babies stay with their parents til second birthday
-​ beavers are territorial – put scents on top of pile
-​ scent marking; through orifice and urine
-​ beaver ponds become nutrient-richer habitat
-​ inflowing water slows, drops nutrient load
-​ flooded land releases nutrients
-​ beavers bring in lots of woody and leafy material
-​ beavers defecate in the water
-​ leaf beetle and grubs
-​ chew pattern on lilypads
-​ moose rely heavily on beaver ponds for the aquatic plants that contain
sodium
-​ whirligig beetle (predatory)
-​ two sets of eyes (one above and one below water)
-​ clouds of flies: midges
-​ feathery antennae and don't bite
-​ many insects that originate as a nymph in the water and grow to be insects
-​ swarms of insects are mating swarms
-​ great breeding land for dragon flies
-​ fat bodied dragon flies (twelve-spot skimmer) – main work is
skimmer
-​ four-spot skimmer
-​ eclosion: transformation from aquatic nymph to flying insect
-​ water is breeding grounds for american toads, wood frogs (freeze tolerant),
leopard frog (NOT freeze tolerant, biodiversity is increasing), mink frog
-​ two species of turtles
-​ painted turtles
-​ hatchlings are freeze tolerant
-​ can lay eggs in fall and stay in soil and freeze and hatch in
spring
-​ another ?
-​ lots of mink (predatory)
-​ can swim and will drive for fish
-​ river otter – eat fish and crayfish
-​ toboggan like body for mobility
-​ bracket fungus grow on trees
-​ begins decaying
-​ dead trees
-​ hawks
-​ northern hawk owls
-​ great grey owl
-​ great blue heron (nests)
-​ feed and nest it the bonds
-​ gray horned owl
 -​ takes over abandoned nests
-​ ospreys
-​ build massive stick nests
-​ beaver ponds increase biodiversity of any region especially boreal forest
-​ they also play other ecological roles
-​ nutrient factory going on
-​ nitrogen and phosphorus are supplied by the beaver ponds
-​ beaver ponds maintain water tables
-​ amount of water where the earth resides
-​ dams can break on their own
-​ if it happens and if the flow of water is immense it can cause damage
-​ can break and wash out roads
-​ when a pond goes dry there is a lot of mud
-​ lots of nutrients buried in mud
-​ doesn’t take long for mud to be colonized by mosses and
sedges (often colonize wetlands, grass colonized dry areas)
-​ eventually a meadow forms = beaver meadow
-​ important for moose, mating areas
-​ beavers are important in boreal forest because it is particularly low in nutrients and
the beaver dams provide nutrients
-​ beavers are keystone species (specially in boreal forest)

lecture 8
-​ boreal forest has thousands of lakes
-​ why so many? topography, physiography:
-​ we are on the canadian shield
-​ when glaciers melted they filled holes with water
-​ HBL we get ponds rather than lakes
-​ lakes are richer in nutrients than lakes in HBL, but less nutrient than beaver ponds
-​ warmer, more decomposition, more developed soil on land, nutrients
brought in
-​ small ducks: bufflehead
-​ small diving ducks
-​ eat mostly aquatic insects
-​ run to takeoff like loons and mergansers
-​ another food source in lake?
-​ yes, lots of fish — especially trout
-​ food for birds:
-​ ospreys
-​ bald eagles were once endangered, not anymore
-​ common mergansers
-​ males take off after mating
-​ babies are raised on mothers back
 -​ common loon
-​ both parents help raise young
-​ loons nest by pushing muddy material next to the
shore
-​ shore is usually next to an island
-​ islands are important sites
-​ safer sites for animals to nest because
there are less chance for predators
-​ herring gulls also nest on islands
-​ common terns also nest on islands
-​ pointy beak
-​ hover
-​ poop contains calcium from fish they eat
-​ xanthoria – calcium is present
-​ female moose swim to islands to give birth: bears and
wolf aren’t generally on islands; safer
-​ mother protects calves for one full year
-​ part of the boreal forest are streams, rapids
-​ trumpet-net caddisflies
-​ baby black flies attach themselves to rocks and hang in the current
-​ only adult female black flies bite
-​ special mandibles that bite
-​ anti coagulant
-​ faster-flowing water is home for clubtail dragonflies such as the boreal snaketail
-​ nymphs
-​ teneral stage: wings haven’t hardened yet
-​ takes several days for wings to fully harden and for colours to fully
develop after eclosion
-​ peatlands are a common wetland habitat in the boreal forest
-​ breed mosquitoes
-​ a certain group of dragonflies is associated with boreal forest/wetlands
-​ incredible green eyes
-​ emerald dragonfly
-​ boreal forest is not just black spruce and black flies
-​ western or prarie boreal forest
-​ not high elevations (350 ASL)
-​ quite flat
-​ lots of exposed rock
-​ thin soil on top of rock
-​ some rocks are among the oldest on earth — 2.3 billion years old
-​ lots of exposed rock due to glacial lake agassiz, washed off the rocks
-​ and because its the warmest and driest part of the boreal forest
-​ not a lot of precipitation and ~18 C temp in july
-​ there are many more wildflowers in the boreal than HBL
-​ pale corydalis: common wildflower on canadian shield
-​ number of prairie or western boreal species or varieties are found here:
-​ green ash: prairie variety of red ash
-​ prairie crocus**: found in ontario only, in western boreal
-​ leopard frog aren’t freeze tolerant and are found there
-​ garter snakes: spend winter in hibernacula
-​ western garter snake has red sides
-​ turtles are also found there
-​ painted turtle: western variety
-​ what is special about painted turtle hatchlings? hatchlings
are freeze tolerant
-​ black spruce and jack pine are common, balsam fir is rare
-​ why? because it is warmer and drier, balsam fir likes
moisture
-​ spruce grouse
-​ boreal chickadee
-​ canada jay
-​ white-winged crossbill
-​ warblers
-​ more species of warblers nest in boreal forest than
anywhere else in north america
-​ yellow-bellied flycatcher
-​ sit in tree and fly out to catch insect flying by and
come back to perch
-​ widespread to boreal forest
-​ prairie birds in western boreal***
-​ black-billed magpie
-​ snowshoe hare and their predators
-​ woodland caribou
-​ grey wolves and cougars (mountain lions)
-​ least chipmunk
-​ common in rocky rubble, base of mountains
-​ american martin
-​ jack pine tree
-​ very common here
-​ can grow in dry conditions with little soil
-​ has two short needles in pairs joined at base
-​ cones are tied to stem and very hard
-​ scales are cemented shut
-​ crossbills cant open them
-​ how do they open?
-​ fire opens the serotinous cones
 -​ temp of 50 C required

-​ fire is a major ecological force in western boreal

-​ on avg fires occur every 50-100 years
1)​ low amount of annual precipitation
2)​ relatively flat land and winds from prairies
3)​ conifers are full of resin and burn well
4)​ high number of lightning storms in western boreal
-​ all factors combine make western boreal hot bed for fires
-​ jack pines are fire-adapted
-​ fire burns off the duff layer and exposes mineral soil beneath soil
-​ black spruce. how do they survive fires?
-​ have a second set of cones towards the base.
-​ semi-serotinous cones
-​ why jack pines and black spruce are dominant
-​ sharp-tailed grouse benefit from fires
-​ likes the burned areas for habitat
-​ display at leks
-​ fire regenerates jack pine which is habitat for spruce grouse
(refreshes their habitat)
-​ kirtlands warbler
-​ jack pines stands (?)
-​ endangered species
-​ thrives in jack pine 5 to 15 years, 2 to 5 m tall
-​ the habitat that fire creates
-​ population is increasing
-​ 2024 = several nesting colonies in ontario
-​ haven't found any in boreal yet
-​ warmer climate = more biodiversity

lecture 9
-​ in western boreal: peatlands no muskeg
-​ jack pines: can be considered climax forest
-​ fly over western boreal: mosaic pattern: green for forest, black for fire, blue for water
-​ woodland caribou provincial park
-​ wilderness park = untouched by human hands
-​ jack pines are common, lots of lakes and exposed rocks
-​ lichen and mosses
-​ not lots of elevation, so small waterfalls
-​ wabakimi provincial park
2
-​ one of the largest tracts of protected boreal in the world: 8, 920.61 𝑘𝑚
-​ second largest provincial park in ontario
2
-​ biggest: polar bear provincial park (23, 552 𝑘𝑚 )
 -​ formed to protect woodland caribou
-​ flat, exposed rock, fires
-​ wabakimi is affected by winds from the west: fires are still prevalent
-​ typical coniferous forest plants
-​ bunchberry
-​ canada mayflower
-​ clintonia or bluebead lily: after being pollinated become blue berries
-​ northern boreal forest plants: still coniferous
-​ bilberry
-​ eastern white cedar
-​ indicator of acidic coniferous woods:
-​ pink lady’s slippers
-​ not strictly boreal forest species
-​ peatlands are present in wabakimi prov. park but wabakimi has more bc
1.​ prairie wind effect is weaker
2.​ more precipitation: 65-70 cm annually (10 cm more than woodland caribou)
-​ thin soil, strong winds = trees get blown over
-​ blowdown: area where wind has brought down majority of trees
-​ no logging in wabakimi
-​ the line of the park is clear-cut
-​ fire open the cones of jack pines and black spruce
-​ fire burn off the duff layer to the mineral soil
-​ fire leave many standing dead trees, which attract more insects, more woodpeckers,
more cavity adopters
-​ fires leave organic material to be recycled
-​ logging does NONE of those
-​ clear-cutting is NOT the same as fire
-​ logging also removes calcium from the ecosystem
-​ wilderness parks like wabakimi are important remnants of boreal forest
-​ one little bit of elevation in wabakimi: smooth rock lake
-​ not lots of relief in western boreal
-​ a lot more relief in other part of boreal forest

-​ new part of the boreal: superior boreal (it is around lake superior and affected by it)
-​ lake superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world
2
-​ area ≥ 82,000 𝑘𝑚
-​ depth = up to 400 m (ave = 149 m)
2
-​ volume = 12,100 𝑘𝑚
-​ lake superior moderates winter temperatures
-​ why? water takes long time to heat up and cool down
-​ still holds heat to moderate climate around it
-​ lake superior depresses summer temperatures giving coastal summers
-​ north shore of lake superior has some of the highest elevations in ontario
 -​ sleeping giant (563 m ASL)
-​ highest vertical rise in ontario (1,247 feet = 380 m)
-​ altitude brings a decrease in temperature
-​ lake superior effect + elevation = very cool summer temperatures
-​ biodiversity is higher here than other parts of boreal forest
-​ one reason is great variety of igneous and metamorphic rock types
-​ due to colder conditions subarctic flora grows along superior's north shore and on
islands
-​ xanthoria: lichen (orange), for calcium
-​ ninebark: shrub likes calcium
-​ shrubby cinquefoil: shrub likes calcium
-​ kalm's lobelia
-​ plants that like basic pH grow on these islands
-​ rocks are volcanic rocks such as basalt which are basic in pH
(calcium is present)
-​ ontario goldenrod primarily grows on basalt islands
-​ basalt islands are one reason biodiversity is greater here than in
northern boreal forest
-​ butterwort
-​ disjunct population, glacial relict
-​ not all disjunct population is from glaciation
-​ glacial relict: population of a cold-adapted species left behind as its
range changed after an ice age
-​ sand dunes along the superior shoreline
-​ beach pea (colonizing)
-​ least chipmunk eating seeds of american dune grass
-​ american dune grass (disjunct population, glacial relict)
-​ sparrows-egg lady's slipper (disjunct population, glacial relict)
-​ climate warms, main population retrieves north, some population is left
behind
-​ other unusual plants are found along the north shores of lake superior
-​ pitcher’s thistle: reduced leaf surface area
-​ found only a few shores of great lakes
-​ endemic: plant or animal that lives in very small geographic region
only and nowhere else in the world
-​ great lakes endemic
-​ endemics + varied rock types + glacial relicts = greater biodiversity
-​ also superior boreal is farther south, warmer, and has longer growing season than northern
boreal
-​ thus more soil, allows star-nosed moles to live here
-​ a few elements of great lakes – st.lawrence forest region can be found here
-​ red pine and white pine (not adapted for far north)
-​ the exception, can encounter the odd pine
 -​ one national park in superior boreal: pukaskwa national park
-​ remarkable geology, number of glacial relics
-​ longest underdeveloped shoreline of any of the great lakes
-​ one of highest peaks in ontario (tip top mountain: 641 m ASL)
-​ cliffs are habitat for certain birds
-​ common raven
-​ white wash: where bird is pooping
-​ peregrine falcon
-​ due to DDT bioaccumulation, eastern peregrine falcon populations
(anatum race) crashed in 1950s and 1960s
-​ eggs w thinner shells, cracked when sat on
-​ more clumsy adult
-​ population began dropping dramatically
-​ classified as endangered 1978
-​ captive breeding and release program began in 1970
-​ hacking box
-​ today – recovery is complete, more nest sites than were
present historically
-​ ouimet canyon – peregrine falcons nesting on cliff
-​ where cliffs meet huge bodies of water
-​ thermals: birds exploit for free lift
-​ glide to next thermal without flapping wings
-​ cliffs provide great variation in relief and microclimates
-​ cold winds off the lake plus elevation create subarctic conditions idea for subarctic species:
-​ alpine woodsia = small northern cliff fern
-​ disjunct population, glacial relict
-​ a different part of the boreal forest lies to the east

lecture 10
-​ boreal forest is in canadian shield (physiographic region)
-​ most of it is hard, acidic, nutrient-poor
-​ the clay belt boreal
-​ this part of the boreal forest is characterized by gentle rolling hills and relatively flat plains
-​ metamorphic rocks
-​ elevation: 222.5 m ASL in hearst, 229 m ASL fraserdale, 295 m ASL timmins
-​ balsam fir is much more common here than in western parts of the boreal forest
-​ balsam fir has flat needles
-​ all needles lie on one plane
-​ spruce are round and can be rolled in your fingers
-​ white spruce is free of hairs
-​ black spruce is hairy
-​ bark is smooth, bumpy
-​ spruce has coarse bark
 -​ cones are upright
-​ spruce cones hang down
-​ why are balsam fir more common here? more moisture
1)​ more precipitation
2)​ glacial deposits that hold water
-​ lake ojibway and lake barlow
-​ lake barlow-ojibway left behind clay
-​ the great clay belt
-​ the clay has a huge effect on this part of the boreal forest
-​ clay is made of crushed and dissolved limestone
-​ has a basic pH
-​ huge effect on the landscape
-​ lots of wetlands
-​ several types of wetlands but no muskeg
-​ too warm, too much decomposition
-​ peatlands, fens
-​ fens = peatlands with more nutrients than bogs (brought in by moving water)
-​ sphagnum moss is present but not always dominant
-​ fens are sedge dominated
-​ sedges
-​ carex (genus)
-​ have edges
-​ female flower is encased in a perigynium
-​ tussock sedge: forms a tussock
-​ forms a special habitat
-​ sedge tussock or hummock
-​ roots of a sedge have gone down and are holding up living ones
above waterline
-​ bog-bean or bog buckbean grows there
-​ fens often have cottongrass
-​ a sedge but not a carex
-​ some sedges form their own habitat in shallow waters
-​ meadow formed by sedges = sedge meadows
-​ many sedge species grow in wet habitats
-​ in many clay belt wetlands cattails are dominant
-​ cattails form habitat called cattail marsh
-​ broad-leaved cattail (wide leaves)
-​ male and female part are tied together
-​ native
-​ narrow-leaved cattail
-​ male and female part are separated
-​ non-native
-​ lots of cattails are hybrid between the two species
-​ ducks in wetlands
-​ puddle ducks (dablers)
-​ filter feeders
-​ american black duck
-​ major breeding area for this species
-​ males have yellow bills, female have olive bills
-​ northern shoveler
-​ not many diver ducks, more dabblers
-​ birds in wetlands
-​ american bittern
-​ pied-billed grebe
-​ note the lobed toes
-​ adaptation for swimming in marsh habitats
-​ virginia rail
-​ compressed laterally to walk through cattails
-​ secretive, heard more than seen
-​ skimmers are common dragonflies in clay belt marshes
-​ belted whiteface
-​ frosted whiteface
-​ boreal bluet
-​ amphibians
-​ american toads
-​ mink-frog
-​ calcium in water, what animals might be present
-​ aquatic snails (for shells)
-​ cattails are important for muskrats (make homes out of cattail and eat cattail)
-​ eastern white cedar
-​ white cedars create habitat called a cedar swamp
-​ recall many orchids like calcium-rich habitats
-​ showy lady’s slippers grow in calcareous wetlands including cedar swamps
-​ usually not found in boreal forest
-​ reach their northern limits in the clay belt boreal
-​ northern limits: does not occur beyond that
-​ several rivers flowing through clay belt boreal
-​ abitibi river
-​ flows into james bay
-​ abitibi canyon
-​ mud pellet nest on dam (cliff swallow)
-​ what watershed are they part of?
-​ arctic watershed – drain into james bay
-​ hydroelectric dams have been built on most rivers
-​ lots of power dams in ontario (1,906)
-​ where the clay belt meets the hudson bay lowland, the land is flat and there are
extensive black spruce forests
-​ massive sand dunes – natural
-​ after glaciers left, shows the shoreline of tyrell sea (thats what the sand
dunes are frome)
-​ on sand dunes, jack pines
-​ other deposits too

-​