Integrated Environmental

UNIT 1 INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL Management

MANAGEMENT
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Historical Perspective
1.3 Sustainable Development
Requisite Conditions for Sustainable Development
Principles for Sustainable Development
1.4 Integrated Environment Management
The Concept of IEM
The Principles and Process of IEM
1.5 Summary
1.6 Terminal Questions

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The idea of integrated environment management has gained prominence in the past
few decades, ever since sustainability became the central theme in economic
development. You have studied about sustainable development in the course
MED-002. You have learnt that it signifies an approach to environment and
development issues in which the requirement to satisfy human needs is balanced with
the capacity of the environment to cope with the consequences of economic
development. It also delineates the contours of integrated environment management,
which are being introduced in this unit.
We begin the unit by presenting a brief history of environmental management. The
concept of integrated environmental management is closely linked with the need for
sustainable development. Therefore, we revisit the concept of sustainable
development briefly. We recapitulate the underlying principles of and the approaches
to sustainable development. Finally, we outline the concept of integrated
environmental management. In the next unit, we discuss the relevance of integrated
environment management in the rural context.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• outline human concerns about the environment in a historical perspective;

• discuss the principles and characteristics of sustainable development; and
• explain the concept of integrated environmental management.

1.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Since the Rio Summit in 1992, the objective of environmental protection has been
accorded high priority by the international community. The concern for environmental
degradation at local, regional and global levels has led to several national, regional
and international measures and initiatives. It has at the same time become quite clear
that reversing such degradation is not a purely technical and managerial matter. For,
technical knowledge does not necessarily lead societies to change their
environmentally damaging behaviours. Hence a critical understanding of socio-
economic, political and cultural structure has acquired central importance in
approaching environmental problems. Most of these are complex problems whose
solutions require grasping the big picture, appreciating and dealing with complexity
and supporting effective strategies. This is only possible by integrating the
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Evolving Concepts and environmental perspective into socio-economic, socio -cultural and ethical systems.
Principles There is a dire need to develop an environmental approach based on a system of
collectively held factual ideas, beliefs and attitudes that advocates a particular pattern
of social relationships with the environment. It also focuses on arrangements aimed at
justifying a particular pattern of conduct towards the environment. We now trace the
human approach to environment in a historical perspective to clarify why such
advocacy is needed.
Early human societies were dependent on nature. The evolution of agriculture reduced
this dependence. Together with urbanisation, it affected the environment negatively
but human beings still lived in relative harmony with their environment. However,
with the growing pace of industrialisation, the impact of human activities on the
environment underwent a drastic change in the past two centuries. This has been
accompanied by a gradual broadening and deepening of concerns towards human
beings and nature. From early human societies to the industrial era, we can note four
major strands in human concerns about the environment.
• Protection of nature,
• Pragmatic resource conservation,
• Moral and aesthetic nature preservation, and
• Environment and development.
We now describe each one of these, in brief.
• Protection of Nature
Human misuse of nature is not unique to modern times. Plato, a famous Greek
philosopher of the fourth century B.C., wrote that the Greek peninsula of Attica
was once blessed with fertile soil and abundant forests of fine trees (Fig. 1.1). He
lamented that after the trees were cut to build houses and ships, heavy rains
washed the soil into the sea, leaving only a rocky “skeleton of a body wasted by
disease”. Springs and rivers dried up while farming became all but impossible.

Fig.1.1: Attica is located in what is today southern Greece, and covers about 3,800 square
kilometres. In addition to Athens, it contains within its area the cities of Peiraeus, Eleusis,
Megara, Laurium , and Marathon, as well as the islands of Salamis, Aegina, Poros, Hydra,
Spetses, Kythira, and Antikythera

Classical authors often regarded the Earth as a living being, vulnerable to aging,
illness, and even mortality. Periodic threats about the impending death of nature
as a result of human misuse have persisted through the middle ages and into our
own times. However, many of these dire warnings have proven to be premature or
greatly exaggerated. We have to be careful about “crying wolf” too many times!

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 French and British colonial administrators, who often were trained scientists, Integrated Environmental
Management
considered responsible environmental stewardship an aesthetic and moral priority
as well as an economic necessity. They carried out some of the earliest scientific
studies of environmental damage in the eighteenth century. These early
conservationists observed and understood the connection between deforestation,
soil erosion, and local climate change. The pioneering British plant physiologist
Stephen Hales, for instance, suggested that conserving green plants preserved
rainfall. His ideas were put into practice in 1764 on the Caribbean island of
Tobago, where about 20 percent of the land was marked as “reserved in wood for
rains.”
Pierre Poivre, an early French governor of Mauritius (an island in the Indian
Ocean), was appalled at the environmental and social devastation caused by
destruction of wildlife – such as the flightless dodo – and felling of ebony forests
on the island by early European settlers. In 1769, Poivre ordered that one quarter
of the island was to be preserved as forests, particularly on steep mountain slopes
and along waterways. Mauritius remains a model for balancing nature and human
needs. Its forest reserves shelter a larger percentage of its original flora and fauna
than most human occupied islands.

Fig.1.2: The island of Mauritius

• Pragmatic Resource Conservation

Many historians consider the 1864 publication of Man and Nature by geographer
George Perkins Marsh to have been the wellspring of the American environmental
protection in North America. Marsh, who was a lawyer, politician, diplomat, and
geographer, travelled widely around the Mediterranean as part of his diplomatic
duties in Turkey and Italy. Not only was he well read and familiar with the works
of Plato, he was also a keen nature observer. He observed the damage caused by
excessive grazing by goats and sheep and deforesting steep hillsides. Alarmed by
the wanton destruction and profligate waste of resources still occurring on the
American frontier in his lifetime he forewarned of its ecological consequences.
Largely as a result of his book, national forests reserves were established in the
United States in 1873 to protect dwindling timber supplies and endangered
watersheds.
Among those influenced by Marsh’s warnings were President Theodore Roosevelt
and his chief conservation adviser Gifford Pinchot, a champion of the populist, Fig.1.3: George Perkins Marsh
progressive movement. They put resource management on an honest, rational, and
scientific basis for the first time in U.S. history. Together with naturalists and
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Evolving Concepts and activists such as John Muir, William Brewster, and George Bird Grinnell,
Principles Roosevelt and Pinchot established the framework of national forests, parks, and
wildlife refuge systems, and passed game protection laws.
The basis of these policies was pragmatic utilitarian conservation. It was
argued that the forests should be saved “not because they are beautiful or because
they shelter wild creatures of the wilderness, but only to provide homes and jobs
for people.” Resources should be used “for the greatest good, for the greatest
number, for the longest time.”
Pinchot observed, “There has been a fundamental misconception that conservation
means nothing but husbanding of resources for future generations. Nothing could
be further from the truth. The first principle of conservation is development and
use of the natural resources now existing on this continent for the benefit of the
people who live here now. There may be just as much waste in neglecting the
development and use of certain natural resource as there is in their destruction.”
This pragmatic approach can still be seen in many resource management
programmes in the USA, and particularly in the multiple use policies of the Forest
Service.
• Moral and Aesthetic Nature Preservation
John Muir, an Am erican geologist, and the first President of the Sierra Club,
strenuously opposed Pinchot’s influence and policies. Muir argued that nature
deserves to exist for its own sake, regardless of its usefulness to humans.
Aesthetic and spiritual values formed the core of his philosophy of nature
protection. This outlook has been called bio-centric preservation because it
emphasises the fundamental right of living organisms to exist and to pursue their
own goods. Muir wrote, “The world, we are told, was made for man. A
presumption that is totally unsupported by the facts is that nature’s object in
making animals and plants might possibly be first of all the happiness of each one
of them. Why man ought to value himself as more than an infinitely small unit of
the one great unit of creation?”
Muir, who was an early explorer and interpreter of the Sierra Nevada Mountains
in California, fought long and hard for the establishment of Yosemite and King’s
Canyon National Parks in USA. The National Park Service of USA, established in
Fig.1.4: John Muir 1916, has always been oriented toward preservation of nature in its purest state. It
has often been at odds with Pinchot’s utilitarian forest service.
• Environment and Development
Over the past thirty years, growing numbers of people around the world have
come to recognise that efforts to improve their standards of living must be in
harmony with the natural world. Many have realised that lack of development can
be as great a threat to nature as reckless or misguided development. Relationship
between environment and development is an integral part of the social
environment. As principle 4 of Rio Declaration points out, environment and
development are interrelated. It states that:
“In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection should
constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in
isolation from it.”

Let us briefly explain the process of development to put the environment-

development relationship in perspective.

The process of development encompasses economic growth, reduction of

inequality and elimination of poverty. Economic growth results from a variety of
activities, e.g., development of industry, agriculture, services, forestry, mining,
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 tourism, etc. All economic activities directly or indirectly depend on resources – Integrated Environmental
Management
renewable or non-renewable. The basic function of all economic activity is to
provide as many people as possible with the means of overcoming the
helplessness and misery, which arises from lack of food, shelter, health and
protection. Therefore, economic growth can help in reducing inequality and
eliminating poverty.

The process of development has a direct impact on the environment about which
you have studied in the course MED-001. Conversely, the condition of the
environm ent and its resources also affect development and, therefore, the social
environment. In fact, we can say that it is a cyclical process. On a long-term basis,
over-exploitation of the environment could lead to the continuation of the cycle of
poverty.

The lack of development and poverty also contributes to environmental

degradation. In effect, the process of development has an integral relationship with
the environment. Unsustainable development strategies can hinder future efforts to
develop countries. Having gone through the discussion so far, you may like to
know: What kind of strategies should be adopted for environmentally sustainable
development? We take this question up in the next section. However, you may like
to attempt an SAQ before studying further.

SAQ 1

Explain how environment and development impact each other. If possible, give
specific examples from your own context in your answer.

1.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The expression ‘sustainable development’ was first used by the economists who were
concerned about the problems caused when efforts to promote growth ignored the
environmental dimensions of growth. Such efforts focused on activities in which
projected benefits exceeded projected costs by the highest margin possible. In the
1980s, the term sustainable development was used to describe the development that
takes into account the environmental consequences.

You may wonder: How did this change come about?

During the 1980s a number of reports from agencies concerned with environment and
development called for a radical approach to natural resources exploitation and
economic development. They suggested that existing forms of economic development
were not sustainable because they undermined the natural resources and services on
which all economic activity is based. In fact, these forms of development failed to
meet the needs of a growing number of the world’s people, many of whom lived in a
state of absolute poverty.
The approach of sustainable development would bring together two aspects of
development, which were separated in the previous approach:

1. The socio-economic aspect, which involved economic production and the

satisfaction of human needs; and

2. The environmental aspect, which involved the capacity of the environment to

cope with the effects of economic activity.
You have learnt about the concept of sustainable development in the course
MED-002. We recapitulate it here, in brief.

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Evolving Concepts and Since the release of the Brundtland Commission’s report, Our Common Future, the
Principles concept of sustaina ble development has captured the world’s attention.

The term was defined by the Brundtland Commission as:

“Development that meets the needs of present generation

without compromising the ability of the future generations to
meet their own needs.”

The definition contains two key concepts:

1. The concept of need, in particular, the essential needs of the world’s poor, to
which overriding priority should be given; and
2. The limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation.
Thus, sustainable development strives to integrate social and environmental concerns
into economic decisions (Fig. 1.5). The concept of sustainable development implies a
fusion of two imperatives: the right to develop, and the need to sustain the
environment. What it means is that any future development ought to be achieved in a
sustainable manner. This concept denotes a balance that brings environmental
concepts into the developmental process, and developmental matters are placed in the
ambit of environmental protection efforts.

Air Biodiversity Energy

Land Climate
Water Minerals

Full cost
Waste & Accounting
Resource Liability
Management Regulations
Property
Rights
Production
Food Processing
Shelter Marketing
Clothing Transportation
Recreation Investment
Culture Development
Communications

Community
Development
Food safety

Fig.1.5: Sustainable development

The concept of sustainable development has also fundamentally changed the nature
and scope of the debate on the environment and its relation with development. The
pursuit of economic growth no longer occupies primacy in human objectives. It is
now a part of the larger picture, a central theme of which is how to integrate economic
and environmental concerns in the development strategy. The characteristic features
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that distinguish sustainable development from other forms of development are, Integrated Environmental
Management
concerns for:
• Quality of life, and
• Social equity.
Quality of life: Sustainable development views quality of life as the main concern of
development. It lays stress on a gradual change in the quality of human life brought
about by economic growth. The change must be gradual because sudden and rapid
change requires over -exploitation of environmental resources and thus defeats the
purpose of sustainable development.
Social equity: Sustainable development also accords central importance to social
equity, that is, conditions in which the fruits of development are accessible to all
citizens in an equitable manner. This implies
• respect for regional, national, local and cultural diversity;
• the strengthening and full exercise of all citizens’ participation in the development
process, and
• peaceful coexistence and harmony with nature.

A natural question that follows is: How can sustainable development be attained?
What conditions do we need to fulfil to meet this goal?

1.3.1 Requisite Conditions for Sustainable Development

Democracy, autonomy, fairness , interdependence, responsibility and
accountability are some preconditions required for nations to pursue the path of
sustainable development. Let us explain this idea further.
Democracy: Although these two ideas are not absolutely linked, sustainable
development can hardly be initiated or implemented in the absence of genuine
democracy. A genuinely democratic society has to have various mechanisms and
institutions, which enable the participation of all citizens in the process of sustainable
development. After all, isn’t sustainable development everyone’s business and
everyone’s future?

Only in a genuine democracy can all human beings, no matter what their country of
origin, aspire to

• get clean air and water,

• obtain sufficient and safe food,
• get comfortable housing ,and
• have satisfying work.

in an atmosphere of peace and respect for differences and diversity, that ensures the
protection and survival of their natural and cultural heritage.

In brief, all human beings enjoy a fundamental right to an environment that is of high
quality and is healthy. We must understand that democracy implies respect not only
for individual rights, but also for collective rights and, in particular, the rights of
women, to participate actively and fully in all socio-economic political processes.

Autonomy: While sustainable development must be achieved in a democratic context,

the autonomy of governments, peoples and ethnic groups in making their development
choices must also be respected. This does not mean that governments and peoples
must operate in isolation; on the contrary, they must adopt a global view of 11
Evolving Concepts and development and development planning by taking an active part in international fora
Principles and processes for determining major common objectives for sustainable development.
This also does not exclude the establishment of common international environmental
standards, although each government is free to adopt national standards consistent
with these.
It is important to understand that the development and implementation of
environmental standards by less developed countries will depend on the limits and
ability of those countries to act and pay the associated costs. At the same time, these
countries have certain potential skills and practical knowledge that often remain
underexploited in the absence of appropriate support structures. Thus a greater need
for mutual assistance, cooperation and the transfer of knowledge and clean
technologies arises directly from the interdependence of countries in attaining the goal
of sustainable development.

Fairness: The concept of fairness is based on the recognition of the global and
common nature of our environment and on the need for the planet’s resources to be
shared in a sustainable way. It is central to the entire issue of sustainable development.
Achieving fairness in sustainable development must be addressed at three levels:

Within popu lations or states, between populations or states, and between

generations.

Fairness within a single population or government essentially requires meeting the

needs of all and improving the quality of life through a better distribution of
wealth.

At the next level, the disparities between the rich and poor countries must be reduced
by waging a relentless struggle against poverty. Sustainable development cannot be
viewed solely from an environmental standpoint, particularly in the countries of
the South, where it must be achieved by accelerating equitable development.

Lastly, fairness between generations implies that each generation should leave to the
future a world that is at least as diverse and productive as the one it inherited.
Development of one society or generation should not limit the opportunities of other
societies or generations.

Interdependence: With industrialisation, improved technological capabilities and the

globalisation of trade and commerce, has come increased interdependence, even at the
local level. All of us have a common interest in the environment. Each decision has to
be made and each action taken in the full knowledge of the repercussions for the
environment and the welfare of others. Interdependence extends beyond a local and
regional framework, and implies international cooperation, particularly in respect of
the environmental problems affecting the biosphere.

It is based on the capability for mutual assistance and cooperation at all levels of
action, from the local to the international.

Responsibility and accountability : Since it is in everyone’s interest to preserve the

environment and to use it in a sustainable way, all countries have a responsibility from
the outset to preserve and restore the environment and to achieve development,
without harming their own environment or that of others. The responsibilities of all
involved may be different but complementary, depending on the needs of each, and
may vary in proportion to the extent of damage to the environment and the abilities of
each party to rectify this. Moreover, in the context of globalised trade and
environmental problems, it is vital for the economic benefits of a given business
activity to be linked with its environmental repercussions, so that the responsibilities
of each stakeholder are recognised. All players must be accountable for their own
actions.
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 Integrated Environmental
Management
Some have argued that the question of accountability, and thus of every stakeholder’s
assumption of responsibility, may lead to a redistribution of profits so that
compensation can be established, for example, for the use of natural resources or for
environmental impacts. This proposal might be one way in which the richest countries
can make a greater contribution to the sustainable development of poor countries and
take an active part in solving environmental problems. Collective and individual
responsibility for managing the environment and natural resources in a sustainable
manner must take into account both present and future generations. Making
stakeholders responsible for their actions is at the same time encouraging the principle
of stewardship, whereby a representative of both present and future generations acts as
the “custodian” of natural resources and the environment.

PREREQUISITES
FOR
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT

Fig.1.6: Prerequisites for sustainable development

So far you have learnt about the basic conditions necessary for ensuring sustainable
development. We now describe certain principles underlying its implementation.

1.3.2 Principles for Sustainable Development

Five broad principles have been identified as being vital to the process of sustainable
development.

• Integration of environment and economy

The integration of environment and economy is an absolute necessity for

sustainable development. Today, various economic tools and policies are used to
promote sustainable development, and ensure an environmentally conscious use
of resources. These tools or policies, such as the Polluter-Pays or Consumer-Pays
Approach, may be applied equally to producers, consumers and taxpayers. These
enable the market to determine the correct overall cost of using resources. In
future, tax incentives or other economic tools may be necessary to promote further
integration of the environment and the economy.

This could hopefully result in a softening of world trade rules whereby poorer
countries would be enabled to lay claim to greater economic development.

• Conservation of natural resources and maintenance of biological diversity

Achieving sustainable development presupposes that the limits of utilisation of

natural resources are commensurate with their renewal capacity. The life of non-
renewable resources should also be extended by developing and using more
effective and environment-frie ndly cleaner technologies and by encouraging re-
use and recycling practices.

Moreover, we should preserve biological diversity, maintain ecological processes

and life support systems and use the world’s species and ecosystems in a
sustainable manner. This means that we should be able to protect the structure,
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Evolving Concepts and functions and diversity of natural systems, the species inhabiting them as well as
Principles their genetic heritage.

How can this be achieved? See Fig. 1.7 for some answers.

Fig.1.7: Some ways of promoting conservation of natural resources

First of all must come changes in the behaviours of individuals and communities
and in their attitude to the environment, along with the provision of genuine
means for managing it better. New approaches at the state level must then
integrate development and conservation of resources on the basis of authentic
information and knowledge and through effective legal and institutional
instruments. Efforts at the inter national level must focus on promotion of
development, adoption and implementation of Conventions and Protocols on the
environment and natural resources.

• Precaution, prevention and evaluation of harmful effects on the environment

Precaution, prevention and evaluation of the effects of every development project

on the environment must form an integral part of their planning and
implementation. Planners and decision-makers must make it routine to foresee
and provide for the environmental consequences of their projects. Current
environmental protection measures are precautionary. However, in many cases,
they are merely a band-aid solution that is not always compatible with the concept
of sustainable development, particularly from a long-term perspective.

However, the concepts of precaution, prevention and evaluation are difficult to

instil because they are often removed from the day-to-day reality and have
benefits that will be felt only in the distant future. What needs to be underscored is
that forewarned is forearmed, foresight is knowledge and evaluation enables
planning. It is imperative that countries and societies adopt these three
watchwords so that all development can become sustainable.

• Cooperation, partnership and participation of communities

Sus tainable development is a collective responsibility. Consultation, cooperation

and participation in all decision-making are essential to the sustainable
management of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.

All governments must cooperate in a spirit of partnership and accept their

responsibilities to protect, preserve and restore the environment. They should
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 introduce and facilitate the participation of all sections of the society in all Integrated Environmental
Management
development and environment-related activities.

In addition, states must join forces to strengthen international law by adhering to

existing Environmental Conservation and Management Conventions and
protocols and by passing the necessary statutes for their implementation. They
must also promote and develop new agreements and instruments as per the
emerging needs and situations for achieving sustainable development.
Meaningful cooperation and partnership also requires that rich countries introduce
financial and technical assistance measures for enabling the poor countries to
integrate environmental issues into their development projects and to improve
their access to the advanced and environmental-friendly technologies. The
creation of Environmental Protection and Restoration Funds would go a long way
in fostering genuine cooperation and partnership in this area.

For example, the experiences and issues in the preservation of biological diversity
clearly illustrate how interdependent countries of the North and South blocs are.
The main centres or sources of biological diversity are situated in the countries of
the South, whereas the major “technological or biotechnological centres” are
mainly in the countries of the North.

In other words, the countries of the South as well as those of the North must be
party to all discussions, solutions and conventions necessary to the achievement of
sustainable development. They must all ensure that the measures chosen are suited
to the situation of each.

• Education, training and awareness generation

Safeguarding the environment and achieving sustainable development depend not

only on technical and economic matters, but also on changes in ideas, attitudes
and behaviours. The direct participation of individuals and communities is
essential. All citizens of the world must become fully aware of their environment,
know its demands and limits and alter their habits and behaviours accordingly. To
this end, countries must develop strategies to better educate, inform and sensitise
their populations on environmental matters and actions towards achieving
sustainable development.

For example, ecological and environmental concerns can be integrated into school
programmes; the awareness of the general public can be raised through extensive
information campaigns, particularly through the media; green projects can be
encouraged in local communities, and training programmes can be developed to
promote more informed resource management and the use of environmentally -
compatible technologies.

You may like to stop for a while to concretise these ideas .

SAQ 2

Suggest ways of ensuring that the principles of sustainable development are applied in
your own context.
So far, we have briefly recapitulated the basic principles underlying sustainable
development along with its characteristics. You would perhaps like to know: Can the
goal of sustainable development be attained? If so, how?

Sustainability is related to the quality of life in a community: Are the economic,

social, and environmental factors that govern a community providing a healthy,
productiv e, and meaningful life for all community residents? Would the same be true
for the future generations? 15
 Evolving Concepts and Economy, society and environment comprise three domains of human activity
Principles and all three have to be linked in a holistic, integrated manner to attain
sustainability.
To understand this point, let us consider a situation in which these domains are
segregated: the community’s problems are viewed as isolated issues, economic
development agencies try to create more jobs, social needs are addressed by health
care services and housing authorities, and environmental agencies are expected to
prevent and correct pollution and other environmental problems (Fig. 1.8).

• Create • Prevent
more pollution
jobs
• Check
environmental
problems

• Address social needs

Fig.1.8: Segregated approach

This piecemeal approach has a number of shortcomings:

• Solution to one problem can make other problems worse. For example, creating
affordable housing is a good thing, but when that housing is built in areas far from
workplaces, the result will be traffic congestion, pollution and extra use of fuel
and various other resources.
• Piecemeal solutions often result in discontentment. How often have you heard the
argument ‘if the environmentalists win, the economy will suffer’? When the
economy driving businesses have their way, the environment invar iably gets
affected and even destroyed.
• Piecemeal solutions tend to focus on short-term benefits without monitoring long-
term results. The pesticide DDT seemed like a good solution for getting rid of
insect pests at the time, but the long-term results were devastating.

In an integrated holistic approach, all domains require interaction among people

constituting a society. And the social aspects like religion, culture, friends, families,
music, art and ethics play crucial role in economic activities. So the economy exists
entirely within society. Society, in turn exists entirely within the environment.
Environment surrounds society. It fulfils our basic requirements of food, water, air
and shelter. Since people need food, water, air to survive, society can never be larger
than the environment. This needs to be clearly understood by all of us.

Sustainability requires managing all households at various levels – individual,

community, national and global, in ways that ensure that our economy and society can
continue to exist without destroying the natural environment on which we all depend.
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Sustainable communities acknowledge that there are limits to the natural, social and Integrated Environmental
Management
economic systems upon which we depend.
Sustainable development also requires capital, viz., natural capital, human or social
capital, and economic or built capital (Fig. 1.9).
Natural capital refers to

• Natural resource stocks, i.e., sources of raw materials used in the production of
manufactured goods;
• Land, that provides space for economic activity; and
• Ecosystem, which provides services directly and indirectly to the economy. Some
examples are: Cleaning of polluted air and water, provision of productive soil,
provision of biodiversity, protection from incident solar radiations, provision of
largely stable climate, and provision of reliable flows of renewable natural
resources.
Human capital can be described as the capabilities and capacities, both innate and
derived or accumulated by humans throughout their lives. This refers specifically to
the working age population that works productively with or using other types of
capital. This term is traditionally applied to education, and includes the knowledge
and skills that working age population accumulates through formal education
attainment, training and experience. The more human capital is available in the
economy, the greater the value of the services rendered by its workers.
Economic capital includes goods produced, tools, machines, buildings and other
forms of infrastructure as well as financial capital, which enable other types of capital
to be owned and traded. It has no real value itself but is representative of natural,
human, social or manufactured capital, e.g., shares, bonds or banknotes.

MONEY

Fig.1.9: Economic, natural and human capital for sustainable development

So far you have briefly revisited the concept of sustainable development. You know
that sustainable development seeks to integrate environmental, social and economic
conc erns, now and in the future, and to maintain the carrying capacity of the 17
Evolving Concepts and environment. It implies that present, as well as future generations should enjoy a
Principles better quality of life as a whole.
You have learnt that to achieve this goal, we need to strengthen democracy, human
rights policies, equity, and autonomy, and employ the tools of technology,
participatory governance and capacity development through, for instance, education to
empower people. Sustainable development can become a reality only if economic and
social development policies are pro-poor, pro-women and pro-nature. All programmes
and projects undertaken for sustainable development should address issues such as
conservation of natural resources like land, water, forest, air, etc.
Thus, environmental concerns should form an integral part of the process of
development. In order to achieve this, we need to strengthen environmental planning
and management and integrate environmental policies into the development process
along with other policies. At present, we see a rather fragmented approach to
environment management wherein different agencies are active in specific areas. For
example, there are government departments and NGOs working for watershed
management and others working for forest management, wasteland development or
rural development.
Now from your studies so far you would have realised that the management of
resources calls for an integrated approach. For example, watershed development has
to be integrated with forest management and land and soil management, and all these
have to be undertaken in a participatory sustainable development approach in order to
be successful. It is in this context that the concept of integrated environmental
management (IEM) becomes meaningful in our situation. It was formulated during
the 1980s in the western countries and constitutes a holistic approach to the
management of the development process. We now introduce this concept to you.

1.4 INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

During the 1960s there was a growing awareness of the complex, and often negative,
environmental effects of development projects and policies (e.g., changing land use
due to industrialisation and urbanisation, construction of roads, mining, providing
water or electricity to large number of people and so on). These developments led to
environmental degradation of an undesirable degree. Their effect has grown through
the past few decades. For example, the relatively poor water quality and ever
increasing stress on water resources, deteriorating air quality due to industries, power
plants and traffic, urban congestion, deficient sewerage, industrial effluents, lack of
proper solid waste and hazardous waste disposal are threatening our health and
environment as never before (see Fig. 1.10).
In this century, many cities in the developing world are expected to double or grow
even more in size, due to population growth and migration of people. This is bound to
increase environmental, social and economic problems. A world water crisis is
looming ahea d and it is said that the next world war may be fought for water.
You know that environmental degradation is a significant problem in South Asian
countries. This has been associated with rapid urbanisation, poor sanitation
infrastructure, unregulated industrialisation, deforestation, etc. For example, the
construction of large dams, hydropower schemes, diversion canals, and vast irrigation
systems has caused ecological disturbances in the river ecosystems of these countries.
Industrial effluents and agricultural runoffs poison these systems. In India, many
rivers and water bodies are already dead, massive deforestation has caused severe soil
erosion problems and reduction in biodiversity. Pollution from industries and the
transport sector is at unacceptable levels, especially in the metropolitan cities.
The challenges for these countries are to manage and protect their land, water,
forest and air resources, provide a reasonable quality of life and other
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environmental services to those who are now without them and at the same time Integrated Environmental
Management
accelerate the pace of development to meet the aspirations of their peoples.

Fig.1.10: The environmental impact of industrialisation and urbanisation

The traditional approach to the management of the development process did not
consider the natural environment in any significant way. Environmental issues were
traditionally regarded as being part of the natural sciences. Management theory did
not traditionally deal with nature and made no mention of managing nature as
common to the interests of society. The result was that managers and employers in the
traditional mould did not take into account environmental factors in their decision-
making and programme implementation.

However, this approach changed as the realisation of environmental problems grew in

the developed industrialised countries of the west and Asia. It is in response to such
problems that various approaches and techniques to manage development and its
impact on the environment evolved and were implemented over the past few decades.
For example, the process of environmental impact assessment (EIA) was developed
in an attempt to provide environmental information to advise development decisions.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, this process became widely used, mainly in
western industrialised countries, and some countries in Eastern Europe. However, the
role of EIAs in planning the developments projects was not clarified, and EIAs were
often tagged on after planning had occurred. This was followed by the concept of
integrated environment management (IEM) in the 1980s, which succeeds in
marrying traditional management thinking with the more recent eco-centric
management thought.

1.4.1 The Concept of IEM

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Evolving Concepts and As a philosophy, IEM prescribes a code of practice for ensuring that
Principles environmental considerations are fully integrated into all stages of the
development process in order to achieve a desirable balance between
environmental concerns and development. The philosophy of IEM emphasises
the ecological complexity and interdependency of humans and nature.
Functionally, IEM is a management-oriented approach to control environmental
disruption amidst a process of sustainable development. In this approach to the
management of development projects, all actions taken during project planning and
implementation should ensure that none of their consequences are overlooked or
underestimated. This philosophy and approach of IEM thus ensure that

In IEM, sustainable and equitable development is combined with sound

environmental practice for a healthy environment, which

• sustains people and nature,

• provides protection for our unique resources and
• results in an enhanced quality of life for all.
Fig.1.11: An icon for IEM
It is a process, which recognises the relationship between the environment, natural
resources and socio-economic development and strives to integrate their management
to achieve sustainable development. It serves as a useful tool when management of
one resource can have implications for other resources and their users, and when a
conflict of interest arising from different goals is involved in a development project.
Integrated environmental management includes the processes of planning,
conducting environmental impact assessments, developing proper management
plans, and the thorough monitoring and auditing of implemented programmes.
In the SAARC context, integrated environmental management means that policies and
projects should be developed and strategies should be implemented across national
borders to attain regiona l coordination for sustainable development. This approach
should yield short as well as long-term economic benefits, and the long-term survival
and maintenance of the South Asian ecology. It presupposes that greater
environmental awareness and training in enhanced environmental management skills
are essential interventions for future sustainable development, improvement of
productivity and maintenance of environmental integrity.
Goals of IEM
The objectives of integrated environmental management are to:
• ensure that development does not compromise environmental sustainability,
health and safety and does not endanger natural and cultural resources,
• ensure that the environmental consequences of development proposals are
understood and adequately considered in the planning, implementation and
management of all development programmes;
• establish a framework of cooperation between the government organisations, the
public sector, the private sector and the public so that sustainable development
can take place;
• stimulate responsible and justifiable decision-making and action, and creative
thinking in the planning and initial design stage;

• guide the development process by implementing and encouraging the collection of

objective information and reliable data with respect to environment related aspects
and ensuring that it can be easily understood by all interested and affected parties
in the development;
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• resolve or lessen any negative environmental impacts and to enhance positive Integrated Environmental
Management
aspects of development proposals.
To achieve these goals, economic, social and environmental issues should be
integrated into developmental decision-making. Further, in calculating and planning
for the economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of projects and
development, decision makers should be made accountable for the environmental
impact of their decisions.
Benefits of IEM
Some benefits of IEM include:
• improved land productivity,
• efficient water management,
• biodiversity conservation ,
• conservation of natural resources,
• enhanced environmental protection, and
• improved productivity and activities based on sustainable development.
Participants in IEM
Integrated environmental management involves every one from individuals to
governmental and non-governmental organisations. The participants or stakeholders in
the process are shown in Table 1.1.
Table1.1: Participants in IEM

The community • individuals,

• landholders,
• farmers,
• developers,
• community interest groups,
e.g., water user groups, self-
help groups,
• local environmental care
groups in urban or rural
areas, e.g., resident’s
associations, and
• public.

Non-governmental • educational establishments,

Institutions • research organisations,
• NGOs.

Industries • manufacturing,
• chemicals,
• mining,
• energy industries,
• service industries, etc.
Local, State and • city and village bodies,
Union Government • community health service,
• environmental authorities,
• road and transport
authorities,
• water and river authorities, 21
 Evolving Concepts and • agricultural agencies,
Principles • health agencies,
• all concerned Ministries.

Politicians at all levels are an essential category of participants in the IEM process.
Any of these stakeholders could put up the capital for the project, and stand to make a
profit from it. The government would have legal control over the project related
activities, e.g., land to be developed. It would have a final say in whether or not the
development goes ahead, and what conditions should be attached to development.
There could be interested and affected parties, for example, neighbouring landowners
and the public. All the participants in the process are involved in planning,
implementation, action, and monitoring and evaluation.
Let us consider the example of watershed management to explain the role of various
participants in IEM. A surface water catchment is a na turally-defined eco-system. At
any given time it may be occupied by given species of flora and fauna. If human
beings occupy the area, then they can disturb the natural balance either by population
explosion or by various activities. Now if we want to prepare and implement an
integrated environmental management plan for a catchment we would need to involve,
a mix of governmental and non-governmental organisations and individuals in the
planning and implementation process.
Individuals should be sensitised about their responsibility to ensure that their activities
Fig.1.12: The participation of do not have detrimental effects in their catchment, e.g., unrestrained cattle grazing and
politicians is a must
felling of wood in forest areas leads to deforestation, which affects water retention in
at all stages of IEM
those lands. Local participatory groups could be formed to contribute to the resolution
of catchment-wide issues. These groups could be informal groups or more formally
established committees. The informal groups could deal with simple issues such as
establishing riparian vegetation, local erosion control, litter control, etc.
However, a lake or river management problem involving point source and diffused
source pollution from a variety of land uses in the catchment is more complex. It
would require involvement of a formally organised committee comprising of
individuals, public agencies and private organisations. A surface water catchment
could be divided into a number of sub-catchments, each managed by participatory
group and these groups should aim not only towards remedy or restoration but should
concentrate on preventive measures.
More complex environmental management issues that involve many participatory
groups and government agencies could be handled by environmental coordinating
committees. These committees should cons ist of representatives of the major sectors
of the community, institutions, agencies, industries and governments which are
engaged in, or affected by the management of natural resources in the catchment.
The Joint Forest Management Programme is case in point. You have studied about it
in the course MED-004.
Appropriate environmental management strategies should be formulated to identify
the important land and water issues in the region. They should also contain
recommended actions to address specific issues through governmental support. As the
project is implemented monitoring and research should go hand in hand. A follow -up
strategy should also be put in place.
It is important to note that the involvement of the community, government, public and
private sector in sustainable development are enhanced through participatory approach
adopted in the integrated environmental management.

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By now, you would have realised that management thinking on development issues Integrated Environmental
Management
has changed significantly over the past few decades. We summarise a comparative
study of the traditional management approach and IEM in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: A comparison of the traditional management approach with the

integrated environment management approach

Traditional Management Integrated Environment Management

Goals
Economic growth, higher Sustainability and quality of life
productivity and profits Stakeholder welfare
Shareholder wealth
Values
Anthropocentric Centred around sustainable developmental
Patriarchal values concerns
Rationality and packaged Egalitarian and democratic values
knowledge Intuition and understanding

Products
Designed for function, style and Designed with concern for the environment
price Environment-friendly packaging.
Wasteful packaging
Production system
Energy and resource intensive Low and efficient energy and resource use
Technical efficiency Environmental efficiency
Organisation
Top-down decision-making Participatory decision-making
Centralised authority Decentralised authority

Environment
Domination over nature Harmony with nature
Environment managed as a Resources regarded as strictly finite
resource Pollution and waste elimination management
Pollution and waste are external to
the project
Participants
Owners, Managers, Workers Community, Institutions, Industries, Local,
state and union government bodies,
politicians, law makers, etc.
Business functions
Marketing aims at increasing Marketing for consumer education
consumption Finance aims at long-term sustainable growth
Finance aims at short-term profit Accounting focuses on environmental costs
maximisation as well 23
Evolving Concepts and Accounting focuses on Human resource management aims to make
Principles conventional costs work meaningful and safe and improve the
Human resource management aims quality of life.
at increasing labour productivity

It has now become clear that all stakeholders including managers and administrators
should be deliberately trained to apply integrated environmental management
principles as part of their daily functions. We now present the principles and process
of IEM. But before studying about them, you should revise the concepts discussed so
far.

SAQ 3
Consider a problem related to environment and development from your region.
Explain how IEM could be used to handle the problem in a better way to meet the
goals of sustainable development.

1.4.2 The Principles and Process of IEM

Certain principles form the basis of any effective and efficient integrated
environmental management plan.
The Principles of IEM
Compliance with the principles of IEM is essential at all stages of the planning,
implementation and decommissioning of developmental proposals. These are:
• Pro-active planning
Through good proactive planning, IEM endeavours to decrease negative impacts
and increase positive impacts of a development project / process. It attempts to
ensure that the social benefits outweigh the social costs of development (those
borne by society and not by the developer). It also attempts to mitigate negative
impacts and enhance positive aspects of development proposals.
• Informed decision making
This is achieved by integrating contributions from professionals involved in all
disciplines (e.g., biology, hydrology, geology, sociology, urban planning, etc.)
relevant to the planning of a particular proposal, and all interested and affected
parties. Possible alternative options for development should be considered,
including the option of no development at all. There should be an opportunity for
both public and specialist input in the decision-making process.
• An open and participatory approach
Participation of interested and affected parties in the planning and decision
making process is an essential principle of IEM. This involves thorough
consultation with interested and affected parties, due consideration for alternative
proposals or options and democratic regard for individual rights and obligations.
• A broad understanding of the term environment
The term environment is taken to include physical, biological, social, economic,
cultural, historical and political components.
• Accountability
This includes accountability for information on which decisions are based as well
as accountability for decisions made. In order that decision makers are held
accountable (i.e., responsible and answerable) for the decisions made, a record of
decisions made, and the reasoning behind each must be maintained. It must also
be made available on request. Consultants, too, must be accountable for the
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information they provide.
The IEM Process Integrated Environmental
Management
The integrated environmental management process consists of three main stages in
terms of which a project could be planned and implemented. The process allows for
public participation at each stage.

Stage 1: Development and assessment of the proposal

Stage 1 of the integrated environmental management process involves the
development of a project proposal. The development project or programme has to be
planned and developed in a certain framework of planning, in which the policies, legal
and administrative requirements of the project also need to be established.
Central to the planning stage for a project is the identification of the relevant
authorities and interested parties and stakeholders and communication between them.
Drawing up the proposal should involve consultation with all stakeholders including
the interested and affected parties. Consultation with these groups would help in
identifying issues and alternatives that should be considered during the planning stage
itself. It may result in mitigatory options that would lead to better planning and
enhance effective and efficient decision-making.
The proposal is then assessed to establish its potential environmental impact. On this
basis, it is classified into the following categories:
• an EIA is needed before implementing the development plan. An environment
impact assessment must be done when it is evident that the proposed project will
have a significant environmental impact. For example, EIA is necessary before
setting up power plants, hydro projects, industries, etc.
• initial assessment is needed as some measure of uncertainty exists about the
potential impact of the proposed project on the environment and more
information must be gathered to establish whether or not an EIA is necessary;
• no EIA is needed as the proposed project meets all planning requirements. It will
have no environmental impact and can be allowed to proceed.
Stage 2: Decision on whether to accept the development project proposal or not

Stage 2 of the integrated environmental management process involves decision-

making prior to the commencement of the actual project. It is done on the basis of the
outcome of Stage 1. At this stage, all stakeholders (the authorities, the public or
affected parties) have the opportunity to raise their concerns, review the proposal and
decide whether to accept it or not. They can even appeal against the proposed project.
Besides appealing to the decision-making authority, appellants have the option to
launch a legal appeal if malpractice is suspected.
It is also possible to refer the project proposal to the previous stage to reassess the
potential impact.
If the proposal is approved, some conditions could be set according to planning,
policy, legal and administrative requirements. One of the conditions for the approval
of the pro ject proposal could entail the preparation of an environment management
plan . The management plan may describe how the proposal will be implemented. It
could stipulate the controls over the implementation with regard to the environmental
restoration that should be carried out after the project implementation. It could also
outline how negative impacts of development would be managed, and include
periodic environmental audits.
Stage 3: Implementation

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Evolving Concepts and After the project is approved, the management plan is activated. A monitoring
Principles programme is required for the approved project, irrespective of the existence of a
management plan. The programme should include clear guidelines on what should be
done, who should carry the responsibility for doing it, and the financial aspects
associated with the monitoring process. Furthermore, audits need to be carried out
periodically to provide feedback on whether the integrated environmental
management process is meeting its goals or it needs to be modified. The audit is thus a
reassessment of the project or policy proposal in the light of the developments during
the implementation stage.
The integrated environmental management process is designed to ensure that the
environmental consequences of project proposals are understood an d adequately
considered during the planning process. As stated earlier, the term environment should
be used throughout the process in its broadest sense to encompass biophysical as well
as socio-economic components. The ultimate purpose of the integrated environmental
management process is therefore to resolve or mitigate any negative impacts on the
environment and to enhance positive aspects of development.
Integrated environmental management is a useful tool to deal with the present
environmental problems as well as the environmental challenges facing the twenty-
first century. The process recognises the interaction and interdependency of the
participants and the resources in the management of the issues relating to the
environment. The success of such a plan is achieved by a balance between economic
development, protecting natural eco-systems, providing appropriate environmental
services and satisfying social values.

1.5 SUMMARY
• The early societies were known to live in harmony with their environment. In the
recent years concern about environment and its management has increased
considerably.
• Sustainable development is defined by Bruntland Commission Report as:
Development that meets the needs of present generation without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their needs. The sustainable development
approach views quality of life and social equity as the main concerns. Democracy,
autonomy, fairness, interdependence, responsibility and accountability are the
basic conditions required to attain sustainable development. In addition five major
principles underlying its implementation, are:
i) Environmental and economic integration,
ii) Maintenance of biological diversity and conservation of natural resources,
iii) Precaution, prevention and evaluation of harmful effects on environment,
iv) Cooperation, partnership and participation of communities, and
v) Education, training and awareness generation of people.
• Sustainability involves, change in our perception and action, learning,
commitment for managing a salubrious environment, innovation and matrices to
analyse costs and benefits of innovations. Sustainable development requires
holistic approach of community activity in which the spheres of, economy, and
society are present within the single sphere of environment Human, natural and
financial capital are important for sustainable development.

1.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Collect, arrange chronologically, and group spatially the concerns of individuals/
communities for environment from documented history.

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2. Explain how sustainable development led to the idea of integrated environment Integrated Environmental
Management
management.
3. Considering South Asia’s need for economic growth, we cannot afford to allow
development to be held back by environmental concerns. Comment.

4. Analyse whether IEM is a practical option for addressing environment and

development issues in India.

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