BATASAN HILLS NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

MEDIA LITERACY AND ADVERTISEMENT ON THE VOTING DECISION

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A Research Paper Presented to the Faculty of Research Department

Batasan Hills National High School

IBP Road, Batasan Hills, Quezon City

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In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Practical Research II 8

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Submitted by:

Betasa, Jerick

Dongito, Ashlyn Blair

Ducay, Louise Nicolan

Gubatana, Jonathan

Lapinig, Rizette Anne

Marañon, Kaizer

Recafranca, John Michael

Tamse, Nathalie

Villagracia, Jason

12 – HUMSS G. CHAUCER

March 2025

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………………………………I

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………….II

LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………IV

CHAPTER 1…………………………………………………………………………..1

Introduction……………………………………………………………………1

Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………...4

Hypotheses…………………………………………………………………….4

Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………..5

Conceptual Framework………………………………………………………..6

Significance of the Study……………………………………………………...6

Scope and Delimitation………………………………………………………..9

Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………..12

CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………………….14

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND

STUDIES………………………….14

Theoretical Foundation of Media Literacy…………………………………...14

Historical Context of Political Advertising…………………………………..17

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Psychological Impact of Media on Voter

Behavior…………………………..19

Synthesis……………………………………………………………………...22

CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………………………….24

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…...………………………………..24

Research Design………………………..…………………………………….24

Locale of the Study…………………………………………………….…….25

Population and Sampling…………………………………………………... 25

Research Instruments………………………………………………………. 28

Ethical Considerations……………………………………………………...29

Data Gathering Procedure…………………………………………………..30

Statistical Treatment…………………………………………………………31

Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………………...31

Mean and Standard Deviation……………………………………………….31

Range………………………………………………………………………...31

Frequency and Percentage……………………………………………………31

Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient……………………………………………32

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Spearman’s Rank

Correlation………………………………………………………...33

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….35

GANTT CHART……………………………………………………………………..41

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures

1. The Schematic Diagram of Predictors and Criterion Variables of the

Study……….6

Tables

1.

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CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Election plays a vital role in ensuring the success and efficacy of elected

officials. Therefore, integrating comprehensive voter education into the electoral

experience is imperative for all constituents. However, it is essential to recognize that

imperfections exist within this system, as various factors influence voters' decisions.

In the context of the Philippines, several determinants shape voting decisions, such as

candidate popularity, social networks, and media influence (Kulachai et al., 2023).

Historical evidence highlights these influences on Filipino voters’ decisions. For

instance, insights identified by the Office of the Ombudsman in 1995 reveal three key

factors influencing Filipino voters: candidate popularity, social networks—including

family and peers—and perceived voter benefits. A notable example is the 1998

presidential election, where Joseph "Erap" Estrada, a former actor, secured victory

primarily due to his established popularity and public image. Estrada effectively

leveraged his widespread recognition during his campaign with slogans like "Erap

para sa mahirap," which resonated with many suffering from poverty at the time. His

campaign vehicle, "JEEP," symbolized Justice, Economy, Environment, and Peace.

Transitioning from candidate popularity to familial influences, a case study

conducted by Artes (2022) in Barangay Pasong Tamo, Quezon City, reveals that

familial relationships significantly impact youth voting decisions. The study indicates

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that while young voters may have differing preferences from their relatives, elder

family members often wield considerable influence over their choices. This suggests

that young voters do not make entirely independent decisions; rather, they are shaped

by their family's perceptions and beliefs. The interplay between social networks and

perceived voter benefits further underscores the complexity of voter preferences in the

Philippines.

With younger generations becoming more media-savvy, social media has

emerged as a critical platform for political dialogue. According to K. Carney (2022),

social media facilitates communication between political parties and voters, reflecting

shifts in voting behavior influenced by technological advancements. The role of

media exposure is increasingly significant as it shapes the political perspectives and

voting decisions of young adults—particularly Generation Z and Millennials

(Alexander, 2022). Generation Z expresses opinions more openly due to their

familiarity with technology, while Millennials reflect changing voting behaviors

influenced by their digital environments. As the researchers consider these dynamics,

it becomes clear that candidate popularity and political advertisements are particularly

influential factors in past elections. This reality underscores the importance of media

literacy, which equips voters with the skills necessary to critically evaluate political

information, including advertisements that can significantly sway their choices.

Considering these developments, media literacy emerges as a crucial skill for

navigating today's complex digital landscape. Durante (2022) emphasizes that media

literacy encompasses critical thinking skills and the ability to analyze media content

—skills that are especially relevant during crises like the pandemic when individuals

are bombarded with information online.

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Despite the significance of media literacy in shaping voter behavior, previous

studies have primarily focused on external factors such as family influence or

candidate appeal. Other studies have overlooked the complex interaction between

media literacy and political advertising's effectiveness in shaping young voters’

decisions. This research aims to explore how varying levels of media literacy affect

young adults' responses to political advertisements. By examining this relationship, it

seeks to provide insights into how media literacy can empower individuals to make

informed voting decisions and reduce susceptibility to manipulative advertising

tactics. Additionally, this research aims to bridge this gap by investigating how

critical evaluation skills influence perceptions of political advertisements and

subsequent voting choices.

By focusing on young adult voters—a demographic frequently targeted by

political campaigns—this study seeks to contribute valuable insights into how media

literacy can empower individuals to make informed decisions at the polls. To

establish the relationship between the variables of media literacy, political

advertisement, and voting decision, the research will begin by conducting a survey.

This will be done using a structured questionnaire, containing items capturing the

voting decision of media literacy and political advertisement, as well as their

influence on political decision. Statistical analysis will then be conducted to assess

how varying levels of media literacy affect young adults’ ability to critically interpret

political messaging and how this interpretation impacts their voting decisions.

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Statement of the Problem

The main purpose of this study is to examine the correlation between media

literacy and advertising campaigns on the voting decisions of young adult voters. The

following specific questions will guide the researchers in understanding these

associations:

1. What is the average media literacy score among young adult voters?

2. What is the frequency of exposure to political advertisements among young

adult voters?

3. What is the average frequency of exposure to candidates that relates to

voting decisions among young adults?

4. Is there a significant correlation between media literacy and the voting

decisions of young adult voters?

5. Is there a significant correlation between exposure to political

advertisements and the voting decisions of young adult voters?

Hypotheses

In this study, the researchers aim to investigate the factors that influence the

voting decisions of young adults, specifically focusing on the relative impacts of

media literacy, the effectiveness of targeted political advertisement. The researchers

will test the hypothesis that these factors may vary significantly based on young

adult’s voting decision

H₀1: There is no significant correlation between media literacy and the voting

decisions among young adult voters.

H₀2: There is no significant correlation between exposure to political advertisements

and the voting decisions among young adult voters.

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Theoretical Framework

Social Choice Theory, which was pioneered in the 18th century by Nicolas de

Condorcet and Jean-Charles de Borda and in the 19th century by Charles Dodgson

(better known as Lewis Carroll), gained momentum in the twentieth century with the

writings of Kenneth Arrow, Amartya Sen, and Duncan Black. It addresses how

individual preferences can be combined to make collective decisions. It looks at

different ways societies can choose, such as voting.

The main objective is to find a fair technique for making collective choices

that represent the preferences of all individuals involved. This theory helps understand

how personal opinions can influence group outcomes and finding methods that work

best for achieving decisions that everyone can accept. A key idea in social choice

theory is Arrow’s impossibility theorem. It shows how no voting system can meet all

criteria that people would like to be satisfied with. For instance, people want a non-

dictatorship system where every agreement leads to decisions. Also, where the

choices are not affected by other unrelated choices. Arrow’s findings discuss the

challenges of creating a perfect voting system, and it led to discussion about how to

improve decision-making processes.

The researchers will be able to quickly determine the study's necessary

information by using this idea. To prevent bias and unfair decisions, this theory

attempts to gather everyone's opinion. That being said, this theory is important for this

research, as it examines whether individual choices are influenced by external

influences (media literacy and political advertisement). It allows researchers to see the

interplay of the variables through the lens of social choice theory that allows for deep

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analysis of electoral dynamics. By examining these correlations within the framework

of social choice theory, the study can contribute to a better understanding of how

collective decisions in democratic settings are formed and the possible implications of

media influence on those processes.

Conceptual Framework

In this study, 'Media Literacy and Advertisement on the Voting Decision,' the

predictor variable-criterion variable (PV-CV) model was utilized as the conceptual

framework. This framework describes how the criterion variable—young adult voters'

voting decisions—relates to the predictor variables, media literacy and campaign

advertisements. The purpose of the model is to explore the extent that these factors

influence voting decisions.

Media Voting Decision

Literacy

Figure 1. The Schematic Diagram of Predictors and Criterion Variables of the Study.

Significance of the Study

The study aims to explore the correlation between media literacy and

advertising and young adult voting decisions. The findings of this study are expected

to highlight and provide valuable insights into these individuals, specifically:

1. Young Adult Voters: The study will help young adult voters earn insight into

how media literacy and advertisement may determine their voting decisions.

This will challenge their critical abilities in assessing various strategies,

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emotional manipulation, and other factors that politicians utilize to their

advantage on the voting scene. That also contributes to the way they perceive

a certain candidate, whether from a good or bad perspective.

2. Political Advisors: The findings of this study will be useful in offering

specifics on refining their advertising techniques to line with voters'

motivations, allowing political advisors to modify their plans to enhance

engagement and gain backing from young adults effectively. For example, if

the research finds that young voters favor political advertisements that use

new media, given that it is more accessible, advisors will tailor it to what

young adult voters want.

3. Political Candidates: This study will help them understand the impact of

media literacy and advertisement on young adult voting decisions. For

instance, they gain awareness, and adjust their strategies to minimize the

negative effects where candidates modify the tone of their advertisement to be

more engaging to the young adult voting decisions in the upcoming election.

4. Media Outlet: The findings will contribute in improving media outlets’

content and advertising strategies to connect with their target audience more

effectively. As digital platforms and social media increasingly influence

voting decisions, the study will also help media outlets strategize even better

to remain relevant in political advertising, allowing outlets to improve

credibility and audience retention.

5. Policy Makers: The results of this research could lead to the creation of rules

that support fair media practices and reduce the dissemination of false

information, improving voter education. For example, measures focused on

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enhancing openness in political ads may be introduced, mandating more

explicit statements about funding origins and the purpose of communication.

Moreover, a more profound comprehension of how media shapes public

perception can give policymakers the ability to create messages that connect

with voters, affecting election results and governance substantially.

6. Future researchers: This study will oversee conducting further studies that

haven't been fully addressed or found throughout the current investigation,

particularly about the correlation between media literacy and advertisement on

voting decisions. Since the study focuses on a particular aspect, it is expected

that it will be a beneficial reference in expanding the understanding of media

influence on voters soon. For instance, exploring other social media platforms

and other age groups could be beneficial to the collective knowledge of the

relationships and influence of media on the voters’ decision.

Scope and Delimitation

The researchers aim to determine whether media literacy and exposure to

political advertisements have a correlation on voting decisions among young adults.

The study will focus on young adults aged 18 to 26 to highlight the voting decisions

that the generation z has been making who have great exposure to media. Young

adults aged 18 to 26 years old were chosen because these people are registered voters,

and have exposure to and knowledge of different types of media, making them

suitable and feasible respondents for the study. The following variables that may be

seen in the study are media literacy, it’s the individual's ability to critically access,

analyze, evaluate, and create media in various forms. Aside from media literacy,

political advertisement is one of the variables as well; this encompasses new media

advertising, it is defined as the communication process where a political candidate or

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party purchases the opportunity to distribute political messages through mass channels

to influence political attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. More importantly, voting

decisions refers to young adults’ decisions among candidates for elections.

The researchers will conduct the study in Barangay Batasan Hills, Quezon City. Few

of the key reasons the researchers chose this locale is that it is feasible and achievable

for high school students to conduct the study where researchers are familiar with and

close to them. Also, Barangay Batasan Hills is known for its inclination to politics; for

instance, the existence of Batasang Pambansa makes it suitable for study. The data

collection and analysis of this study will only take place in the time frame of January

to March 2025.

The variables of this study will solely focus on media literacy, political advertising,

and voting decisions. Factors such as economic factors, education level,

cultural/religious beliefs, and traditional political advertising have been excluded to

maintain a sharper focus on media literacy and advertising direct impacts. This

exclusion is important to enhance the clarity of the research objectives, ensuring a

more targeted and definite analysis of the relationships between the variables. In this

study, the researchers did not include non-voters, voters above the age of 26, or voters

below the age of 18 for reasons to avoid vagueness, to narrow the focus only to the

specific objectives, and to ensure the validity of the research. The researchers will

employ survey questionnaires to collect data from participants. Structured or semi-

structured interviews, observations, secondary data, or any experimental methods will

be excluded from the research methodology. The study will be limited only to

Barangay Batasan Hills, Quezon City. Other areas in Quezon City, such as

Commonwealth, Matandang Balara, Pasong Tamo, Balong Bato, Fairview, Holy

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Spirit, Tandang Sora, Bagong Silangan, San Francisco del Monte, and their

barangays, will not be included. As mentioned in scope, the study will only be

conducted within the time frame from January until March 2025. Due to this fact, the

time frame may limit a comprehensive analysis of long-term effects. The study’s

sample consists of young adult voters ranging from 18 to 26 years old in Barangay

Batasan Hills. Young adults who declined to answer the survey, and those who were

in jail were excluded from the sample due to time and resource constraints.

Definition of Terms

The important concepts and vocabulary employed throughout the research are

explained comprehensively in this section. By clarifying these words, the study

guarantees a clear and in-depth understanding of the key variables and constructs

covered.

Impact of Political Advertisement on Voting Decision: A comprehensive

Questionnaire. A researcher-made instrument, containing a validated 14 item

questionnaire that seeks to measure the exposure of political advertisements, and to

what extent these advertisements impact voting decisions. This instrument contains

two sections, mainly; Frequency of Exposure and Influence on Voting Decision. It

uses a 5 point likert scale, which is commonly used to provide both balance and

simplicity that allows for descriptive and inferential statistics to draw conclusions.

Media Literacy. The individual's ability to critically access, analyze, evaluate,

and create media in various forms. It encompasses the skills needed to discern bias,

detect misinformation, and understand the intent behind media messages, empowering

individuals to engage thoughtfully with information in a highly mediated

environment. Media literacy is increasingly essential in fostering informed citizenship

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and countering the influence of manipulative media content in political and social

contexts (Hobbs, R., 2010).

New Media. Refer to digital platforms and technologies used to communicate

and share information with audiences. These include blogs, social media, podcasts,

streaming services, mobile apps, websites, and other interactive tools that have

transformed traditional media forms (Yardibi & Hostut, 2024). By offering vast

options for information access and engagement, new media influence how individuals

learn about political issues and make voting decisions, particularly by enhancing

political knowledge for engaged users while potentially disengaging apathetic ones

(Prior, 2005).

New Media Literacy Scale. It is a validated 35-item instrument designed by

Mustafa Koc and Esra Barut to measure university students’ competencies across four

dimensions: Functional Consumption, Critical Consumption, Functional Prosumption,

and Critical Prosumption, focusing on both consuming and producing media critically

and functionally. Developed through accurate item analysis, expert review, and factor

validation, it aims to assess and enhance media literacy skills necessary for active

participation in today’s digital culture.

Political Advertisement. Political advertising is to inform citizens about the

diverse policy stances of different parties, to mobilize voters to cast a ballot, and most

importantly, to persuade the public to vote for a specific party (Berridge, 2015;

Lavigne, 2020). Compared to traditional advertising, online political advertising is a

relatively flexible and low-cost endeavor with a wide audience reach (Sances, 2019).

Voting Decisions. According to Kulachai et al. (2023), voting decisions play

a crucial role in shaping the government and the regulations that govern people's

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lives. These decisions are influenced by various factors, including the candidate's

traits, the government's performance, and short-term influences.

Young Adult Voter. According to the University of San Francisco, young

adulthood happens between the ages of 18 to 25 years old. It’s a transition from

adolescence to adulthood, during this period, individuals engage in self-exploration to

develop their personal identity and belief system while obtaining independence and

autonomy.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter explores various literature and studies relating to the correlation

between media literacy and advertisement on voting decisions among young adults. It

discusses studies on the theoretical foundation of media literacy, as well as the

historical context of political advertising. Moreover, this review sees the

psychological impact of the media on voting behavior.

Theoretical Foundation of Media Literacy

Cho (2022) stated that growing concerns about the negative impacts of social

media have shifted public focus toward media literacy as a possible solution. In the

digital era, where the internet and various media dominate daily life, media literacy

has emerged as a vital skill. By enabling individuals to critically assess and interpret

content across multiple media platforms, it empowers them to actively engage with

information rather than remain passive consumers, ensuring they can effectively

navigate the complexities of today's information landscape (McNulty, 2021).

According to Potter (2022), media literacy encompasses many skills, such as reading,

evaluating, analyzing, deconstructing messages, recognizing patterns, challenging

meanings, judging credibility, discerning sender intent, counter-arguing, seeking

truth, resisting influence, and creating messages. Beyond these skills, media literacy

also involves various forms of knowledge, behaviors, and motivations, making it a

multifaceted and comprehensive competency. Media literacy is an essential concept

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and practice that equips individuals to stay informed and empowered in a world filled

with diverse forms of media and communication (Cho, 2022).

According to Schilder (2013), Media literacy is supported by several

theoretical frameworks that explore how media influences individuals and society.

The Stimulus-Response (S-R) Model views media effects as direct and universal,

likening them to a "hypodermic needle" that injects messages into passive audiences.

Although considered outdated, its notion of media as powerful persists in areas like

health media literacy. In contrast, the Uses and Gratifications Model positions

audiences as active participants who use media to fulfill specific needs, emphasizing

media’s competition with other sources of satisfaction and encouraging an open-

minded approach to popular culture. Moreover, Cultivation Theory suggests that

repeated media exposure gradually shapes individuals’ worldviews over time,

replacing traditional cultural influences like family and religion, often applied to

topics like body image. Similarly, the Agenda-Setting Theory highlights media’s

indirect effects by shaping what people think about rather than what they think,

teaching audiences the importance of certain issues through repeated coverage. The

Critical Perspective, rooted in Marxist ideology, views media as a tool for

perpetuating dominant ideologies, presenting audiences as passive recipients of

repressive messages, and influencing programs like UNESCO’s media literacy

initiatives. The Semiotic Approach focuses on how media constructs meaning through

signs and symbols, embedding myths that appear natural and unchallenged in cultural

contexts, often used to "demystify" media texts. The Cultural Studies Approach shifts

attention to the active interpretation of media by diverse audiences, exploring how

meaning can vary between creators and receivers while highlighting media's role in

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shaping popular culture. Finally, Marshall McLuhan’s Approach examines the impact

of media forms rather than content, proposing that media extends human capabilities

and transforms society, advocating for discovery-based education to foster critical

engagement.

W. James Potter's Theory of Media Literacy: A Cognitive Approach (2004)

delves into how individuals process the vast amounts of information in today’s media-

saturated society and the ways in which they may construct flawed meanings from

these messages. The book emphasizes the cognitive tasks involved in filtering,

interpreting, and constructing meaning from media, building on principles of human

thought and decision-making. A key aspect of Potter's theory is the concept of the

"locus," which determines a person’s level of media literacy. This locus is

strengthened through the development of critical skills and knowledge structures

across five areas: media effects, media content, media industries, real-world

parameters, and self-awareness. The book provides the first social scientific

framework for understanding media literacy as a process, synthesizing two decades of

research on the topic. It argues that, in a world flooded with information aggressively

competing for attention, people often operate on "automatic pilot," which helps filter

out unnecessary messages but leaves them vulnerable to media conditioning. This

conditioning can create habitual exposure to selected messages, leading individuals to

accept unchallenged and potentially faulty meanings. Without a strong foundation in

media literacy, individuals risk misunderstandings and misperceptions about their

world, becoming swept along by a tide of unchecked media influences. As such,

Theory of Media Literacy is an essential resource for researchers, practitioners, and

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scholars, offering tools to better understand media effects, develop strategies to

mitigate risks, and foster a more informed, critical society (Potter, 2004).

In conclusion, Schilder (2013) outlines several theoretical frameworks that explore

media’s impact on individuals, including the Stimulus-Response (S-R) Model, which

views media effects as direct and universal, and the Uses and Gratifications Model,

which sees audiences as active participants. The Cultivation Theory, Agenda-Setting

Theory, Critical Perspective, Semiotic Approach, and Cultural Studies Approach all

offer varied insights into how media shapes worldviews, influences public discourse,

and perpetuates dominant ideologies. McLuhan’s theory emphasizes the role of media

forms in transforming society. Building on these, Potter’s Theory of Media Literacy:

A Cognitive Approach (2004) highlights the cognitive tasks involved in media

literacy, stressing that individuals must develop critical skills and knowledge to avoid

being conditioned by media messages. Both Schilder’s frameworks and Potter’s

cognitive approach emphasize the need for active, informed engagement with media

to counter misinformation and foster critical thinking.

Historical Context of Political Advertising

Political advertising is a campaign strategy that allows candidates to

communicate their messages directly to voters (L. Nott, 2020). By utilizing various

media, political candidates can reach voters who might not have been engaged in the

election, expand their name recognition, highlight critical issues, and call attention to

their opponents' weaknesses. Political advertising has played an integral role in

shaping public opinion and influencing electoral outcomes throughout history.

According to Greves (2023), political advertising can be traced back to the

18th and 19th centuries when print media served as the primary channel for

candidates to communicate their messages. Newspapers, pamphlets, and flyers were

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essential tools for reaching voters during this era. Campaigns were often localized,

designed for specific groups, and focused on issues important to the community.

Candidates used print media not only to express their policies but also to counter rival

claims and engage in public debates (Kaid, L., et al., 2006). The visual appeal of

posters and flyers was crucial in attracting attention and effectively conveying

messages. The introduction of television in the mid-20th century marked a

transformative phase in political advertising. The first political TV advertisement

aired in 1952 during Dwight D. Eisenhower's campaign, demonstrating the power of

visual media in reaching mass audiences (Bennett, L., et al., 2013). Additionally, the

first televised presidential debates between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon in

1960 showcased television’s ability to influence public perception through visual and

emotional appeal (Silvestri, V., 2019). By the late 20th and early 21st centuries,

digital advertising began to emerge as a pivotal tool for political campaigns. Email

marketing and basic websites allowed candidates to reach specific audiences and

gather valuable voter information. This transition to online platforms also provided

interactive spaces for supporters (Greves, K., 2023). Barack Obama’s campaigns in

2008 and 2012 are often cited as pioneering examples of digital strategy, utilizing

social media for targeted outreach and data-driven decision-making (Kreiss, D.,

2016). Today, political advertising spans a wide range of platforms, including social

media, online video sharing, and streaming services. The ability to produce and

disseminate content quickly has democratized political discourse but also raised

concerns about misinformation and ethical standards. Political advertising spending

has surged in recent years, with billions allocated for online ads during recent

elections. For instance, during the 90-day campaign period for the May 2022 election,

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four candidates each had over P1 billion worth of advertisements on mainstream

media, with national candidates collectively airing an average of P209 million worth

of ads daily (Fonbuena, C., 2022).

To summarize, the historical evolution of political advertising demonstrates its

increasing significance in shaping public opinion and electoral outcomes. From early

print media in the 18th and 19th centuries to the rise of television in the mid-20th

century, and the more recent digital and social media strategies, political advertising

has continuously adapted to new technologies. Today, online platforms play a central

role in campaigns, enabling precise targeting and real-time engagement. However,

while these advancements have expanded the scope of democratic participation, they

have also brought new challenges. The rise of unregulated online advertisements and

the spread of false information show the need for better ethical rules and stricter

regulations to protect honest political discussions in the digital world.

Psychological Impact of Media on the Voting Decision

It is always the voters who have the power in a democratic country. However,

their decisions in choosing a leader are always affected by different factors including

but not limited to the media. (Kulachai, W., et al., 2023). Election is a provital process

done in a democracy in which citizens select individuals for public office or decide on

political propositions by voting. (Eulau, H., et al., 2024). Voters' active engagement in

discussions about candidates, policies, and the electoral process is essential in making

informed decisions. In this context, Media serves as an important monitor, helping to

maintain transparency and accountability during elections. Media refers to various

communication channels, including newspapers, television, radio, websites, and social

media, that disseminate information as defined by Tulsa Community College.

Moreover, Media influence plays a significant role in shaping individuals’ voting

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decisions. Research has consistently demonstrated the impact of the media on political

preferences and voting behavior. (Kulachai, W., et al., 2023). Traditional and new

media play a significant role in influencing and impacting the electorate in various

ways. Together, these two mediums shape the political landscape, informing,

persuading and mobilizing voters. (Curry, A., 2024). Traditional media platforms are

key for political advertisements aimed at reaching broad audiences with candidates'

key messages. On the other hand, Social media platforms provide voters the chance to

engage in the interchange of political perspectives, acquire knowledge, and actively

participate in political procedures. Additionally, it serves as a potent instrument for

advancing political campaigns and endorsing politicians. (Yildirimer, K. S., et al.,

2024). The persuasive power of traditional media remains strong, but it has massive

competition in social media.

Studies indicate that both traditional and new media significantly impact voter

behavior through cognitive and cultural changes. For instance, Durante, R., et al.,

(2018), found that children who watched a lot of entertainment TV tended to think

less critically and care less about their community as adults, this exposure in media

makes them more likely to believe appealing messages from politicians. In addition,

the existence of horse-race coverage in reporting horse-race coverage—focusing on

who is winning or losing rather than candidates' policies and qualifications. (Lucas,

M., 2024). This media coverage can lead to public cynicism and mistrust toward

candidates and the political process, as voters may perceive politicians as self-

interested rather than dedicated to serving the public. Moreover, The psychological

impact of media is also shaped by emotional appeals, particularly through social

media. This is evident in a study conducted by Jones, P. E., et al., (2012),

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demonstrating that emotional appeals significantly affect politically engaged

individuals by providing both emotional resonance and relevant information.

Emotional content helps frame political messages for voters, influencing their

decisions to participate in elections. In a more recent study, evidence also shows the

role of social media in impacting political decision-making, particularly among young

voters. It influences how people vote by shaping friendships, education, and

discussions about politics. Social media is viewed as a flexible and accessible way for

voters to communicate and share information, highlighting that exposure to media can

significantly affect voters' perceptions and decisions, particularly through emotional

and social connections. (Yildirimer, K. S., et al., 2024). The Media continues to thrive

in being part of democratic processes, However, misinformation remains a significant

challenge during elections. This is evident In India, where respondents are driven

away by the fake news at the time of the election. Voters believe in fake news, if the

fake news were in the headline news and if spoken by a learned person (Parwez, Z.

(2022). Factors such as credibility, mere exposure, confirmation bias, emotional

appeals, and political polarization all interplay to influence how voters perceive

information and make electoral decisions. This means that the psychological impact

of media on voter behavior is also profoundly shaped by the prevalence of fake news

or misinformation.

In conclusion, voters in a democracy are significantly influenced by the media,

which plays a crucial role in shaping political opinions and behaviors. Traditional

media, such as newspapers and television, informs the electorate through

advertisements and news coverage, while social media facilitates rapid information

sharing and emotional engagement (Eulau et al., 2024; Kulachai et al., 2023).

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Emotional appeals on social media can effectively mobilize politically engaged

individuals (Jones, et al., 2012). However, exposure to media can lead to cognitive

changes, such as diminished critical thinking skills, particularly among those who

consume entertainment TV (Durante, et al., 2018). Additionally, misleading horse-

race coverage can foster cynicism toward candidates (Lucas, M., 2024), and

misinformation poses a significant challenge during elections, with voters often

swayed by fake news (Parwez, Z., 2022). Understanding these factors could

contribute to comprehending the psychological impact of the media on voter behavior.

It is vital for fostering informed electoral participation and combating misinformation.

By recognizing how media shapes perceptions and decisions, Researchers can

develop strategies or give insights to enhance media literacy and promote a healthier

democratic process.

Media Literacy and Voting Decision

Media literacy refers to the education that encompasses studying, learning,

and teaching media in different contexts and levels, it emerged due to the realization

of the usage and impacts of media among citizens. (UNESCO, 1984). In addition, it is

also the ability to critically access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in various

forms. (Hobbs, 2010). The need for media literacy become stronger as the media

transcends over time. According to the literature review of Media Literacy by

Muringa, T., et. al., (2024), revealed a significant connection between media access

and media literacy, suggesting that while media literacy can improve political

participation through informed access, evaluation and action about political

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information (Allam, et. al., 2020) , inequality in access and media literacy can greatly

affect the participation of individuals in politics. ( Rognedda and Muschert).

According to Allam et al. (2022), media literacy comprises key dimensions:

access, analysis, evaluation, and action, all of which influence voting behavior among
young voters. Their study found that new Generation Z voters, despite being highly
engaged with digital media, were generally uninterested in creating political content
such as videos, audio, or animations. This suggests that while they consume political
content, they do not actively contribute to the political discourse online. This aligns
with demographic factors, as many respondents were diploma students from low-
income families (B40) who prioritized education over online political engagement.
Additionally, the University Colleges Act (AUKU) posed legal risks, discouraging
political expression among students. These findings highlight the paradox in media
literacy’s impact: while it enhances access and evaluation skills, it does not
necessarily translate into active political participation, especially in contexts where
external factors—such as socioeconomic status or legal restrictions—limit
engagement. Studies suggest that media literacy significantly enhances critical
thinking, helping individuals distinguish between credible political messages and
propaganda. Austin and Pinkleton (2019) argue that media-literate voters are less
likely to be misled by manipulative advertising strategies, as they can critically
analyze campaign rhetoric, fact-check claims, and recognize bias in media reporting.
This ability is essential in modern political landscapes, where misinformation and
disinformation campaigns are prevalent.

Similarly, Guess, Nyhan, and Reifler (2020) found that media literacy
education reduces susceptibility to political misinformation, leading to more informed
voting decisions. This is particularly relevant in the era of social media, where
unverified political content spreads rapidly. In contrast, individuals with low media
literacy are more likely to accept misleading narratives, reinforcing existing biases
and potentially influencing electoral outcomes. Higher media literacy correlates with
greater political engagement, as it encourages informed discussions and active
participation in democratic processes. Kahne and Bowyer (2017) assert that media
literacy education fosters civic engagement, prompting individuals to verify
information, engage in political debates, and make independent decisions rather than
relying on social media trends or peer influence.

However, as Allam et al. (2022) noted, Generation Z voters who have high
access to digital media do not necessarily translate their media literacy skills into
direct political action, such as content creation or activism. This raises questions about
how media literacy can be better utilized to increase not just awareness but also
political participation. The research exploress the comparison between traditional and
social media in influencing voting decisions. Media literacy plays a vital role in
navigating both: In traditional media (TV, radio, newspapers), media-literate
individuals critically assess the credibility of news sources and recognize biased
reporting. In social media, where information is rapidly disseminated, media literacy
helps users identify fake news, detect algorithmic influence, and evaluate the
credibility of viral political content.

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This distinction is crucial in the study as it aligns with ther research question on
whether traditional or social media has a greater impact on voter behavior. If media
literacy enhances political decision-making differently across media types, this could
explain gender-based differences in advertising effectiveness—another key aspect of
your study. Media literacy significantly influences voting decisions by improving
individuals’ ability to analyze political information, resist misinformation, and engage
in political discussions. However, its impact varies depending on demographic
factors, legal restrictions, and the type of media consumed. While media-literate
voters are generally more critical of political messages, their level of engagement in
the political process depends on socioeconomic and institutional factors.

Exposure to Political Advertisement and Voting Decision

Political advertisements play a significant role in shaping voter preferences

and influencing electoral outcomes. Various theories and empirical studies have

examined the relationship between political ads and voting decisions, focusing on the

effects of exposure, message persuasiveness, and individual voter characteristics. This

section synthesizes key findings from literature discussing how political ads—both

online and offline—affect voter behavior, decision-making processes, and party

preference formation.

One psychological mechanism that explains the impact of political advertising

on voting decisions is the Mere Exposure Effect. This principle suggests that

individuals tend to develop preferences for things they are repeatedly exposed to (The

Decision Lab, n.d.). In a political context, repeated exposure to a candidate’s

advertisement—whether through traditional media or social media platforms—can

increase voter familiarity and preference for that candidate. The mere exposure effect

(MEE) was developed by Robert Zajonc in 1968. He coined the term to describe the

phenomenon where repeated, unreinforced exposure to a stimulus leads to increased

liking for that stimulus. The mere exposure effect (MEE) has numerous real-world

implications, helping explain voting behavior, advertising effects, and attitudes

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toward people and objects encountered in everyday life.

One study by Chukwu, O. J., & Chiadika, J. I. (2024) demonstrates the

influence of political advertisements on voter decisions. It analyzed the effectiveness

and ethical implications of campaign communication strategies. It shows that voter

support is largely dependent on the quality of political ads, and better advertisements

increase the likelihood of electoral success. The voters are not passive recipients; they

critically assess campaign messages and evaluate which political ads align with their

political aspirations and beliefs.

This phenomenon can lead to suboptimal decision-making, as familiarity may

take precedence over a rational evaluation of candidates and policies. Voters may

favor a candidate not necessarily because of their qualifications or platform but

simply because they have been exposed to their advertisements more frequently.

Additionally, this effect may limit voters' willingness to explore alternative candidates

or policy perspectives, reinforcing existing political loyalties and reducing openness

to new ideas.

Studies examining political advertising have found that both online and offline

ads have a positive but small impact on party preference (Hopmann et al., 2010; Pfau

et al., 2002). However, the effectiveness of online political advertising, particularly in

multi-party systems, remains a subject of debate. While online ads have gained

prominence in recent years, research indicates that their influence varies based on

party characteristics and individual voter traits.

Established political parties tend to benefit more from online political

advertisements than new or emerging parties. This is partly because established

parties have higher budgets and resources, allowing them to produce higher-quality

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ads and implement more precise targeting strategies (Margolis et al., 2003;

Zuiderveen Borgesius et al., 2018). On the other hand, new parties often struggle to

gain visibility due to their limited advertising reach, reducing their ability to leverage

online political ads effectively (Vergeer, 2015).

Moreover, while exposure to political ads can shape party preference, the

persuasiveness of ads is conditional on individual characteristics. Voters with higher

levels of political knowledge and online privacy literacy are less susceptible to

persuasion by online political ads. These individuals are more likely to critically

evaluate campaign messages rather than passively absorb them. Conversely, voters

with lower political knowledge are more likely to alter their vote choice based on their

exposure to online political ads (Galasso et al., 2021; Kendall et al., 2015).

The impact of political advertisements on voting decisions is not uniform

across all voters and can be classified into short-term and long-term effects. While

some voters exhibit stable voting preferences based on ideology or long-standing

party loyalty, others may experience short-term shifts in their vote choice due to

political advertisements (Paparo & Sio, 2017).

Vote choice tends to be more volatile than the general propensity to vote. That

is, while an individual may remain committed to voting for a particular ideological

group, their specific candidate preference may change based on short-term campaign

influences, such as online political ads. This suggests that political advertising may

not significantly alter a voter’s core political alignment but can influence their final

decision on election day (Van der Eijk & Franklin, 1996).

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In conclusion, political advertisements, whether online or offline, play a

crucial role in influencing voter decisions, but their effectiveness depends on factors

such as frequency of exposure, party characteristics, and voter knowledge levels. The

Mere Exposure Effect explains why repeated exposure to political ads can enhance

candidate preference, even if the voter does not critically assess the message content.

Additionally, while online ads provide new opportunities for voter engagement, their

effectiveness is limited for new parties with fewer resources. Furthermore, individual

political knowledge and media literacy moderate the persuasiveness of political

advertisements, with less knowledgeable voters being more susceptible to influence.

Understanding these dynamics helps in evaluating the role of political ads in shaping

democratic participation and electoral choices.

Synthesis

Political advertising has evolved alongside media advancements, from early

print media to television and, more recently, digital and social media platforms. These

changes have transformed how political messages reach and influence voters,

allowing for targeted engagement but also raising concerns about misinformation and

ethical regulation.

The psychological impact of media on voter behavior is significant.

Traditional media, particularly television, has been linked to reduced critical thinking

skills and passive consumption of political messages. Meanwhile, social media fosters

emotional engagement and rapid information sharing, making it a powerful tool for

mobilizing politically active individuals. However, exposure to misleading coverage

and false information can distort public perception and increase political cynicism.

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Media literacy plays a crucial role in shaping informed voter decisions. A

well-informed electorate can critically assess political advertisements, resist

misinformation, and engage in meaningful political discussions. Different theoretical

perspectives, such as the Stimulus-Response Model, Uses and Gratifications Theory,

and Agenda-Setting Theory, help explain how media influences individuals.

Understanding these frameworks highlights the need for strategies that enhance media

literacy and promote responsible media consumption.

Ultimately, political advertisements—whether traditional or digital—affect

voter choices based on factors like exposure, political knowledge, and media literacy.

While repeated exposure to ads can increase candidate preference, the effectiveness of

political messaging varies depending on individual engagement and the broader

sociopolitical context. Recognizing the impact of media on voter behavior is essential

in fostering a more informed and critical electorate, which is crucial for a healthy

democratic process.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology employed in this study. The chapter

covers research design, population and sample, research instruments, and data

gathering procedures that will be employed in the study. The ethical considerations

and data analysis methods can also be found in the chapter. This chapter outlines the

processes and strategies implemented to ensure the reliability and validity of the

findings, aiming to address the research questions identified in the previous chapters.

Research Design

The study employed a correlational quantitative research design to explore the

correlation of media literacy and political advertisement on voting decisions among

young adult voters in Barangay Batasan Hills. The predictor variables in the study are

media literacy and political advertisements; these are the possible influences that

affect voting decision, while the criterion variable, voting decision, serves as the

influenced aspect in electoral outcomes. A survey questionnaire will be used with

three hundred eighty–four young adults aged 18 to 26 years old around the barangay.

The sampling technique that will be employed is convenience sampling, where the

samples will be selected according to the specific characteristics proportioned to the

criteria. This ensures the effective representation of the population. The time of the

selection of samples will be approximately two weeks; this is to ensure that each

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participant will be qualified for the certain criterion that the research needs. The

ethical principles will be utilized throughout the data collection because it assures

anonymity and voluntary participation of participants.

Locale of the Study

The location is one of the most significant parts of one’s study, as this not only

ensures specifications and feasibility but also the validity of the research as well. The

study will take place in Barangay Batasan Hills, Quezon City. A division of the

municipality of Quezon City that is known for its political engagement and the home

of the house of representatives. So, it is crucial and suitable for the researchers to

choose the location to conduct the study. To explore the correlation of media bias and

advertisement and the voters’ preference in the barangay. In addition, the researchers’

location is nearby, making it feasible and accessible to effective distribution of

questionnaires and data collection with time constraints.

Population and Sampling

The researchers aim to explore the depth of the correlation of media literacy

and political advertisement to the voters’ preferences in Barangay Batasan Hills,

Quezon City. The study will solely focus on young adult voters that are aged 18 to 26

years old; those who are above or below the certain criteria will be excluded as the

population of the study. To ensure a feasible sample, the researchers will use

convenience sampling. The researchers encountered challenges in obtaining specific

data on the exact number of registered young adults in Barangay Batasan Hills.

Despite the efforts made to coordinate with the barangay secretary, this office did not

have the precise details, such as names and ages, of currently registered voters. It was

suggested that the required data might be available through the Commission on

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Elections (COMELEC). However, due to time constraints, reaching out to

COMELEC was not feasible within the research timeline.

To ensure the study’s success despite these limitations, the researchers have

chosen to proceed with adjustments. This study focuses on young adult voters from

Barangay Batasan Hills, Quezon City. To determine the right number of participants,

the sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1, a software commonly used for

power analysis in research.

The analysis was based on Spearman's correlation, with the following

parameters: two tailed, a medium side effect size (f²= 0.30), a significance level of

0.05, a statistical power of 80%, and assumes no correlation ( null hypothesis

correlation = 0). G*Power generated a minimum required sample size of 84. To

ensure accuracy and account for possible dropouts, the final sample was slightly

adjusted to 90. Participants were selected using convenience to make sure the study

captures a diverse range of responses while maintaining feasibility in data collection.

Ethical considerations, including informed consent and confidentiality, were strictly

observed throughout the research process.

Research Instruments

To investigate the correlation of media literacy and political advertisement on

voting decision, particularly among young adults in Batasan Hills, Quezon City, this

research employs the New Media Literacy Scale (NMLS) by Mustafa Koc and Esra

Barut as a primary tool for measuring participants' media literacy skills. Addition to

that, a research-made instrument is also created. This tool will be used solely to

measure the frequency of exposure in political advertisement among young adult

voters.

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The New Media Literacy Scale (NMLS) is a validated tool designed to

measure the capacity of young adults in new media literacy, it emphasizes the ability

to consume, produce, and critically engage with digital content. It assesses these

abilities across four sections: Functional Consumption (FC), Critical Consumption

(CC), Functional Prosumption (FP), and Critical Prosumption (CP). Each section

evaluates discrete aspects of digital literacy, including the comprehension, analysis,

and contribution to media. This instrument was specifically developed to address the

need for a comprehensive measure of new media literacy skills among young adults,

making it suitable for this study. The development of the NMLS involved an ordered

process. Initially, a pool of 45 items was created based on a theoretical framework and

literature review. After undergoing expert review, the scale was refined to 35 items,

ensuring clarity, relevance, and comprehensive coverage of the competencies. The

instrument was validated through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), which revealed

a four-factor structure explaining 55% of the variance. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

(CFA) further verified the model, with excellent fit, including RMSEA = 0.049 and

CFI = 0.98. Reliability testing showed excellent internal consistency, with Cronbach’s

alpha values ranging from 0.85 to 0.95 across subscales.

The NMLS was selected for this study because it effectively measures media

literacy among young adults in the context of new media. Its focus on both

consumption and production, as well as critical engagement with digital platforms,

makes it comprehensive and relevant. The instrument’s proven validity and reliability

further confirms its suitability. The scale consists of 35 items divided into four

sections. Examples of the items include, for Functional Consumption (FC): “I know

how to use searching tools to get information needed in the media.” For Critical

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Consumption (CC): “I can evaluate media in terms of credibility, reliability,

objectivity, and currency.” For Functional Prosumption (FP): “I am able to use

software necessary for developing media contents (text, image, video, etc.),” and for

Critical Prosumption (CP): “I produce media contents respectful to people’s different

ideas and private lives.” Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly

Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). The scoring of the NMLS involves responses for each

section, with total scores ranging from 35 to 175. Higher scores indicate greater

ability in new media literacy. Subset scores provide detailed insights into specific

strengths and areas for improvement within each section. For instance, scores in

Functional and Critical Consumption focus on understanding and evaluating media,

while scores in Functional and Critical Prosumption reflect skills in creating and

critically sharing digital content. This scoring method enables a nuanced

understanding of participants' media literacy levels.

Impact of Political Advertisement on Voting Decision: A Comprehensive

Questionnaire is a researcher made instrument and created to measure the frequency

of exposure, accessibility, and influence among individuals, particularly young adult

voters. It aims to identify patterns of reliance and exposure on such advertisements in

decision making. Ultimately, it provides insights into the role of new media political

advertisements in shaping voting decisions. This instrument refers to Robert Zajonc's

Mere Exposure Effect, which says that repeated exposure to a stimulus increases an

individual’s preference for it. In the context of political advertisements, frequent

exposure may subconsciously influence voters’ attitudes, perceptions, and eventual

voting decisions. By examining frequency, accessibility, and influence, this

instrument explores whether repeated exposure to political ads on new media

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promotes familiarity and a positive inclination toward certain candidates or political

messages.

This instrument has four sections, mainly frequency of exposure which

evaluates how often respondents encounter political advertisement on different new

media platforms. Moreover, accessibility and reliance, this section explores how

accessible and reliant respondents may be on political advertisements. Additionally,

exposure to political advertisement with focus on new media examines how

respondents engage with political advertisements, including whether they skip or

actively avoid them. Finally, influence on the voting decision section explores how

exposure to these political advertisements ultimately affects perceptions and decisions

among young adult voters.

The options range as follows: 1 - Never, 2 - Rarely, 3 - Sometimes, 4 - Often,

and 5 - Always. These options always provide a clear, complete range for measuring

frequency, allowing respondents to quickly select an answer that accurately represents

their experiences. A 5-point Likert scale is commonly used in research because it

provides an ideal balance between precision and simplicity, allowing for descriptive

and inferential statistical analysis to detect trends, correlations, and differences in

responses. This scale is ideal for exploring decisions influenced by repeated exposure,

since it aligns with the Mere Exposure Effect, which emphasizes how frequency

affects familiarity and inclination.

The researchers developed a self-made questionnaire to gather data for the

study. To ensure its validity, the instrument undergo two kinds of validation: face

validity and content validity. Three experts assessed the questionnaire for face

validity, while another three evaluated its content validity. These validators have

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expertise in English, philosophy, politics, social science, and research. Based on their

feedback, the researchers revised the instrument accordingly. After the necessary

modifications, the questionnaire successfully passed both validity assessments,

confirming its appropriateness and relevance for the study.

Along with the validity test, the researcher made the instrument also undergo a

reliability test. Researchers assessed the Impact of Political Advertisement instrument

using the Jamovi software as well. The analysis resulted in a Cronbach alpha of 0.89,

indicating good reliability.

Cronbach's α

Scale 0.897

Figure 2. The Cronbach Alpha of Impact of Political Advertisement on Voting Decision

Questionnaire.

This demonstrates that the instrument is consistent and suitable for measuring

the impact of political advertisements effectively.

Ethical Considerations

The study’s objective is to explore the possible linkage between media literacy

and political advertisements and voting decisions. Participants will attain

authorization consents to ensure that they understand the study’s objectives,

processes, and the benefits and risks they may encounter. Moreover, it allows

anonymity and confidentiality among participants’ information. Data will be

encrypted, and all responses will be anonymized. Participation in this study will be

entirely voluntary, and participants can withdraw whenever they want to without any

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hidden consequences. Data will be secured and protected with current data

protections, ensuring privacy throughout the research process.

Data Gathering Procedure

After consultation, suggestions, development, and approval regarding the

research instrument, the data collection process shall begin by asking for permission

from the barangay hall. An intent letter shall be submitted to the barangay secretary or

the front desk of the barangay hall. The letter’s content should outline the study's

purpose and request to the list of young adult male and female voters in Batasan Hills

that are aged 18 to 26 years old. Once the approval is granted, the authorization letters

should be distributed to the following young adults: to ensure voluntary participation.

Data collection will take place for over 3 weeks, with the questionnaires being

administered in person during early evenings after class and on weekends to avoid

class disruptions among the researchers and the availability of the participants.

Instructions will be provided, and concerns will be entertained to ensure the

understanding of participants in the questionnaires.

To emphasize the participants’ welfare, all data that will be gathered will be

ensured with confidentiality. solely assuring participants that the data will only be

used for the study. Voters shall be instructed to ensure that they complete the

questionnaires given to them. This questionnaire will collect information on their

perceived preferences in the aspect of their media literacy and political engagement,

specifically measuring the influence of media bias and advertisement using a survey

questionnaire. The researchers will carefully monitor the collection process of

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questionnaires to ensure its integrity and aims. Due to unforeseen shortcomings and

the unavailability of participants, arrangements will be made to ensure that the data

needed will be collected within the timeframe.

Statistical Treatment

This study will explore the correlation between media literacy and advertisement on

voting decisions. The following statistical methods shall be applied to analyze the

data and draw significant conclusions.

1. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are statistical techniques that summarize and describe the

key features of a dataset, providing a simple overview of its key characteristics.

These measures to be used include:

● Mean and Standard deviation: To calculate the average the scores on media

literacy to show a central tendency of scores by young adult voters. That

means the mean will be indicating the average level of media literacy. The

standard deviation will be used to measure the variability or dispersion of the

media literacy scores. This indicates how much the scores deviate from the

mean, providing insight into the consistency of the responses

● Range: This would give an insight into scores as it indicates the range of

difference between the lowest and highest responses regarding media literacy.

The measure enables an understanding of how data spread and the range of

variations of the respondents' responses.

● Frequency and Percentage: It will be based on the frequency and percentage

of the respondents who have chosen some responses, so it becomes easy to

compare the opinions concerning media literacy. This measure gives an idea

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of response distribution in different categories. It would help in knowing the

proportion of voters in each category. ( sum y^2 ): The sum of the squares of

the ( y ) values.

2. Spearman's Rank correlation

Spearman’s Rank Correlation will be employed to investigate the relationship

between the level of media literacy and voting decisions among young adult

voters aged 18-26. This non-parametric method is particularly suitable for ordinal

data, especially where responses are ranked without assuming equal differences

between them. It is applicable when the data might not be normally distributed. It

offers robust measures of association, representing both the strength and

direction of correlation.
2
1−(6 ΣD )
r_S ( N (N 2−1))

Given:

(D²) Is the difference between the ranks of each pair of observations.

(n) Is the number of observation/cases

(n2) Number of squared observation/case

(formula for t value)

〖 r s √ (N−2) 〗
T= 2
√ (1−r s )

Where:

(t) is the t-value.

(r) is the Spearman’s Rank Correlation coefficient.

(n) is the number of observation

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After computations, if the t-value< t critical so the null hypothesis is not rejected but

if the t-value is > or equal to t critical the null hypothesis is rejected. By focusing on

the correlation between the level of media literacy and voting decisions, Spearman’s

Rank Correlation provides a robust method without strong assumptions about data

distribution.

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CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF

DATA

This chapter presents the analyzed data and findings, utilizing descriptive and

inferential statistics to explore the relationships between media literacy, political

advertisement, and voting decisions, providing valuable insights into the interplay

among these variables.

Problem 1: What is the average media literacy score among young adult voters?

Tabular 1. New Media Literacy Score

Media Literacy Score

Questions Mean Standard Verbal

Deviation Interpretation

I know how to use searching tools to get 3.54 1.46 Agree

information needed in the media.

I am good at catching up with the changes in 3.62 1.21 Agree

the media.

It is easy for me to make use of various media 3.69 1.28 Agree

environments to reach information.

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I realize explicit and implicit media messages. 3.50 1.16 Agree

I notice media contents containing mobbing 3.68 1.21 Agree

and violence.

I understand political, economical, and social 3.64 1.14 Agree

dimensions of media contents.

I perceive different opinions and thoughts in 3.70 1.22 Agree

the media.

I can distinguish different functions of media 3.72 1.20 Agree

(communication, entertainment, etc.)

I am able to determine whether or not media 3.64 1.15 Agree

contents have commercial messages.

I manage to classify media messages based on 3.61 1.15 Agree

their producers, types, purposes, and so on.

I can compare news and information across 3.74 1.16 Agree

different media environments.

I can combine media messages with my own 3.61 1.22 Agree

opinions.

I consider media rating symbols to choose 3.56 1.10 Agree

which media contents to use.

It is easy for me to make decision about the 3.47 1.22 Agree

accuracy of media messages.

I am able to analyze positive and negative 3.91 1.23 Agree

effects of media contents on individuals.

I can evaluate media in terms of legal and 3.74 1.22 Agree

ethical rules (copyright, human rights, etc.)

I can assess media in terms of credibility, 3.63 1.18 Agree

reliability, objectivity, and currency.

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I manage to fend myself from the risks and 3.56 1.23 Agree
consequences caused by media contents.

It is easy for me to create user accounts and 3.88 1.20 Agree

profiles in media environments.

I can use hardware necessary for developing 3.80 1.20 Agree

media contents (text, image, video, etc.)

I am able to use software necessary for 3.82 1.14 Agree

developing media contents (text, image, video,
etc.)

I can use basic operating tools (button, 3.74 1.21 Agree

hyperlinks, file transfer, etc) in the media.

I am good at sharing digital media contents 3.90 1.14 Agree

and messages on the internet.

I can make contributions or comments to media 3.82 1.11 Agree

contents shared by others.

I am able to rate or review media contents 3.93 1.19 Agree

based on my personal interests and liking.

I manage to influence others' opinions by 3.36 1.16 Neutral

participating in social media environments.

I can make contribution to media by reviewing 3.67 1.10 Agree

current matters from different perspectives
(social, economical, ideological, etc.)

I am able to collaborate and interact with 3.41 1.04 Agree

diverse media users towards a common
purpose.

It is easy for me to construct online identity 3.59 1.09 Agree

consistent with real personal characteristics.

I can make discussions and comments to 3.48 1.05 Agree

inform or direct people in the media.

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I am skilled at designing media contents that 3.41 1.19 Agree

reflect critical thinking of certain matters.

I am good at producing opposite or alternative 3.36 1.20 Neutral

media contents.

I produce media contents respectful to people's 3.71 1.15 Agree

different ideas and private lives.

It is important for me to create media contents 3.76 1.20 Agree

that comply with legal and ethical rules.

I am able to develop original visual and textual 3.66 1.21 Agree

media contents (video clips, web page, etc.)

MEANS 3.65 1.18 Agree

According to the results of the New Media Literacy Scale, out of 90

respondents from Barangay Batasan Hills, Quezon City, there is a emerging average

score of 3.65 among the age of 18 to 25 young adult voters, which indicate a generally

moderate to high level of self-perceived media literacy (overall mean = 3.65).

Participants reported the highest levels of agreement with the statement 'I am able to

rate or review media contents based on my personal interests and liking' (Mean =

3.93, SD = 1.19), suggesting a strong tendency to engage with and evaluate media

content. Skills related to media creation also scored high, with means of 3.88, 3.80

and 3.82, suggesting high confidence. However, lower means were observed for 'I

manage to influence others' opinions by participating in social media environments'

and 'I am good at producing opposite or alternative media contents' (Mean = 3.36 for

both), indicating potential areas for improvement. The relatively high standard

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deviation of 1.46 for the statement 'I know how to use searching tools...' suggests a

wider range of abilities in this area.

Based on the provided study by Allam et al., (2022) combined with the New

Media Literacy Scale results, young adult voters tend to have a high to moderate level

of self-claimed media literacy. This offers the prospect of voter behavior being

connected with media literacy, as those most literate in terms of the media are likely

more willing to get involved in the democratic process. The research underscores the

importance of understanding the perspective of youth by pointing out significant

factors that affect youth engagement in politics. Young voters' decisions can be

greatly influenced by a number of factors, including geography, money, education,

social media, race and ethnicity. (Kulachai et al., 2023) The participation of young

voters is also significantly determined by their information access, their ability to

create and act on it, and their capacity to comprehend and analyze it.

Problem 2: What is the frequency of exposure to political advertisements among

young adult voters?

Tabular 2. Frequency of Political Advertisement exposure

Political Advertisement Exposure

Questions Mean Standard Verbal

Deviation Interpretation

How often do you encounter political 3.48 1.06 Agree

advertisements while using online platforms
(e.g., social media, websites, video-sharing
platforms)?

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How frequently do you see political 3.54 1.11 Agree

advertisements while using online platforms
(e.g., Youtube, Spotify, Netflix,or any streaming
services)?

How often do you see political ads on websites 3.43 1.16 Agree
you visit (e.g., banners, pop-ups, or sponsored
content)?

Do you encounter political advertisements in 2.83 1.46 Neutral

mobile apps or games?

How often are you exposed to political 3.20 1.18 Neutral

advertisements shared by friends or family on
social media?

How oftern do political advertisements on social 2.98 1.24 Neutral

media interrupt your usual online activities?

For question Number 7, how many political 3.11 1.09 Neutral

advertisements do you see or encounter daily
across all platforms? Choose 1 if 0, 2 if 1-2, 3 if
3-5, 4 if 6-10, 5 if more than 10

MEAN 3.23 1.19 Neutral

According to Impact of political advertisement on Voting Decision, section 1

that measures exposure among 90 young adult voters (ages 18-25) residing in

Barangay Batasan Hills, Quezon City, the overall degree of exposure is moderate,

with an average score of 3.23. However, a closer look at the data reveals a

considerable difference in exposure across various media outlets. The highest levels

of exposure were recorded for online streaming services such as YouTube, Spotify,

and Netflix, with a mean score of 3.54 indicating a clear link between frequent use of

these platforms and exposure to political commercials. In contrast, exposure through

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mobile applications and games was significantly lower, with a mean score of 2.83

falling within the "neutral" range of the interpretation scale. This shows that while

internet streaming platforms are an extremely effective medium for disseminating

political advertising to this audience, there is still a significant chance of improvement

to utilize mobile apps and games in political advertisement.

Reiterating the previous statement, the study found that young adult voters

have moderate exposure to online political advertising (mean score 3.23, indicating

"sometimes"), with the highest frequency of exposure recorded on streaming and

social media platforms. In contrast, exposure through mobile apps and gaming

platforms was considerably smaller. This finding contrasts with Chu et al.'s (2023)

study, which reported 'rarely exposed' to political advertisements. This disparity could

be related to methodological differences, variances in participant demographics, or the

specific online platforms studied. Expanding on that point, Bär et al. (2024) found that

algorithmic targeting on platforms, such as Facebook and Instagram favors

advertisement delivery to individuals who are projected to engage with political

content, supporting the moderate exposure reported in the study.

This algorithmic targeting, combined with young adults' overall higher online

activity, is likely to contribute to their increasing exposure to political advertisements

on social media and streaming platforms. The variance in exposure across platforms

demonstrates the role of algorithmic targeting in altering individual experiences with

online political advertising.

Problem 3: How does the frequency of exposure to candidates relate to voting

decisions of young adult voters?

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Tabular 3. Frequency of exposure on voting decision

Voting Decision Frequency

Questions Mean Standard Deviation Verbal

Intepretation

How often do political advertisements on 2.97 1.09 Neutral

social media influence your perception
of a candidate in ways that might affect
your voting decision?

How often do political advertisements on 2.98 1.08 Neutral

social media influence your perception
of a candidate in ways that might affect
your voting decision?

Does repeated exposure to political 2.89 1.30 Neutral

advertisements make you more likely to
vote for a particular candidate?

How likely are you to reconsider your 3.11 1.16 Neutral

voting decision after being exposed to
political advertisements?

How often does repeated exposure to the 2.93 1.06 Neutral

same political advertisement create a
sense of familiarity that affects your
voting decision?

How likely do you find yourself 2.81 1.21 Neutral

perceiving a candidate more favorably
over time after frequent exposure to their
ads, and does this influence your
likelihood of voting for them?

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How often does political advertisements 2.76 1.25 Neutral

that frequently appear in your feed make
you feel overwhelmed or pressured to
vote for certain candidates?

MEAN 2.92 1.16 Neutral

Tabular 3 presents a table illustrating the frequency distribution of exposure to

political advertisement and its impact on voting decisions among 90 young adult

voters in Batasan Hills, Quezon City. The table provides an overview of how political

advertisements influence voters at varying levels, categorized into high and low

influence, based on exposure across different new media platforms. According to the

section 2 of the research instrument "Impact of Political Advertisement on Voting

Decision: A Comprehensive Questionnaire", there is an appearing over all average

score of 2.92 among young adult voters ages 18-25 years old. This indicate that most

of the respondents are uncertain or unsure in the impact of political advertisement on

voting decisions. The highest item of influence is reflected in a mean score of 3.11,

indicating that in that aspect, many participants are sometimes influenced by exposure

to political advertisements, leading them to reconsider their choices. While the lowest

level of influence have the mean score of 2.76, showing that exposure to political

advertisement sometimes impact their voting decision due to pressure or

overwhelming feeling.

Problem 4: What is the correlation between media literacy and voting decisions

among young adult voters?

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Tabular 4. Correlation

The researchers used Spearman’s correlation analysis to examine the

relationship between media literacy and voting decisions among young adult voters.

This analysis was also used to test the fourth hypothesis (H4), which states: “There is

no significant correlation between media literacy and the voting decisions of young

adult voters.”

The results indicate that the margin of error Sig. (2-tailed) = 0.027 (2.7%),

which is below the 0.05 significance level. This suggests that the correlation is

statistically significant at the 5% level, meaning that the likelihood of this result

occurring by chance is low. The Spearman correlation coefficient (ρ) = 0.233 suggests

a weak positive relationship between media literacy and voting decisions.

These findings indicate that while media literacy is associated with voting

decisions, the strength of this relationship is weak. This result is consistent with the

study by Ashley et al. (2019), which found a positive correlation between media

literacy and political engagement, including voting decisions. Their study also

suggested that media literacy was linked to increased news knowledge and internal

political efficacy among university students. However, they noted that certain aspects

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of media literacy were associated with lower political trust, and other factors played a

role in the voting decision process.

Overall, these findings provide insights into the relationship between media

literacy and electoral behavior. Further analysis is necessary to determine other

factors that may have a stronger influence on voting decisions.

Problem 5: What is the correlation between exposure to political advertisements and

voting decision among young adults?

Tabular 5. Correlation

The correlation analysis (Spearman’s rho = 0.476, p < .001) shows a moderate

positive relationship between exposure to political advertisement and voting decision.

The correlation coefficient (SRC = 0.476) suggests that while exposure to political

advertisements has a moderate influence on voting decisions, other factors likely

contribute to the decision-making process as well. Individuals with greater exposure

to political advertisements tend to show a higher association with voting decisions,

suggesting that political advertisements may play a role in influencing their choices.

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Similar to Chu X., et al. (2023), who found that the number of online political

advertisements received positively affects vote choices. Their study confirmed the

hypothesis (H₁) that “the more online political ads people receive from a party, the

higher the party preference people have for that party.” Similarly, our results indicate

that exposure to political advertisements may increase the likelihood of a voter

supporting a particular candidate or party.

However, this study does not account for other factors that are likely to

contribute to the decision-making process. Future research could expand on these

aspects to provide a more comprehensive view on political advertisements and voting

decisions.

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CHAPTER V

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the findings of the study, including the correlation

analysis between media literacy, political advertisements and voting decisions,

providing a comprehensive and objective account of the result.

Summary of Findings

Research Question 1: What is the average media literacy score among young

adult voters?

The analysis of provided data (N = 90) revealed a significant average score of

3.65, that indicates a general to moderate to high level of media of self perceived

media literacy.

These findings suggest that young adults possess well developed media

literacy skills, enabling them to engage critically with new media contents. However,

despite the high scores, some challenges remain, particularly in detecting biases in

other platforms. These insights highlight the importance of continuous media literacy

education to further strengthen young adults’ critical thinking and information

evaluation skills.

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Research Question 2: What is the frequency of exposure to political advertisements

among young adult voters?

The analysis found that young adult voters have an average score of 3.23 with a

moderate level of exposure to political advertisements. The lowest exposure revealed to

be mobile applications and gaming platforms, while online streaming platforms

(YouTube, Spotify, Netflix) had the highest exposure.

These findings suggest that young adult voters have a moderate level of exposure

to political advertisements, with an average score of 3.23. The highest exposure was

through online streaming platforms (YouTube, Spotify, Netflix), while mobile

applications and gaming platforms showed significantly lower exposure. Algorithmic

targeting on social media platforms may contribute to higher exposure, reinforcing the

idea that social media is a primary channel for political advertising among young adults.

Research Question 3: How does the frequency of exposure to candidates relate to

voting decisions of young adult voters?

The tabular 3 analysis shows the frequency distribution of political

advertisement exposure and its effect on voting choice of 90 young adult voters in

Batasan Hills, Quezon City. The finding shows that the total mean score of 2.92

indicates that the majority of respondents are not sure whether political

advertisements have an effect on their voting choice. The highest influence score of

3.11 indicates that the participants are influenced sometimes by political

advertisements and change their mind. The lowest level influence score of 2.76

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indicates that the participants are sometimes influenced by political advertisements

because of pressure or feelings of being overwhelmed.

The findings reveal that the overall impact of political advertisements on voting

decisions is uncertain, with an average score of 2.92. While some respondents indicated

that exposure to political ads led them to reconsider their choices (mean = 3.11), others

reported minimal influence (mean = 2.76), suggesting that political ads sometimes create

pressure or an overwhelming effect rather than a direct change in voting preferences.

Research Question 4: What is the correlation between media literacy and voting

decisions among young adult voters?

In tabular 4, Spearman correlation analysis was employed by the researchers

to test the hypothesis if there is no significant correlation between media literacy and

the voting decision among young adult voters. The results indicated a margin of error

of 2.7% (Sig. (2-tailed) = 0.027), which was less than the 0.05 significance level,

showing a statistically significant correlation. The Spearman correlation coefficient

(ρ) of 0.233 indicates a weak positive correlation between media literacy and voting

decision.

Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed a weak but statistically significant

positive relationship (ρ = 0.233, p = 0.027) between media literacy and voting

decisions. This suggests that while higher media literacy is linked to voting behavior,

its influence is not strong. The study aligns with previous research indicating that

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media literacy enhances political engagement but may also contribute to political

skepticism.

Research Question 5: What is the correlation between exposure to political

advertisements and voting decisions among young adults?

These findings show a moderate positive relationship between exposure to

political advertisements and voting decisions. More exposure to political ads is

connected to higher voting preferences for advertised candidates or parties.

A moderate positive relationship (ρ = 0.476, p < 0.001) was found between

exposure to political advertisements and voting decisions. Greater exposure to

political ads is associated with a higher likelihood of voting preference alignment with

advertised candidates or parties. These findings align with prior studies that suggest

frequent exposure to political ads can influence voter decisions, though other factors

also play a role.

Conclusions

The study highlights the interplay between media literacy, political

advertisement exposure, and voting decisions among young adult voters in Barangay

Batasan Hills, Quezon City. While media literacy is generally high to moderate, its

influence on voting decisions remains weak. In contrast, exposure to political

advertisements has a stronger impact on voter preferences, especially when delivered

through online streaming and social media platforms. However, despite moderate

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exposure, many voters remain uncertain about the direct impact of political

advertisements on their decisions.

Overall, the findings suggest that while media literacy contributes to political

awareness, it does not strongly dictate voting behavior. Political advertisements,

particularly those delivered through targeted digital platforms, play a more significant

role in shaping voter preferences. Future research should explore additional factors

influencing voting decisions, such as political trust, personal beliefs, and socio-

economic conditions.

Recommendations

The following are the recommendations of the researcher to enhance future

research on media literacy and political advertisements, as well as provide insights for

improving voter awareness and decision-making among young adults:

1. Demographic Considerations – Future studies should include a more diverse

sample, considering factors such as age, income level, educational background, and

family structure. This would allow for a more comprehensive analysis of the subject

matter.

2. Expanded Scope – A broader geographic area should be covered to compare

findings across different communities. This can help determine if results vary based

on cultural or economic differences.

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3. Longitudinal Approach – Conducting a long-term study rather than a cross-

sectional one can provide deeper insights into changes over time and how different

variables interact dynamically.

4. Additional Variables – Future researchers should explore additional factors that

may influence the results, such as social environment, personal experiences, and

external influences, to refine the study's conclusions

Recommendations

The results indicated that between media literacy and political advertisement

to voting decisions has a positive correlation among the young adults. This means the

importance of media literacy education and critical evaluation of advertisements that

ultimately might affect your voting decision. Furthermore, this analysis could be

explored in a much wider range scope.

Thus, future researchers that will study this area should consider the following:

1. Education Programs – Schools and institutions should develop programs that

enhance public awareness and understanding of the study’s key themes, ensuring

individuals are well-informed and capable of making better decisions.

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2. Policy Development – Policymakers should use the study’s insights to formulate

guidelines and interventions that address gaps or issues identified, promoting

equitable opportunities for all sectors of society.

3. Community Engagement – Encouraging local communities to participate in

discussions and initiatives related to the study's findings can lead to stronger support

systems and more effective solutions.

4. Media Literacy Campaigns – Implementing awareness campaigns on traditional

and social media platforms can help individuals navigate information more critically,

preventing misinformation and promoting responsible engagement.

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