Introduction:

The word biodiversity comes from combination of two words ‘Bio means living’ and
‘diversity means variation’. Hence in simple words the variation among the living beings is
called biodiversity. The living beings range from very small size microbes to large size
mammals. In the most widely used system of classification these have been divided into 5
main kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia based on certain common
features and are further subdivided into many categories. However, whether small or large
organism, each plays a unique role and is important for ecological balance and environment.
As per scientific estimates, a large number of organisms have extinct from the earth since its
formation due to various natural processes but in last 100 years the rate of extinction
increased due to anthropogenic activities. Keeping in view the extreme importance of
biodiversity, it is important to save it. The current module will make the genesis of this
“Paper No: 03 Biodiversity and Conservation”. It discusses in brief about the biodiversity, its
importance, Characterization and Inventorying, causes of extinction etc. All this is discussed
in detail in further modules of this paper.
2. Definition and importance of biodiversity and environmental conservation

Biodiversity is the divergence of all species on our planet such as different species of plants,
animals and micro-organisms, including their gene pool, and different ecosystems. The term
was defined as contraction of biological array by E.O. Wilson in 1985.
In other words, biodiversity is the existence of diverse types of ecological habitats, different
species and variants of organisms and genes, adapted to different environmental conditions,
along with their exchanges and developments.

Whittaker (1965) also divided the diversity into 3 classes.

i. α-Diversity- It tells the species diversity in a given community and depends upon species
richness and evenness.
ii. β-Diversity- It describes a range of communities formed due to replacement of species.
This situation arises due to the presence of different microhabitats, niches and environmental
conditions.

γ -Diversity- It describes diversity of habitat over a total land escape or geographical area.

of Biodiversity: Biodiversity Hotspots of India

In 1988, Norman Myers a British biologist coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" as a
biogeographic region characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and by
serious levels of habitat loss.
Hotspots comprise different regions on Earth which are biologically rich as well as deeply
endangered and are characterized by forests and other remnant habitats which have at least
1,500 vascular plants as endemics. Any area with 30% or less of its original natural
vegetation left is characterized as a hotspot. In other words, identification of any region as a
hotspot depicts the vulnerability of that region. Around the world, 35 areas have been
identified as hotspots. These areas acquire only 2.3% of Earth’s land surface, but support
more than half of the world’s endemic plant species i.e., species which are unique to specific
regions on earth. Approximately 43% of bird, mammal, reptile and amphibian species are
characterized as endemic species around the world.
Biodiversity hotspots in India
As per the IUCN criteria, 4 regions in India have been recognized as biodiversity hotspots.
These are:
I. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet,
Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)

II. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of
Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China)

III. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, Philippines)

IV. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)
13. Temporal Patterns of Biodiversity: Factors and processes related to biodiversity
changes over time from ecological to geological scale.
The background rates of extinction of various species over geological time can be predicted
only up to a certain level by the knowledge of patterns of biodiversity over time. For most of
the human history on earth, the global biodiversity has been relatively constant except for the
last 1,000 years but the history of life is characterized by considerable change. The estimated
background rates of extinction for different species have been predicted to be roughly 0.1–1.0
extinctions per million species per year. These measurements for the extinction rates of
species have been assessed using the length of species’ lifetimes through the fossil records
that range over 0.5–13 million years. This data is mostly derived from the taxa that are
abundant and widespread in the fossil record and thus probably underestimate the background
extinction rates.
14. Threats to Biodiversity
•Habitat Related (Loss, Degradation, Fragmentation)
•Pollution (Chemical, Light, and Noise)
•Overexploitation
•Invasive Species
•Anthropogenic Climate Change
•Disease (lesser threat to most taxa)
•UV radiation (primarily threat to amphibians
•Synergistic Effects of Threats
•Cascade Effects i.e. creation of a trophic cascading domino-like effect or a series of events
within an ecosystem in which the primary extinction of a species triggers a sequence of
secondary losses or extinctions of other species.
15. Biological Invasion
Biological invasion is considered to be one of the major threats for global biodiversity. It
refers to the introduction of alien species in any region which imposes a threat to native
species and ecosystems as these alien species flourish at the cost of these native species.
These species can be exotic or introduced and are mostly competitive, predating or parasitic
in nature.
Modes of introduction of these species:
 By deliberate means
 Through import of ornamental species such as Lantana, Eichhornia, etc.
 By introduction of pests and pathogens for biological control
 During unintentional or accidental trade and international transport eg. Weed Parthenium
with wheat crop from US

The degree of impact of bio-invasion is evaluated in a standard and objective manner through
simplified protocols such as Invasive Species Environmental Impact Assessement (ISEIA)
(Vanderhoeven, S. & Branquart, 2010). This protocol is composed of harmonious sections
with different stages of invasion process: probable spread; establishment of natural habitats;
influences on native species and ecosystems. These protocols allow classification of species
on one of the following three categories of risk:
Category A: (blacklist) includes species with high environmental risks.
Category B: (watch list or alert) includes species with moderate environmental risk based on
existing knowledge.
Category C: includes other non-native species, which are not considered a threat to
biodiversity and native ecosystems.
16. Causes of Extinction of Species
A. Natural Causes of Extinction
1) Climate Change is the major factor responsible for the extinction of species. Climate
influence the species existence at large scale. The unpredictable temperature rise or fall and
variation in rain fall certainly affect the life cycle of all species. Those which could not keep
up with the fluctuating environmental conditions and changing chemical make-up of their
surroundings ultimately vanish. This creates a gap in the food chain and makes the survival of
dependent species more difficult. Increase in

global temperature has invited more epidemics and diseases to the existing plants and animals
and pose a threat to their existence.
2) Changes in Sea Levels or Currents also contribute to species extinction. These changes are
due to melting freshwater. Marine life depends on the high density salted water that sinks and
forms the currents. The spread of Ocean floor and its rise also affects sea level. A small rise
in the ocean floor may submerge the nearby occupied land. The volcanic activity inside or
near sea may dissolve harmful gases in the water, that changes the chemical composition and
thus make life difficult for marine organisms.
3) Asteroids/Cosmic Radiation- Collision of asteroids with earth surface completely destroys
the impact site and the shock is felt all round the world. Such interplanetary objects including
the outer space and Sun which are responsible for emission of cosmic radiations. It is
hypothesized that excess exposure to cosmic radiation may lead to gene mutation and
weakening of gene-pool of species in future.
4) Acid Rain- Acid rain forms due to the reaction between rain water and sulphur dioxide
and/or nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. It increases the soil acidity and adversely affects all
living forms especially plants. It can also pollute rivers and lakes to a possibly lethal level.
5) Disease/Epidemic- Every species on the planet has internal defense mechanisms and the
ability to fight diseases. But, due to fluctuating climate certain species are losing their ability
to combat diseases. Certain species are turning more prone to diseases and epidemics, which
may lead to their subsequent extinction.
6) Spread of Invasive Species- Invasive species are a threat to local species of a territory.
They compete for the resources that the other species depend on. Once competition gets
pronounced, the mechanism of survival of the fittest works and one of the species, usually the
natural one, gets kicked off from the territory.
Natural factors that usually work at slow pace contribute a smaller sum towards species
extinction, as compared to human factors that are responsible for maximum extinction.

B. Human Causes of Extinction

Human activities occur at a faster rate and cause higher extinction rates. Human activities that
are mostly responsible for the present extinction rates are:
i. Increased human population
ii. Destruction/Fragmentation of Habitat
iii. Pollution
iv. Climate Change/Global Warming

According to studies done by the international Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), human induced extinctions is not a new phenomenon, but it is becoming
much more rapid now.
Strategies for Conservation of Biodiversity
 Maintain flawless (viable) landscapes - the aim of this strategy is to provide protection
along with priority actions such as repair historic impacts or removal of threats and
improve the ecological integrity by maintaining long-term viability of the more intact
(core) landscapes of the region.
 Reverse declines – here the strategy involves in bringing back the lost ecological sites
so as to reinstate critical ecological processes by improving the habitat of shrubby
systems and open woodland and eventually help in bringing back declining species
 Recover threatened species and ecological communities –the aim of this strategy is to
fortify the perseverance of species that are on the verge of extinction in the wild thus
indirectly protecting ecosystems from failing. The work here is done not at a
community level but is based on individual species as each has their own unique
requirements for survival. The actions are based on implementing measures for
increasing their distribution and abundance while trying to put a stop to their decline.
 Control emerging threats –the aim is to educate people of the threats that are knocking
at the door before the final extinction happens. Some of the threats are climate change
and the introduction of invasive species.
 The submissive adaptation to improve the elasticity of natural systems and allowing
them to adapt to change can be done by various activities such as by maintaining
functional areas and ensuring that there are representatives for the environments and
that the associated processes for removing and minimizing existing stressors are done.
Active adaptation can be done by influencing ecological processes to moderately direct
the nature of adaptation by activities like restoring habitats and system dynamics.
Identifying and protecting climate refugees and managing/restoring connectivity by
increasing the matrix permeability and functional connectivity. Transformation can be
done to fundamentally alter ecological processes in an aim to prevent irreversible
changes from happening. The relevant activities would include keystone structuring of
revised systems (eco-engineering and transformation) and species translocations or ex
situ conservation (genetic preservation).
a). Conservation Prioritization
Spatial conservation prioritization is about identifying priority areas for biodiversity, as well
as the allocation and scheduling of alternative conservation actions to inform decision-
making.
In other words, spatial conservation prioritization tries to answer the question of where,
when,
and how we act to efficiently meet conservation goals. Efficiency is an important concept, as
possible conservation actions are always limited by available resources. Spatial conservation
prioritization can be informative for many different types of conservation action, such as
selecting locations most suitable for extending protected area network, targeting restoration
and management, or designing broad scale green infrastructure.
The term “quantitative” refers to prioritization based on quantitative and spatially explicit
data
that describes the extent and occurrence of biodiversity features (e.g. species and habitats)
and
other relevant information (e.g. costs and threats). A prioritization algorithm then does the
actual prioritization by ordering the planning units used according to some explicit
formulation
and the results are usually presented in the form of maps that describe the spatial distribution
of priorities over the area of interest. Tools aimed at quantitative spatial conservation
prioritization have multiple distinct advantages over non-quantitative approaches. They are
able to account for the occurrence of biodiversity over potentially very broad geographical
areas. For example, when working with species on local level, it is important to account for
the
occurrence of that species elsewhere. When designing new protected areas, it is similarly
important to know what is already protected. Ecological connectivity is yet another factor that
is not easy to account for in conventional planning. Expert-based and quantitative approaches
are not, however, mutually exclusive. Expert input is always needed to make use of
quantitative
spatial conservation planning tools.
b). Biotechnological Approaches for Biodiversity Conservation
Though it is generally believed that biotechnology has adverse effects on biodiversity, but in
fact biotechnology offers new means of improving biodiversity. Seed banks are the most
efficient and effective method of ex-situ conservation for the majority of endangered species.
In seed banks, genetic fingerprints are used to establish the origin of a seed or the relatedness
of one plant variety to another.
Tissue culture techniques are of great interest for the collection, multiplication and storage of
plant germplasm (Bunn et al., 2007). Such techniques allow propagating plant material with
high multiplication rates in an aseptic environment. Micro-propagation refers to in vitro mass
production of whole plant from any plant part or cell. Through micro-propagation, elite
clonal
material can be very rapidly multiplied. DNA barcoding is a technique in which species
identification is performed by using DNA sequences from a small fragment of the genome,
with the aim of contributing to a wide range of ecological and conservation studies in which
traditional taxonomic identification is not practical.
Invitro Production of Embryos
Invitro embryo production is another way in biodiversity conservation. Methods used in the
production of embryos in vitro include splitting and cloning of embryos, marker-assisted
selection, sexing of embryos and transfer of new genes into an embryo. Embryo Culture and
Transfer technique is used to introduce fertilized embryos into surrogate mothers. Sometimes
closely related species can be used to produce the offspring of an endangered species.
Production of transgenic crops and animals is another application of biotechnology in
biodiversity conservation. Transgenic crops are more likely to increase agricultural
biodiversity and help maintain native biodiversity rather than to endanger it. Such crops may
prove to be very useful to the farmers and can be of commercial value. However, the practical
benefits and risks of the crops need to be assayed in the field and their products scrutinized.
In
case of animals, several lines of transgenic farm animals have been produced, but none have
been commercialized. Some lines are made for the pharmaceutical industry to produce drugs
in their milk. Others may show improved resistances towards certain infections.
Biotechnological methods have many advantages to conventional captive breeding
procedures.
Since the animals need not to be moved around, less stress is experienced and the problem of
space for keeping the animals is also solved since samples can be taken in the wild. Storage
of
genetic resources will help to preserve biodiversity and counter the effect of genetic drift on
small populations. Even if an animal dies, its genes will still be available for future breeding
work.
c). Biodiversity Conservation Policies and Programmes: National and International
The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature),helps governments at national
level by preparing national biodiversity policies, whereas it provides advice to environmental
conventions such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES and the Framework
Convention on Climate Change in an international level. It also councils the UNESCO on
natural world heritage.
There is a formally accredited permanent observer mission to the United Nations in New
York.
It’s been stated in their website that they are the only international observer organization in
the
UN General Assembly with proficiency regarding issues concerning the environment,
specifically biodiversity, nature conservation and sustainable natural resource use.
It has solemn relations with the Council of Europe, the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the Organization
of American States (OAS), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the UNEP World
Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
d). Habitat Conservation Plan
Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) is a permit included in the application for an Incidental
Take
Permit that is issued under the United States Endangered Species Act (ESA) to exclusive
establishments that undertake projects that could lead to an outcome of annihilation of an
endangered or threatened species. It is a planning document that ensures that the anticipated
take of a listed species will be minimized or mitigated by conserving the habitat upon which
the species depend, thereby contributing to the recovery of the species as a whole. The
environmental community and landowners take different stands on HCPs.
Following are the strengths:
 Flexible to accommodate a wide range of projects that vary greatly in size and scope.
 Forces consideration of species by all parties.
 Reduced uncertainty for landowners.
The weaknesses are:
 Inflexible with regards to changing knowledge relating to species and habitat.
 The “No Surprises Policy” has been highly controversial with critics arguing that it
burdens the agencies, rather than landowners, with additional financial and mitigation
responsibilities if unforeseen circumstances arise.
 HCPs are viewed as having weak and insufficient monitoring plans. Additionally, the
parties responsible for monitoring HCPs are not regulated in a systematic manner due
to private funding.
 Criticism over scientific standards and limited credible scientific data.
Agencies have interpreted the role of HCPs under section 10(a) of the ESA as a means to
contribute to survival of species but not as a recovery tool. The Habitat Conservation
Planning
Handbook is inconsistent with this stand and states that “…contribution to recovery is often
an
integral product of an HCP…” and in general, conservation plans that are not consistent with
recovery plan objectives should be discourage
e). Convention on Biodiversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international agreement adopted at the
Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, in 1992. It has three main objectives:
 to conserve biological diversity
 to use its components in a sustainable way
 to share fairly and equitably the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
The CBD was negotiated under the guidance of the United Nations and was signed by more
than 150 government leaders at the Rio Earth Summit (whose official denomination is the
'United Nations Conference on Environment and Development'). The Convention is now
one of the most widely ratified international treaties on environmental issues, with 194-
member countries. Unlike other international agreements that set compulsory targets and
obligations, the CBD takes a flexible approach to implement rules and regulations. It
identifies general goals and policies, and countries are free to determine how they want to
implement them. One of the CBD's greatest achievements so far has been to generate an
enormous amount of interest in biodiversity which is a critically important environment and
developmental issue, both in developed and developing countries

Conclusion
Biodiversity and Environmental conservation are interrelated and dependent on each other.
Both of them need to be carried side by side to create a natural balance. The extent of human
interference in natural systems has created disturbance in the distribution of biodiversity on
the planet. This has also led to the extinction of many species and enlisted many in
endangered and vulnerable category. Although authorities at national and international level
are taking up
programs to reduce the conflict, still a lot needs to be done to maintain the equilibrium
between man and nature.