Chapter 1: The world in 1914: outbreak of the First World War

The first war, was the Battle of Liège, a german invasion of Belgium. 5 August 1914, five
columns of German assault troops, were converging on the town of Liège. Control of Liege was
essential before they could proceed with their main operation against France. 13 August the first
Belgian fort surrendered and three days later Liege was under German control.

Europe still dominated the rest of the world in 1914: Germany was the leading power in
Europe both militarily and economically, producing pig-iron and steel. France, Belgium, Italy and
Austria-Hungary were well behind. In 1914 the USA produced more coal, pig-iron and steel than
either Germany or Britain and now ranked as a world power. Japan too had modernized rapidly.
The political systems of these world powers varied widely: The USA, Britain and France had
democratic forms of government. They all had a parliament consisting of representatives elected
by the people. Germany had an elected lower house of parliament (Reichstag), but real power
lay with the Chancellor (a sort of prime minister) and the Kaiser (emperor). Italy was a monarchy
with an elected parliament, but the right to vote was limited to wealthy people. The Tsar
(emperor) of Russia and the Emperor of Austria were autocratic or absolute rulers, although
parliaments existed, they could only advise the rulers; the rulers could ignore the parliaments and
do exactly as they wished.
Imperial expansion after 1880: The European powers had taken part in a great burst of
imperialist expansion in the years after 1880. Imperialism is the building up of an empire by
seizing territory overseas. Most of Africa was taken over by Europe in the 'the Scramble for
Africa' to get control of new markets and new sources of raw materials.

Europe had divided itself into two alliance systems

The Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
The Triple Entente: Britain, France and Russia.
In addition to this, Japan and Britain had signed an alliance in 1902.

Causes of friction: 1 Naval rivalry between Britain and Germany; 2 French resented the loss of
Alsace-Lorraine to Germany; 3 Germans accused Britain, Russia and France of trying to
'encircle' them, they were also disappointed with the results of their expansionist policies, their
empire was small in comparison with those of the other European powers; 4 Russians were
suspicious of Austrian ambitions in the Balkans and worried about the growing military and
economic strength of Germany; 5 Serbian nationalists bitterly resented the fact that by the Treaty
of Berlin signed in 1878, the Austrians had been allowed to occupy Bosnia, an area which the
Serbs thought should be part of a Greater Serbia. They had a change of regime and became
pro-Russian and made no secret of their ambition to unite all Serbs and Croats into a large South
Slav kingdom (Yugoslavia). If the Serbs and Croats left the fold, many of the others would
demand their independence as well, and the Hapsburg Empire would break up. The Austrians
also resented Russian support for Serbia.

EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE OUTBREAK OF WAR

Europe divides into two armed camps:
- 1882 Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
- 1894 France and Russia sign alliance
- 1904 Britain and France sign 'Entente Cordiale' (friendly 'getting-together')
- 1907 Britain and Russia sign agreement.
The Moroccan Crisis (1905-6): This was an attempt by the Germans to expand their empire.
Morocco was one of the few remaining areas of Africa not controlled by a European power. The
Germans announced that they would assist the Sultan of Morocco to maintain his country's
independence. The British, who had just signed the 'Entente Cordiale' with France, were
determined to lead the opposition to Germany at the conference. The Germans did not take the
'Entente' seriously because there was a long history of hostility between Britain and France.
Britain, Russia, Italy and Spain supported the French demand to control the Moroccan bank and
police. It was a serious diplomatic defeat for the Germans.
The British agreement with Russia (1907): This was regarded by the Germans as another
hostile move. For many years the British had viewed Russia as a disgraceful example of corrupt,
anti-democratic aristocratic government. The Russians were keen to end the long-standing
rivalry and anxious to attract British investment for their industrial modernization programme. In
October 1905, when the tsar granted the Russian people freedom of speech and the right to
have an elected parliament, the British began to feel more kindly disposed towards the tsarist
system. Germans saw it as confirmation of their fears that they were planning to 'encircle' them.
The Bosnia Crisis (1908): The crisis over Bosnia, a province of Turkey, brought the tension
between Austria-Hungary and Serbia to fever pitch. In 1878 the Congress of Berlin had reached
the rather confusing decision that Bosnia should remain officially part of Turkey, but that Austria-
Hungary should be allowed to administer it. In 1908 there was a new government in Turkey, who
resented the Austrian presence in Bosnia and were determined to assert Turkish control over the
province. This gave the Austrians the chance to get in first.When it became clear that Germany
would support Austria in the event of war, the French drew back, unwilling to become involved in
a war in the Balkans. The British, did no more than protest to Austria-Hungary. There was to be
no help for Serbia; no conference took place, and Austria kept Bosnia.
● Serbia remained bitterly hostile to Austria
● Russians were determined to avoid any further humiliation and embarked on a massive
military build-up and modernization of the army.

The Agadir Crisis (1911): This crisis was caused by further developments in the situation in
Morocco. French troops occupied Fez, the Moroccan capital, to put down a rebellion against the
Sultan. The Germans sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir, hoping to
pressurize the French into giving Germany compensation, perhaps the French Congo. The
British were worried about this because Agadir could be used as a naval base. In order to
strengthen French resistance, Lloyd George (Britain's Chancellor of the Exchequer) warned the
Germans off, he said that Britain would not stand by and be taken advantage of. The French
stood firm, the German gunboat was removed. Germans agreed to recognize the French
protectorate over Morocco in return for two strips of territory in the French Congo. Germany
public opinions became anti-british.
The First Balkan War (1912): The war began when Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria
(calling themselves the Balkan League) launched a series of attacks on Turkey. They all were
part of the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire. They soon captured most of the remaining Turkish territory
in Europe. Together with the German government, Sir Edward Grey, the British Foreign
Secretary, arranged a peace conference in London. The resulting settlement divided up the
former Turkish lands among the Balkan states. However, the Serbs were not happy with their
gains, they wanted Albania but, the Austrians, with German and British support, insisted that
Albania should become an independent state. This was a deliberate Austrian move to prevent
Serbia becoming more powerful.
The Second Balkan War (1913): The Bulgarians were dissatisfied with their gains, and they
blamed Serbia. They had been hoping for Macedonia, but most of it had been given to Serbia.
Bulgaria therefore attacked Serbia. Greece, Romania and Turkey rallied to support Serbia. The
Bulgarians were defeated, and by the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), they forfeited most of their
gains from the first war.

● Serbia had been strengthened and was determined to stir up trouble among the Serbs
and Croats living inside Austria-Hungary.
● Austrians were equally determined to put an end to Serbia's ambitions
● Germans took Grey's willingness to co-operate as a sign that Britain was prepared to be
detached from France and Russia.

The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand: This tragic event, which took
place in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, on 28 June 1914. Caused Austria-Hungary's declaration
of war on Serbia. The Archduke, heir to the Emperor, was paying an official visit to Sarajevo
when he and his wife were shot dead by a Serb terrorist, Gavrilo Princip. The Serbs accepted
most of the demands in it, but the Austrians, with a promise of German support, were determined
to use the incident as an excuse for war (28 July). The Russians, anxious not to let the Serbs
down again, ordered a general mobilization (29 July). The German government demanded that
this should be cancelled (31 July), and when the Russians failed to comply, Germany declared
war on Russia (1 August) and on France (3 August). Britain entered the war ( 4 August). Austria-
Hungary declared war on Russia on 6 August.

WHAT CAUSED THE WAR, AND WHO WAS TO BLAME? Some blame Austria for being the
first aggressor by declaring war on Serbia; some blame the Russians because they were the first
to order full mobilization; some blame Germany for supporting Austria, and others blame the
British for not making it clear that they would definitely support France.
The alliance system or 'armed camps' made war inevitable: The American diplomat and
historian George Kennan believed that once the 1894 alliance had been signed between France
and Russia, the fate of Europe was sealed, war seemed to be the only way for them to save
face.
The naval race between Britain and Germany: The German government had been greatly
influenced by the writings of an American, Alfred Mahan, who believed that sea power was the
key to the successful build-up of a great empire. British 'Dreadnought' battleship in 1906 changed
all this. Germans could begin building 'Dreadnoughts' on equal terms with Britain. For many of
the British, the new German navy could mean only one thing: Germany intended making war
against Britain. But, Winston Churchill said that ‘Britain could not be overtaken as far as capital
ships were concerned'.
Economic rivalry: It has been argued that the desire for economic mastery of the world caused
German businessmen and capitalists to want war with Britain. But, Germany was already well on
the way to economic victory; and the last thing Germany needed was a major war.
Russia made war more likely by supporting Serbia: Russia was the first to order a general
mobilization, and it was this Russian mobilization which provoked Germany to mobilize. Once
Austria declared war on Serbia, Russia saw it as a struggle for survival, because Germany and
Austria could take control the Dardanelles, the outlet from the Black Sea, the main Russian trade
route. Russians must also have felt that their prestige as leader of the Slavs would suffer if they
failed to support Serbia.
German backing for Austria was crucially important: Germany restrained the Austrians from
declaring war on Serbia in 1913, but in 1914 encouraged them to go ahead. The Kaiser sent
them a telegram urging them to attack Serbia and promising German help without any conditions
attached.

Why did German policy towards Austria-Hungary change?

 1. Germans had been defeated, the Versailles Treaty imposed a harsh peace settlement on
Germany. After a few years, opinion began to move away from laying sole blame on
Germany and accepted that other powers should take some of the blame. Then in 1967 a
German historian, Fritz Fischer, caused a sensation when he suggested that Germany
should, after all, take most of the blame, because they risked a major war by sending the
'blank cheque' to Austria-Hungary. He claimed that Germany deliberately planned for,
and provoked war with Russia, Britain and France in order to make Germany the
dominant power in the world.
2. Other historians emphasize the time factor involved: the Germans wanted war not only
because they felt encircled, but because they felt that the net was closing in on them.
They were threatened by superior British naval power and by the massive Russian
military expansion. They believed that if they waited longer than that, Russia would be
too strong.
3. Some historians reject both points 1 and 2 and suggest that Germany did not want a
major war at all.

The mobilization plans of the great powers: Gerhard Ritter, a leading German histodan,
believed that the German plan for mobilization, known as the Schlieffen Plan, was extremely
risky and inflexible and deserved to be seen as the start of disaster both for Germany and
Europe. The Schlieffen Plan assumed that France would automatically join Russia; the bulk of
German forces were to be sent by train to the Belgian frontier, and through Belgium to attack
France, which would be knocked out in six weeks. German forces would then be switched rapidly
across Europe to face Russia. Unfortunately the Schlieffen Plan, which depended on the rapid
capture of Liege in Belgium, involved the first aggressive act outside the Balkans, when German
troops crossed the frontier into Belgium on 4 August, thus violating Belgian neutrality. Moltke
insisted on the full Schlieffen Plan; he said there was no time to change all the railway timetables
to send the troop trains to Russia instead of to Belgium. It was the Schlieffen Plan or nothing.
A 'tragedy of miscalculation': Australian historian L. C. F. Turner suggested that the Germans
may not have deliberately provoked war and that, in fact, war was not inevitable, and it should
have been possible to reach agreement peacefully.

● Austrians miscalculated by thinking that Russia would not support Serbia.

● Germany made a crucial mistake by promising to support Austria.
● Politicians in Russia and Germany miscalculated by assuming that mobilization would not
necessarily mean war.
● Ritter and Taylor are correct, this means that the generals, especially Moltke,
miscalculated by sticking rigidly to their plans.

Chapter 2: The First World War and its aftermath

The Allies or Entente Powers: Britain and her empire (including troops from Australia, Canada,
India and New Zealand), France, Russia (left December 1917), Italy (entered May 1915), Serbia,
Belgium, Romania (entered August 1916), USA (entered April 1917), Japan.
The Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey (entered November 1914), Bulgaria
(entered October 1915). It was widely expected to be a short, decisive affair. But, Germans failed
to achieve the rapid defeat of France and both sides spent the next four years attacking and
defending lines of trenches. In eastern Europe there was more movement, with early Russian
successes against the Austrians, who constantly had to be helped out by the Germans. But by
December 1917 the Germans had captured Poland (Russian territory) and forced the Russians
out of the war. Britain and France, seemed on the verge of defeat. Luckily, the tide turned; the
Allies, helped by the entry of the USA in April 1917, wore down the Germans. By late summer
1918 they were nearing exhaustion. An armistice (ceasefire) was signed on 11 November 1918,
though Germany itself had hardly been invaded. A controversial peace settlement was signed at
Versailles the following year.

1914

The western front: The German advance was held up by unexpectedly strong Belgian
resistance; it took over two weeks to capture the Belgian capital. This gave the British time to
organize themselves, and left the Channel ports free, enabling the British Expeditionary Force to
land. Instead of approaching Paris from the west the Germans found themselves just east of
Paris, making straight for the city. They penetrated to within twenty miles of Paris, and the
French government withdrew to Bordeaux; but the nearer they got to Paris, the more the German
impetus slowed up. There were problems in keeping the armies supplied with food and
ammunition, and the troops became exhausted. In September the faltering Germans were
attacked in the Battle of the Marne.

● It ruined the Schlieffen Plan once and for all

● The Germans would have to face full-scale war on two fronts
● The war of movement was over
● There was time for the British navy to bring its crippling blockade to bear on Germany's
ports.
The eastern front: The Russians mobilized more quickly than the Germans expected, but then
made the mistake of invading both Austria and Germany at the same time. the Germans brought
Hindenburg out of retirement and defeated the Russians twice. The Russians lost vast amounts
of equipment and ammunition, which had taken them years to build up. The Russians never
recovered from this setback.
1915

Stalemate in the west: The British tried at Neuve Chapelle and Loos, the French tried in
Champagne; the Germans attacked again at Ypres. All the attacks failed to make a decisive
breakthrough. The difficulties of trench waif were always the same:

● There was barbed wire in no-man's land between the two lines of opposing trenches
● Reconnaissance aircraft and observation balloons could spot concentrations of troops
● Trenches were difficult to capture because the increased firepower provided by magazine
rifles and machine-guns made frontal attacks suicidal and meant that cavalry were
useless.
● Even when a trench line was breached, advance was difficult because the ground had
been churned up.
● Any ground won was difficult to defend since it usually formed what was called a salient -
a bulge in the trench line.
● During the attack on Ypres in 1915, the Germans used poison gas, but when the wind
changed direction it was blown back towards their own lines.
The east: Russia's fortunes were mixed: they had further successes against Austria, but they
met defeat with the Germans. The Turkish blockade of the Dardanelles was beginning to hamper
the Russians open up the vital supply line to Russia via the Black Sea that the Gallipoli
Campaign was launched. This was an idea strongly pressed by Winston Churchill to escape from
the deadlock in the west by eliminating the Turks. Success against Turkey would enable help to
be sent to Russia and might also bring Bulgaria, Greece and Romania into the war. It would then
be possible to attack Austria from the south. The campaign was a total failure, when the British
attempted landings at the tip of the Gallipoli peninsula, the Turks had strengthened their
defences and no advance could be made. In December the entire force was withdrawn. The
consequences were serious: besides being a blow to Allied morale, it turned out to be the last
chance of helping Russia via the Black Sea.
When Bulgaria entered the war in October, Serbia was quickly overrun by Bulgarians and
Germans. The year 1915 was therefore not a good one for the Allies.
Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary (May 1915): The Italians were hoping to seize Austria
Hungary's Italian-speaking provinces as well as territory along the eastern shore of the Adriatic
Sea. The Allies hoped that by keeping thousands of Austrian troops occupied, the Italians would
relieve pressure on the Russians. But the Russians were unable to stave off defeat.
1916

The western front: On the western front, 1916 is remembered for two terrible battles, Verdun
and the Somme. Verdun was an important French fortress town against which the Germans
under Falkenhayn launched a massive attack. They hoped to draw all the best French troops to
its defence, destroy them and then carry out a final offensive to win the war. But the French
defended stubbornly. The Battle of the Somme was a series of attacks, mainly by the British,
beginning on 1 July and lasting through to November. The aim was to relieve pressure on the
French at Verdun. The real importance of the battle was the blow to German morale, as they
realized that Britain was a military power to be reckoned with. British and French generals
remained convinced that mass infantry charges - the 'big push' - were the only way to make a
breakthrough. The horrors of the Somme also contributed to the fall of the British prime minister,
Asquith, who resigned in 1916
David Lloyd George becomes British prime minister (December 1916): Lloyd George´s
contribution to the Allied war effort and the defeat of the Central Powers was invaluable. His
methods were dynamic and decisive.
In the east: In June 1916 the Russians under Brusilov attacked the Austrians, in response to a
plea from Britain and France for some action to divert German attention away from Verdun. The
Austrians were demoralized, but the strain was exhausting the Russians as well. The Romanians
invaded Austria (August), but the Germans swiftly came to the Austrians' rescue.

THE WAR AT SEA: Both sides were cautious and dared not risk any action which might result in
the loss of their main fleets.
The Allies aimed to use their navies in three ways:
● To blockade the Central Powers, preventing goods from entering or leaving.
● To keep trade routes open between Britain.
● To transport British troops to the continent and keep them supplied.

The British were successful in carrying out these aims, and at the Battle of the Falkland Islands,
destroyed one of the main German squadrons. By the end of 1914 nearly all German armed
surface ships had been destroyed.
The Allied blockade caused problems: Britain was trying to prevent the Germans from using
the neutral Scandinavian and Dutch ports to break the blockade. The USA objected strongly to
this, since they were anxious to continue trading with both sides.
The Germans retaliated with mines and submarine attacks: These tactics seemed to be the
only alternative left to the Germans, but it was soon clear that the German submarine blockade
was not effective. This was partly because they had insufficient U-boats and partly because there
were problems of identification: the British tried to fool the Germans by flying neutral flags. In
April 1915 the British liner Lusitania was sunk by a torpedo attack. This had important
consequences: out of almost two thousand dead, 128 were Americans. President Wilson
therefore found that the USA would have to take sides to protect her trade.
The Battle of Jutland (31 May 1916): This was the main event at sea during 1916; it was the
only time in the entire war that the main battle-fleets emerged and engaged each other; the result
was indecisive. Germans could claim that they had won the battle since they Jost only 11 ships
to Britain's 14. The real importance of the battle lay in the fact that the Germans hadfailed to
destroy British sea power.
'Unrestricted' submarine warfare (began January 1917): As the Germans had been
concentrating on the production of U-boats since the Battle of Jutland, this campaign was
extremely effective. They attempted to sink all enemy and neutral merchant ships in the Atlantic,
they hoped that Britain and France would be starved into surrender before the Americans could
make any vital contribution. The situation was saved by Lloyd George, who insisted that the
Admiralty adopt a convoy system. This drastically reduced losses and meant that the German
gamble had failed.
1915

In the west: On the western front, 1917 was a year of Allied failure. A massive French attack in
Champagne, achieved nothing. From June to November the British fought the Third Battle of
Ypres, British casualties were again enormous. The Battle of Cambrai, where 381 massed British
tanks made a great breach in the German line, but lack of reserves prevented the success from
being followed up. The Italians were heavily defeated by Germans and Austrians at Caporetto
(October) and retreated in disorder.
On the eastern front: Disaster struck the Allies when Russia withdrew from the war. In 1918 the
entire weight of German forces could be thrown against the west; without the USA, the Allies
would have been hard pressed.
The entry of the USA (April 1917): This was caused partly by the German U-boat campaign,
and also by the discovery that Germany was trying to persuade Mexico to declare war on the
USA. The USA made an important contribution to the Allied victory: they supplied Britain and
France with food, merchant ships and credit.

THE CENTRAL POWERS DEFEATED

The German spring offensive, 1918: This major German attack was launched by Ludendorff in
a last, desperate attempt to win the war before too many US troops arrived. They managed to
hold on as the German advance lost momentum.
The Allied counter-offensive begins (8 August): The counter-attack involved hundreds of
tanks attacking in short, sharp jabs at several different points. This forced the Germans to
withdraw their entire line and avoided forming a salient. Though Germany itself had not yet been
invaded, Ludendorff was now convinced that they would be defeated in the spring of 1919. By
asking for peace in 1918 he would save Germany from invasion and preserve the army's
discipline and reputation.
Why did the war last so long? There are several reasons why the conflict lasted so long. Other
countries, decided to join in, some because they saw it as a chance to gain new territory, and
others waited to see which side looked the more likely to win. The main countries involved in the
war had very strongly held war aims which they were absolutely determined to achieve. The
Germans, aimed to take territory from Poland in the east and Belgium in the west to act as buffer
zones against Russia and France. The French were obsessed with taking back Alsace-Lorraine,
which the Germans had taken in 1871. The British would never allow Belgium, a country so near
to their coast, to be controlled by a hostile power like Germany. Austria-Hungary was desperate
to preserve its empire against the ambitions of Serbia.
Why did the Central Powers lose the war?:
 1. Once the Schlieff en Plan had failed, it was bound to be a strain for them.
2. Allied sea power was decisive.
3. The German submarine campaign failed in the face of convoys protected by British,
American and Japanese destroyers
4. The entry of the USA brought vast new resources to the Allies
5. Allied political leaders at the critical time - Lloyd George and Clemenceau - were
probably more competent than those of the Central Powers. Haig made four outstanding
contributions to the Allied victory. First, he took a leading part in reforming the army and
preparing it for a major war before 1914. Then, between 1916 and 1918 he was
responsible for transforming the British Expeditionary Force from an inexperienced small
force into a mass warwinning army. Thirdly, his battles in 1916 and 1917 (the Somme,
Arras and Third Ypres), played a vital role in wearing down the Germans
6. The continuous strain of heavy losses told on the Germans. From July 1918 onwards the
Germans were forced into their final retreat.
7. Germany was badly let down by allies and was constantly having to help out the
Austrians and Bulgarians.

Effects of the war: The impact of the war was extraordinarily wide-ranging. New methods of
warfare and new weapons were introduced - tanks, submarines, bombers, machine-guns, heavy
artillery and mustard gas. The conflict caused a decline in Europe's prestige in the eyes of the
rest of the world.
1. The most striking effect of the war was the appalling death toll among the armed forces.
Almost 2 million Germans died, 1.7 million Russians, 1.5 million French, over a million
Austro-Hungarians and about one million from Britain
2. In Germany, hardship and defeat caused a revolution: the Kaiser Wilhelm II was
compelled to abdicate and a republic was declared.
3. The Habsburg Empire collapsed completely. The last emperor, Karl I, was forced to
abdicate. Austria and Hungary split into two separate states.
4. In Russia the pressures of war caused two revolutions in 1917.
5. Although Italy was on the winning side, the war had been a drain on her resources and
she was heavily in debt. Mussolini took advantage of the government's unpopularity, to
take over control.
6. Japan, China and the USA, took advantage of Europe's preoccupation with the war to
expand their trade at Europe's expense.
7. Many politicians and leaders were determined that the horrors of the First World War
should never be repeated.

THE PROBLEMS OF MAKING A PEACE SETTLEMENT

War aims: When the war started, none of the participants had any specific ideas about what they
hoped to achieve, except that Germany and Austria wanted to preserve the Habsburg Empire.
American President Woodrow Wilson stated US war aims in his famous 14 Points
(January 1918): 1 abolition of secret diplomacy; 2 free navigation at sea for all nations in war
and peace; 3 removal of economic barriers between states; 4 all-round reduction of armaments;
5 impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned; 6
evacuation of Russian territory; 7 restoration of Belgium; 8 liberation of France and restoration of
Alsace and Lorraine; 9 readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality; 10 self-
government for the peoples of Austria-Hungary; 11 Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be
evacuated and Serbia given access to the sea; 12 self-government for the non-Turkish peoples
of the Turkish Empire and permanent opening of the Dardanelles; 13 an independent Poland
with secure access to the sea; 14 a general association of nations to preserve peace.
Differing Allied views about how to treat the defeated powers: When the peace conference
met (January 1919) it was soon obvious that a settlement would be difficult because of basic
disagreements among the victorious powers:
1. France wanted a harsh peace, to ruin Germany economically and militarily
2. Britain (Lloyd George) was in favor of a less severe settlement, enabling Germany to
recover quickly so that she could resume her role as a major customer for British goods.
3. The USA (Woodrow Wilson) was in favour of a lenient peace. Wilson was also in favour
of self-determination: nations should be freed from foreign rule and given dernocratic
governments of their own choice.
By June 1919 the conference had come up with the Treaty of Versailles for Germany.

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES WITH GERMANY

The terms: 1 Germany had to lose territory in Europe: Alsace-Lorraine to France; Eupen,
Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium; North Schleswig to Denmark; West Prussia and Posen to
Poland; Memel was given to Lithuania; The area known as the Saar was to be administered by
the League of Nations for 15 years; Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, were taken away from
Germany and set up as independent states; Union between Germany and Austria was forbidden.
2 Germany's African colonies were taken away and became 'mandates' under League of Nations
supervision; 3 German armaments were strictly limited to a maximum of 100 000 troops and no
conscription (compulsory military service), no tanks, armoured cars, military aircraft or
submarines, and only six battleships; 4 The War Guilt clause fixed the blame for the outbreak of
the war solely on Germany and her allies and proposed that the ex-Kaiser should be put on trial
for war crimes; 5 Germany was to pay reparations for damage done to the Allies; 6 A League of
Nations was formed

Why did the Germans object, and how far were their objections justified?

It was a dictated peace: The Germans were not allowed into the discussions at Versailles; they
were simply presented with the terms and told to sign.
Many provisions were not based on the 14 Points: The Germans claimed that they had been
promised terms based on Wilson's 14 Points, and that many of the provisions were not based on
the 14 Points. This is probably not a valid objection: the 14 Points had never been accepted as
official.
Loss of territory in Europe: This included Alsace-Lorraine and especially West Prussia, which
gave Poland access to the sea. However, both were mentioned in the 14 Points. Right from the
start of the peace conference the Allies had emphasized that all nationalities should have the
right to choose which country they wanted to belong to. The settlement left around a million
Germans under Polish rule, and almost three million in the Sudetenland controlled by the new
state of Czechoslovakia. In addition, Austria was a completely German state with a population of
some seven million. All these Germans wanted to become part of Germany.
Loss of Gennany's African colonies: The Germans probably had good grounds for objection
to the loss of their African colonies, which was hardly an 'impartial adjustment'.
The disannament clauses were deeply resented: The Germans claimed that 100 000 troops
were not enough to keep law and order at a time of political unrest.
'The War Guilt' clause (Article 231): The Germans objected to being saddled with the entire
blame for the outbreak of war. The Allies wanted the Germans to admit responsibility so that they
would be liable to pay reparations.
Reparations: Reparations were the final humiliation for the Germans. The figure of £6600 million
enabled the Germans to protest that it was impossible to pay, and they soon began to default
(fail to pay) on their annual instalments. This caused resentment among the Allies, who were
relying on German cash to help them pay their own war debts to the USA

THE PEACE TREATIES WITH AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

The Treaty of St Germain (1919), dealing with Austria: By this treaty Austria lost; 1 Bohemia
and Moravia to the new state of Czechoslovakia; 2 Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia,
which, with Montenegro, now became known as Yugoslavia; 3 Bukovina to Romania; 4 Galicia to
the reconstituted state of Poland; 5 South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and Trieste to Italy.
The Treaty of Trianon (1920), dealing with Hungary: By this treaty Hungary lost: 1 Slovakia
and Ruthenia were given to Czechoslovakia; 2 Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia; 3
Transylvania and the Banat of Temesvar to Romania.

The treaties left both Austria and Hungary with serious economic problems. Austria was a small
republic, its population reduced from 22 million to 6.5 million; most of its industrial wealth had
been lost to Czechoslovakia and Poland. Hungary was just as badly affected, her population
reduced from 21 million to 7.5 million, and some of her richest corn land lost to Romania.

THE SETTLEMENT WITH TURKEY AND BULGARIA

The Treaty of Sevres (1920), dealing with Turkey: Turkey was to lose Eastern Thrace, many
Aegean islands and Smyrna to Greece; Adalia and Rhodes to Italy; the Straits (the exit from the
Black Sea) were to be permanently open; Syria became a French mandate, and Palestine, Iraq
and Transjordan British mandates. The Turks rejected the treaty and chased the Greeks out of
Smyrna. The Italians and French withdrew their occupying forces from the Straits area, leaving
only British troops at Chanak. Eventually a compromise was reached and the settlement was
revised by the Treaty of Lausanne
The Treaty of Neuilly (1919), dealing with Bulgaria: Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, depriving
her of her Aegean coastline, and also to Yugoslavia and Romania.

VERDICT ON THE PEACE SETTLEMENT: In conclusion, it has to be said that this collection of
peace treaties was not a conspicuous success. The USA failed to ratify the settlement and never
joined the League of Nations. This in turn left France completely disenchanted with the whole
thing because the AngloAmerican guarantee of her frontiers given in the agreement could not
now apply. Italy felt cheated because she had not received all the territory promised her in 1915,
and Russia was ignored, because the powers did not want to negotiate with its Bolshevik
government. Germany, on the other hand, was only temporarily weakened and was soon strong
enough to challenge certain of the terms.