INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY
ORIGIN AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE SOCIETY
MEANING OF SOCIETY
CHARACTERICTICS OF HUMAN SOCIETY
SOCIAL RELATIONS
STUDYING SOCIETY
CULTURE
THE MEANING OF CULTURE
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
CULTURAL RELATIVES
CULTURAL CONTINUITY
ACCULTURATION ANF ASSIMILATIN
CULTURAL DEPLETION
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIALIZATION
CULTURAL SHOCK
SOCIALIZATION
THE MEANING OF SOCIALIZATION
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIALIZATION
STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
FAMILY
SCHOOL
PEER GTROUP AND OTHERS
SOCIAL CONTROL
THE MEANING OF SOCIAL CONTROL
FORMS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
MEANING OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
THE FAMILY
KINSHIP AND ETHNICITY
DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS KINSHIP AND ETHNICITY
 TYPES OF MARRIAGES
MARITAL ROLES
FORMS OF DESCENT
GROUP DYNAMICS
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
DEFINITION OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
TYPES OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
DEFINITION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE
SOCIAL STRATIFICATIONTYPES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
DEFINITION OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
SOCIAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT
DEFINITION OF SOCIAL CHANGE
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
NATURE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
ELEMENTS OF THE SOCIAL SYSTEMS THAT CHANGE
o VALUES AND SENTIMENTS
o NORMS
o GOALS
o STATUS ROLES
o SANCTIONS
THE MEANING OF DEVLOPMENT
APPROACHES TO DEVLOPMENT
 DIRECTIVE
 NON DIRECTIVE
DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN KENYA
SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN KENYA
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERSONAL AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS
MAJOR SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN KENYA, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES
o POVERTY
o UNEMPLOYMENT
o CRIME AND DELIQUENCY
o DRUG ABUSE
o VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
o CHILD ABUSE
o URBANIZATION
o TEENAGE PREGNANCY
o POPULATION EXPLOSION
CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE
DEFINITION
ROLES
Sociology is derived from the words socio – society/people (individual and collection)
logy – refers to study.
Sociology is therefore defined as:-
 The study of society.
 The study of social institutions.
 It is the study of social life of the people and study of social systems and how human
beings behave both as individuals and as groups.
Society
It is the largest group of people who live together and are tied with some common
aspects that bring about some social order. These people usually share common
territories, may have a common culture, common goals and objectives, kinship ties
and some form social control systems (rules and regulations) e.g. ethnic groupings.
HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology history emerged in the 19th C due to rapid social and political changes that
took place in Europe in the 19TH and 18th centuries.
Industrial revolution played a big role in changing people’s social life, people’s
behavior and subsequently urbanization with the emergence of urban population also
came numerous social problems e.g. unemployment, lack of housing, crime,
population etc with time situation worsens.
Sociology has its root primarily in France, German and England. Some of the early
factors of sociology are:-
Augustine Compte; he lived between (1798 – 1837) with the French revolution. He
believed that understanding in the society was very vital and bringing stability to the
world.
He was heavily influenced by the scientific method, by natural sciences and he argued
that the sociologists should use the scientific method in solving problems of order and
change. He used the terms like social statistics (stability) of the society, social
dynamic (social change).

Karl Marx lived between 1818 – 1883; a German doctor, lecturer; he traveled widely
in Europe. Marx believed that the overall structure of society is heavily influenced by
having the economy organized i.e. those who occur in the means of production and
those who do not.
He introduced the concept of cross economy like business and labour; he divided
economic system into capitalism and communism; he said that the society always in
a state of conflict between the classes.

Herbert Spencer lived between 1820 – 1903; an English (England), civil engineer,
influenced the views of Charles Darwin (evolutionist). He understood the society as a
biological model i.e. cell – tissue – organ – system – organism.
He understood the society as having system which works towards perfection what
became to be known as social Darwinism.

Emile Durkheim lived between 1838 – 1917; he was a French man, a lecturer, a
philosopher. He applies method of science to the study of society. He was concerned
with the social order and he understood the society as set of interdependence part that
maintains the system over times.
He viewed the roles of these facts I terms of function; he was necessarily interested in
the function of religion in maintaining social order.
He used his theory through statistical analysis i.e. social statistics.

Max Weber lived between 1864 – 1920; a German, lecturer, a profession of

economics; unlike others, he was interested more in groups within the society rather
than the social whole.
 He struggled to analyze the effect of society on an individual i.e. socialization and
resocialization.
Weber attached a lot of emphasis on understanding the action of the people in the
society; the social dynamics which tries to look at the group behavior.
Key concepts of Sociology
 Society
 Behavior
 Social institution
 Norms, Ethics
 Values
 Theories
 Social interaction
 Group
 Social order.
Applications of Sociology
1. Social institutions e.g. schools, colleges, universities etc.
2. Conflict resolution
3. Humanitarianism
4. Disaster management
5. Social dynamic
6. Social problems e.g. IDPs
7. Community based organizations e.g. UNEP, UNESCO, UNICEF
Branches of Sociology
1. Rural sociology
2. Criminology
3. Urban sociology
4. Medical sociology
Criminology
It is as social study dealing with causes of crime and how to tackle criminal behavior
in the society. It deals with defiant behaviour, delinquency and penology.
Defiant behavior is any behavior which causes the societal norms, values and
expectations.
Delinquency means a crime in general; penology is the study of how to punish on
crime.
 Medical sociology
Deals with the study of sociological perspective as regard the practice of medicine
e.g. how a child can be handled, rehabilitation etc.
Rural sociology
The word rural refers to the outside the urban setting; in the outskirts, an area of
predominant agriculture or in grass roots etc.
It is the study of rural ar4eas and development in social perspectives outside the urban
areas. It studies things like:-
 Rural community
 Social interaction in the rural
 Social institutions in the rural
 Rural development
 Rural urban migration
Urban sociology
It is the study of social perspective in urban area e.g. urban society, urban settlement,
urban mobility, intra and inter urban move – linkages.

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
theory
It is a systematic explanation of the relationship among phenomena; phenomena and
events or happening things that concerned the society.
1. Functionalist theory/perspective theory
Society is viewed as a set of interrelated part that work together to produce a stable
social system i.e. the society held together through consensus.
Originators are Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim; here the element society is
viewed in terms of their functions i.e. if what is happening in the society which is
good is said to be good.
 Malfunction (bad)
 Dysfunction (negative)
 Social function (good)
 Intent (sleeping) function
2. Conflict perspective theory
Advanced by Karl Max/Max Weber; focuses in the society that promotes competition
and bring about change. The focuses may be:-
The economy
3. Interactionalist Theory
It focuses on how individual interact with one another; it is interested in the way in
which individuals respond to one another in every day situations. It also interested in
the meaning to own action and the action of others.
It looks on issues such as labeling e.g. uncle, son; symbols e.g. flag

Anthropology
The comparative study of various aspects of past and present culture; it is the social
science closet to sociology, it is a subject matter. Anthropologists traditionally have
concentrated on examining the past culture and present simple society.
Sociology on the other hand is most interested in group behavior in complex societies;
urban sociologist for instance, examines such things as the cultural characteristics of
neighborhood and communities in Western Nations.
Psychology
The social science that deals with the behavior and thinking of an organism; it differs
from sociology primarily in that it focuses in individual behavior and draws more
heavily on tools of the natural science.
Areas of interest to psychologist include personality, perception, motivation and
learning.
Despite differences in emphasis, sociology and psychology are related particularly in
the area of social psychology.
Social psychology
It is the study of how individual behavior and personality are affected by social
environment; its courses are taught both in psychology department and in sociology
department and people in both disciplines claim the title of social psychologist.
Economics
The study of the choice people make in effort to satisfy their wants and needs; it
examines the process by which goods and services are produced, distributed and
consumed. It also examines the effect of government policies on stability on
economic growth stability.
The examination of the organization and operations of the government is the forces of
political sciences; the interest of sociology and political science after overlap.
Areas of mutual interest include rating, patterns, and the concentration of politics,
power and the formation of politically based groups.
History
It is the study of past events; sociologists also are interested in the past in many social
historians. Sociologists study past event in the effort to explain current social behavior
and alteration over time, the division of the social science have become less distinct.
Many modes of social sciences in an effort to better understand the social forces that
help to shape our lives.
Sociology as a science
Natural sciences deal with the objective facts whereas sociology deals with social
phenomenon; the applications of a scientific method do not necessarily hold because
the social arena is dynamic/undergoes through constant change. It varies with time,
place and circumstances.
Application
Where human behavior is sociologically predictive i.e. is not obvious, that given the
same scenario, social behavior will be replicate and the various uniqueness of a
people (society).
Evolution
Like many other social discipline, sociology experience the challenges of growth and
development. It is fair there to say, the human society is becoming more and more
complex by the day hence sociologists are challenged to adopt to the changing trends
of the society.
Society
It is the largest group of people who live together and are tied with some common
aspects that bring about some social order. These people usually share common
territories, may have a common culture, common goals and objectives, kinship ties
and some form social control systems (rules and regulations) e.g. ethnic groupings.
 Characteristics of human society
1. Common geographical area or territory
These people usually share common boundary or area within their set up.
2. Common economic activities
Usually their system of production/manufacturing is common and aimed at achieving
some goals, cultural behavior/common social system. Either they share some common
cultural traits or common social system that regulates the behavior.
3. Common social control system
They may have laws, rules, norms, sanction means/rewards and punishment for
offenders.
4. Common mode of communication
E.g. language, in Kenya we have English and Kiswahili and also indigenous
languages.
Social Relations
People within the society relate with one another through social interactions, social
relationship came between individuals e.g. friendship, work situation, profession.
 Family level e.g. mother and children. Father and children and relatives
 Group level e.g. seminars, workshops
 Profession e.g. according to your profession
The ways you relate in the society determine the following:
 Sense of belong ness
 Sense of identity
 Social integration/strength
 Collective ability (energy)
Studying Society
Sociological study employs social research method to gather social facts about social
phenomena.
Social research
Is a research technique or methodology used in social sciences looking to subjective
tasks involving individuals, groups, community in their social set up. This method
contrasts with other methods because it does not emphasize the objectivity.
Social research
Are the data/information gathered from social research e.g. facts about behavior,
poverty, rape etc.
 Social phenomenon
Are events or occurrences of situations of social problems studied by sociologist. The
study of the society, the following techniques is applied:-
 Hypothesis
 Research
 Data collection
 Representation
CULTURE
 Is a way of life of the people i.e. traditions of any given society.
 It is the belief, tradition, practices of any given society.
 It can also be defined as the traditions, values, norms, knowledge and artifacts,
languages and symbols that are constantly communicated among people ho share a
common way of life.
Elements of culture
Culture can be understood as either material or non material.
Norms – is a specific guideline for action or it is a rule that says how people should
behave in a particular situation. Norms are passed or are taught through language or
exemplication.
Knowledge – is a body of facts, beliefs and practical skills that people accumulate
over time. Knowledge consists of information about places, people, events or ideas. It
can come from books, tutorials, stories.
Believe system
Artifacts – objects made b people to express their means of livelihood or way of life
e.g. drums
Morals – knowledge about good or bad.
Mores – rules that is expressed in a hidden way.
Cultural traits
Folkways
Customs
Cultural relatives
Different cultures have different elements and it is not fair to compare them equally or
to complete them.
Cultural relatives is the aspect of looking at different cultures with their due share of
consideration without judging he one or the other, values, norms, symbols and
 language. For example, Kalenjins may not be exactly as Luos and none of the two
should be judged.
Cultural Continuity
Every culture has its own ‘silent’ drive or forces that propel it to continue against
other competitive elements. All cultures struggle for continuity.
Acculturation
It is the acquisition of new traits or elements by a culture that were not there before,
adoption of new ways of dressing, circumcision etc.
Assimilation
It is the permanent adoption of new traits acquired.
Cultural depletion
This is the loss of some traits or elements by a culture.
Cultural shock
Comes about when a person belonging to one culture experiences cultural elements or
traits that he/she was not familiar with, this comes about as a result of three factors:-
 Time
 Circumstances
 Places e.g. tumbo cut is a cultural shock to old women.

SOCIALIZATION
A person’s behavior is determined by a biological make up (nature – primary) or by
the environment (nurture – secondary). After birth nurture take effect through a
process called socialization which begin from birth and ends in death.
Socialization is the process of instilling societal value, norms, knowledge, symbols of
the society to its members through out life course.
It means therefore a human is product heredity of bits or her environment which end
up into personality – the sum total of the behavior, attitude, believe and values that are
characteristics of an individual.
Functions of socialization
 Helps one know about his/her culture.
 Helps develop a person’s personality
 Helps one understand roles and functions
 Helps us understand our stages in development process
 Helps in bringing about our relationship
 Helps us to interpret environment process
 Helps us to know our societal expectation of its members
 Helps us to appropriate the role of nurture and nature.
 Helps in developing social life (social interaction).
Stages of socialization
 Childhood
 Adolescent
 Early adulthood
 Late adulthood
Childhood
 Age begin from 0 to 13 years
 They are dependant.
 They don’t know to differentiate good and bad things
 Autonomy people – may doubt their ability and tool share about self.
Adolescent
 Age begin 13 to 25 years.
 At this stage there are physical, psychological and social changes that take place in
both boys and girls.
 Sexual experience is also moving upwards as young people leave childhood behind
them earlier than the past.
Young adult
 Begin from 25 to 40 years.
 Must partially use their own identities with those of the other people, turning deep
friendship, falling in love and marrying.
 Danger is that if they fail to commit themselves to others because they fear a loss of
self and thus they will feel isolated and lonely.
Late adult
 Begin from 80 years and above years.
 He/she thinks and moves slowly.
 He/she is bound to himself and to his past and can no longer change or grow.
 He/she dislikes innovation and is not disposed to new idea.
 He/she become irritable and their minds yet shallow and feeble.
 He/she lives in his past, is behind all the time.
 Aimless and wondering of mind, reminiscing;
 Agents of socialization
 Families
 Peers
 School
 Church professional association
 Mass media

The family
The family is the basic and the first agent of socialization.
The society and nature places a fundamental responsibility on the parents to raise up
their children.
The parents are responsible for:-
1. Nurturing and attachment especially the mother during pregnancy, breast feeding and
nursing.
2. Sex typing – help the child in defining the sex and attaining expectation and
responsibility on the same line.
3. Moral and ethical values
4. Gender and sexuality.
Schools
Education is the systematic process of obtaining knowledge and skills for individuals
and societal change. Education has with it syllabi, discipline, role modeling,
expectation or grading; education also inspires and builds people’s aspiration.
The school is also a point of social interaction and relationship where
ideas/ideologies, symbols and behaviors are learnt.
Peer group
It comprises people with whom we share some qualities and interest i.e.
 Age
 Sex
 Profession
The peer factors bring with it the peer influence i.e. looking at things or listening to a
thing from a common perspective.
Some of the common influences are:-
 Movies
  Music
 Walking style

Mass media
It constitutes the print media, audio and audio visuals. It is one of the most effective
means of giving out information, communication, and education and receiving
information.

SOCIAL CONTROL
The socialization process brings about i.e. internationalization of the societal norms
and expectations. Through internalization we learn to conform; to conform is to
become obedient to the expectation to the society. However, the society also brings
with it sanctions that is rewarded and punishment that are used to enforce conformity
to the societal norms.
Sanctions can be negative e.g. rejection of fines, it can also be formal or informal.
Social control is the enforcing of norms through either internalization or sanctions
with intent to regulate behavior. All the societies’ which social control is focused on
self control and internalization of norms to defeat social disorder, examples of social
disorders are stealing, fighting in the street e.t.c. Social disorders is the break down of
conformity or social stability.
Forms of Social control
1. Taboos
In every society there are aspects of culture that has ruled over a period of time to an
extent that they have held a principle or fundamental in regulating the behavior, the
society subsequently expect their members not to break those fundamentals e.g.
 Incest
 Beating of an old man
2. Values; are rights or bad behavior.
3. Regulations; are formal prescription allowing or inhibiting character, rules and
status.
4. Laws; are rules governing a citizen of a country.

SOCIAL INTERACTION
 This refers to the various ways within which members of the society meet or
exist/intercept. There are many forms of interaction, some help to promote change and
others to bring about stability.

Family
A group of people bound together by blood, marriage or adoption usually living
together and sharing some common aspect of life e.g. economic activities, some
discipline, responsibilities.
Functions of the family
1. Companionship; the family provide a sense of belonging and security; they also
provide love and affection.
2. Reproduction; the family is the only formal institution within the responsibility of
continuity i.e. making shares that new generations come about through child bearing
and child rearing.
3. Socialization; it is through the family that most children learn about the values and
the norms of the society. The family works as the agent of socialization.
4. Regulation of sexual activities; it is through the family teachings about which sex,
when sex, with whom sex and why sex. The family prescribes incest (not allowing the
children to have sexual intercourse with their close relatives e.g. child and parents)
5. Provision of different things
Provision of economic well being
Ascription of status and property
Emotional security etc
Types of Families
1. Nuclear family
Comprising of either one of the parents, both the parents and the children or just the
father and mother. They usually share a common residence through may be separated
temporarily.
2. Extended family
This comprises the cousins, nephews, grannies and the in – laws.
KINSHIP AND ETHNICITY
There are two forms of social relationship and interaction which are found within the
society.
 Kinship – is a relationship/interaction that is necessitated by blood contact; it is also
an interaction necessitated by marriage e.g. cousins, nephew child, sibling and in law.
Ethnicity - it is a form of social interaction or relationship between people of the
same ethnic group e.g. Luo. Kalenjin, Kikuyu etc.
Ethnic group are groups that subscribe to a similar set of culture, clans, historical
background, economic activities, geographical boundary, common values, goals etc.
In other area, ethnicity has been understood as tribe.
Ethnicity and kinship are important to an individual behavior, group dynamic and
social interaction.
Ethnicity and kinship determine how people interact and how people marry whereby
marriage is difficult to define however we can agree that marriage is coming together
of one partner with another usually relating and living together.
Traditionally, marriage was understood as the mutual coming together of two or more
partners who have submitted their consent to live as wife (ves) and husband. The
traditional African Society accepted different types of marriages.
In the modern world, marriage has become complex in definition and reality. This is
because:-
a. Life style
b. Modernization
c. Urbanization
d. Economic factors
e. Political factors
f.Technologies
Types of Marriages
1. Monogamy; marriage of one partner
2. Polygamy; marriage to more than one woman
3. Polyandry; marriage to more than one husband
Marital roles (Roles in marriage)
 Companionship
 Protection/Security
 Intimacy
 Caring
 Housing
Forms of Descent
 Part lineal; this is a descent or background blood relationship from the perspective of
the father.
 Matrilineal; is a background blood relationship perspective of the mother.
 Bilateral; from both the perspective of the father and the mother.
NOTE; Descent is the family tree on an individual e.g. Barrack Obama, Obama’s
family tree can be looked up from the father side (pat lineal) which relates into
Kogelo or from the mother side which relates into America.

GROUPS
Group dynamic and groups is a wide concept in sociology; however, we limit our
study of groups in respect to the syllabus.
Primary groups
This is a small group of people who interact relatively over a long period of time on a
direct and a personal basis.
Characteristics of primary groups
1. Relationship is personal, intimate and often face to face.
2. Communication is developed and intense.
3. The structure is informal
4. Personal satisfaction is fundamental (very important) e.g. family, friends
Secondary groups
This is a group in which interaction is experienced and temporary in nature.
Characteristics of secondary groups
1. It is impersonal (casual and limited)
2. An individual can be replaced easily by another to carry out a specific task.
3. The bond may not be strong.
4. May be small or big.
5. It is not direct.
NOTE: Sometimes it is not very easy to draw a line on the point at which the primary
group ends and the secondary group begins. This is what we call the continuous of
graphing.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Sociologists agree that the society comprise of different and distinct social
institutions.
 The functionalists further believe that the social institutions regulate how the society
functions and they are very important in any social change process.
1. Education
According to sociologists, education is looked at as a form of structured socialization
i.e. they look at education as a way of passing on knowledge, skills, values e.t.c. In a
formal way from one generation to the other.
Structured because it fails with a system, administration, subjects and teachers or
lectures, examination etc. It is formal because it is structured, it is time tabled, it is
syllabused, has rules and regulations.
Education is the structured and the formal process of systematically imparting
knowledge, skills and values to the individual within the society.
Forms of education vary from one society to the other e.g. 8.4.4 in Kenya, 7.4.2.3 in
Uganda. Education can be institutional or non institutional, when institutional is like
Yolifa while non institutional is like a church (Catholic).
Functions of Education
1. Socialization
2. Importation of knowledge and skills necessary for employment or proper functioning.
3. Regulates personal behavior or development of personality.
4. Instilling self discipline.
5. Empowers the individual and the society through exposure and information.
6. Transmits and reproduces culture.
7. Perpetrates the socio-economic power structure i.e. those who are educated get good
jobs, earn more money, and take their children get better jobs.
8. Assists in occupational placement.
9. Social integration i.e. different types of people meet in schools and they develop
friendship.
10. Can also be used in social control i.e. take away behaviors which are not
welcoming.
Problems with education
1. Cost/expensive
2. School drop outs
3. Irrelevant systems
4. Lack of facilities
5. Poor government facilities
6. Understaffing/lack of trained personnel
2. Politics
Politics is very important to any society time immemorial (long time ago) e.g. in the
biblical era David and Saul had to jostle to wrestle power over the nation of Israel.
The sons of David (Adonijah) taught over who would take over from David.
History is development with case of how people acquired, used and how people lost
power. Consequently this determined the social institutions, social structure and the
social changes that resulted.
Politics is the process by which people gain, use and loss power e.g. parents over
children, teachers over students, rulers over subjects etc.
Power is the ability to extend control over other people’s behavior or experience even
when they resist.
Functions of politics in the society
1. Determines the power structure of a society.
2. Determines how the resources are distributed and used.
3. Determines the social stability and integration.
4. Determines the economic structure whether the structure is capitalism, communism,
and socialism.
5. Determines international relationships between different countries.
6. Determines the structure of other social institutions.
3. Religion
Mankind can be said to be a social being and in a sense religious. This is irrespective
of the fact that some do not believe on the salvation or deity.
Through out human history (at all times in all places, human beings struggle with
what is sacred and what is profile.
Sacred means pertaining to the world or the common place or to the familiar.
Religion is a system of roles and norms organized around the sacred realm that binds
people together in social groups.
It is a universal phenomenon.
Sociologists think of religion as a social creation. Karl Marx thought of religion as the
opium of the people (an escapist resort).
Functions of Religion in the society
1. Social control; religion has norms and values that people are forced to follow.
They also have beliefs that regulate/control social behavior; advocate for social
conformity.
2. Social cohesion; makes people hold together e.g. love your neighbour as you love
yourself; love one another, avoid conflict, help one another, share, have a sense of
belonging.
3. Emotional support; they offer advisory service to those depressed.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

In the society, there are various patterns and ways, methods and means that make it to
function. The functionalist sociologists believe that there are interrelated parts that
make the society function such as social institutions/social organizations/social
systems.
Social structures are networks of interrelated status and roles that guides human
interactions. A status is a socially defined position in a group or in society e.g.
rich/poor, educated/illiterate, doctor/patient.
Roles of behavior (the right and the obligations) expected of some on occupying a
particular status. Status can be ascribed or acquired i.e. inherited or achieved. In the
society, structures lead or result into stratification what determines the social stratum
of a person are power, riches and wealth, education or assets accumulated social
stratification comes about as a result of differential social structures determined by
power, riches, wealth, education, assets etc such that the society can be grouped in
different strata.
 Upper class
 Middle class
 Lower class
Upper class
 High power
 High wealth/riches
 High assets
 High level of education
Middle class
 Moderate power
 Moderate riches/wealth
 Moderate assets
 Moderate level of education

Lower class
 Less power
 Low level of education
 Less assets
 Less riches/wealth
NOTE: It can be said that the basis of social stratification are:-
a) Ascription or acquisition
b) Power
c) Wealth/riches
d) Accumulation of assets
Types of Social stratification
1. Social class
This is the grouping of the society based on community identifying social features
like education, housing, profession or accumulation of assets.
In the society, classes are broadly defined as, upper, middle and lower.
2. Caste
A form of social stratification based on religion or belief system whereby some
members of the society are seen to be religiously of higher grouping (caste), high
grouping (middle caste) or lower grouping (lower caste). This is evident in Buddhism
and Hinduism.
3. Traditional stratification
The traditional also stratified people (members as either hunters, house keepers etc.
e.g. Maasai morans.
In the English leadership (monarchy) where the queen is considered a noble leader
below them at the description of a monarchy (king/queen).
SOCIAL MOBILITY
This a spontaneous and the conscience movement of the members of the society n the
social plains and the spatial plains e.g. job position, status, geographic space etc
Types of Social mobility
1. Vertical mobility i.e. the movement of an individual or the change of status and
role of the individual on the downward or the upward e.g. promotion versus demotion,
employment versus retrenched or retired
It results into change of power, wealth etc.
2. Horizontal mobility; it is the movement of members of the society from one
position to the other without affecting the status and the role e.g. a transfer.
3. Geographic mobility; this is the movement of members of the society from one
geographic area to the other e.g. moving from one town to the other.
Geographic mobility may or may not necessarily affect the horizontal and the vertical
status and roles (position). Geographical mobility is also referred to s spatial mobility.
N/B: Vertical, horizontal, geographical mobility can happen separately or
comparatively.

SOCIAL CHANGE
The society is dynamic i.e. it changes over time. The history of mankind has changed
drastically over a long period of time and will continue to change. This change is
referred to as a social change.
Social change refers to alterations, overtime in which behaviour patterns, culture and
the structure of a society changes.
Today change has occurred in the following ways:-
 Language
 Dressing

Sociologists are interested in the change in terms of ‘from’ ‘to’ i.e. where is the
society coming from and where is leading to. What is the ‘engine’ of social change to
which ‘direction’?. What are the ‘causes’ What are the ‘consequences?’
Theories of social change
1. Evolutionary (Social Darwinism)
After Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory, the theory states that the society is
moving from simplicity to complexity; through processes and patterns influencing
natural selection. The survival of societal characteristics (elements) depends on their
ability to resist change (adaptive ness or adaptation). If they can’t adapt they become
extinct (depleted).
 2. Diffusion
This states that social change originates/begins at one point and spread to other
regions or other societies e.g. the changes in America diffuses to affect Kenya and the
rest of the world.
3. Conflict theory
Developed by Karl Max; states that power is at the centre of social change ‘questions
rather than notes’.
5. The structural functionalist theory
Developed by Emile Durkheim at all; they state that the society is moving from state
of mechanical solidarity to a solidarity where people base their relationship or
behavior on closeness/communal, help one another, rudimentary. Organic solidarity
involves a society where closeness is not a factor; there is individualism, no physical
contacts like two days.
6. Modernization
It states that social change rests on industrialization and urbanization. Under this,
change depends on environment, technology, time, circumstances.
Nature of Social change
Social change can be either:-
 Planned
 Unplanned
Planned social change
Is a change in the society (behavior, social structure and culture) which is consciously
carried out to make social life more confident and is intended for a particular purpose
(it is premeditated).
It s deliberate and can be carried out by a government or international organizations
e.g. the call to change our sexual behaviors, creating rules and regulations to govern
and positions.
Unplanned social change
It is spontaneous
Undeliberate (nobody plans it)
Unconscious e.g. language changes, eating habits, dress codes etc.
Elements of social systems that changes
1. Values
 Some values do change towards human rights conduct; this is because others are easy
to change and others have defined passage of time.
Human rights may include:-
Right to speech, eat, associate, move, live etc.
2. Norms; specific guidelines showing how an individual should behave in a society.
3. Goals/expectations of the society; goals can be economic (eradicating poverty),
political (good governance), or based on social welfare (fighting ignorance and
health).
4. Status roles (tasks allocation); what people are to do in the job situations e.g. the
role of a teacher, a doctor etc. may change over time.
5. Sanctions (rewards and punishments)
DEVELOPMENT
This is a process of change which usually touches economic, socio-cultural, and
political and technology.
Approaches to development
Development can either be directive or non directive.
(a). Directive development
This is a top-down approach; where planning and allocation of resources is
centralized.
In many cases the beneficiary has no say e.g. the central government of Kenya
system. When we have the planning and allocation of resources from the Central
Government into rural areas.
(b). Non directive development
Bottom development approach; this is an approach where by the planning,
mobilization or resources, implementation etc. emanates or originates or begins from
the mass (people).
It is also called bottom- up approach; it is decentralized.
Development problems in Kenya
1. Lack of financial resources
2. Poor planning
3. Lack of effective policies
4. Poor implementation
5. Inadequate personnel
6. Poor technology
7. Lack of political good will
8. Poor infrastructure e.g. roads,
9. Lack of sustainability strategies.
10. Natural disasters
11. Poor leadership/lack of prioritization.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN KENYA

Major social problems in Kenya, causes and consequences
a) Poverty
b) Unemployment
c) Crime and delinquency
d) Drug abuse
e) Violence against women
f) Urbanization
g) Teenage pregnancy
h) Population explosion
CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE
Conformity
Every society has expectations on its/her people or members.
These expectations are usually guided or protected by social norms and values and
checked through social sanctions (rewards and punishment).
Conformity is the adherence of acceptance or obedience to the social norms and
values/societal expectations at any given time.
Deviance is the opposite of conformity; when a member of the society does not
conform, obey or deviates from the societal expectations then we talk about deviance.
The sanction of conformity is the reward and the sanction for deviance is punishment.
NOTE
Both conformity and deviance can be measured in terms of
 Place (rural/urban)
 Time
 Group
 Situation and circumstances