~

~
....____,
INTRODUCTORY TEXT IN POLITICAL SCIENCE

Copyright © 2012

Rotimi Ajayi Ph.D

&
Yinka Fashagba Ph.D

De
ISBN: 978 - 978 - 057 - 330 - 5 Ak
Ab
Published in Nigeria by:
Int
Department Of Political Science & International Relations,
Ct
Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State Nigeria
Th

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any Cf
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical - including photocopying, Rel
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system -without permission
0
in writing from the publisher except for brief excerpts in magazines, articles,
reviews, etc. Cf
Po'
For further information or permission, contact:
Cf
Department Of Political Science & International Relations ~
Sta
Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State Nigeria
CH
Str1
 ~

~ \::) -~~ ~
""- ':;:. R:_ 5""'""l~

TABLE oF CoNTENTS
Dedication 5
Aknowledgement 7
About the Contributors 9
Introduction 13
CHAPTER ONE:
The Meaning and Nature of Politics 17

'Y
CHAPTER TWO:
Relationship Between Political Science and
n
Other Social Science Disciplines 45
CHAPTER THREE:
Power, Influence and Authority 65
CHAPTER FOUR:
State, Nation and Society 99
CHAPTER FIVE:
Structure and Organisation of Government 133
Introductory Text In Political Science

CHAPTER SIX:
Models of Government in Modern States 161
CHAPTER SEVEN:
Forms of Political Administrative System 189 ,_

CHAPTER EIGHT: I
Constitution and Constitutionalism 213 Tc
CHAPTER NINE: Chancellor, :
Political Socialization and Political Culture 247 For his unwaverir
CHAPTER TEN: scholarship

Public Opinion 269

CHAPTER ELEVEN:
Political Parties and Pressure Groups 285
CHAPTER TWELVE:
Introduction to International Relations 321
CHAPTER THIRTEEN:
Essentials of International Relations 353

4
 DEDICATED
To Dr. David Oyedepo
Chancellor, Landmark University, Omuaran
For his unwavering commitment to the ideals of true

scholarship

3
 AcKNOWLEDGEMENT
t was Plato who once said, 'the beginning is the

I most important part of the work.' We appreciate

God, the author of inspiration, for bringing to
fruition the efforts that culminatedin this volume.
The Chancellor of Landmark University, Dr. David
Oyedepo has been a major advocate and sponsor of
research and the dissemination of its findings. We owe
t: .

this book to his constant prodding.

The Vice Chancellor, Covenant University, Professor
Aize Obayan and the Executive Secretary, World Mission
Agency, Pastor Yemi Nathaniel, have remained pillars
of support.
To all the contributors, we thank you for believing in
the vision. You have shown in the words of George
Woodberry that, 'defeat is not the worst of failures. Not
to have tried is true failure.'·
Thanks to all our academic colleagues, friends, and
particularly our students, whose interest is a pnme
7
Introductory Text In Political Science

motivation for this present effort.

We thank all our reviewers and the printing press for
the final production of the book.

ABO{

p:
interests s·
and Intern
Dr. J. 0
Departme
Relations,
his B.Sc.,
Ilorin. His
and Politi<
Political s
University,
the Depa
Administt
between :t
Dr. Dan
(Public Ad
where he
l
8
or

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

rof. Rotimi Ajayi is Professor of Political

P Science and the pioneer Vice Chancellor,

Landmark University, Omu-Aran. His research
interests span Comparative Politics, Political Economy
and International Relations.
Dr. J. Olayinka Fashagba is Senior Lecturer in the
Department of Political Science and International
Relations, Landmark University, Oinu-Aran. He earned
his B.Sc., M.Sc. and PhD degrees from University of
Ilorin. His areas of interest include Comparative Politics
and Political Economy. He is the Head, Department of
Political Science and International Relations, Landmark
University, Omu-Aran.He served in similar capacity in
the Department of Political Science and Public
Administration, Redeemer's University, Ogun State,
between March and September, 2011.
Dr. Daniel Eseme Gberevbie obtained his PhD degree
(Public Administration) in 2008 from Covenant University
where he is currently Senior Lecturer.
9
Introductory Text In Political Science

Dr. Sheriff Folarin is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political Scien

of Political Science and International Relations, Covenant University, Offil
University, <f>ta. He obtained his PhD from Covenant Sc. Degrees in Pt
University, Ota. His area of specialization is International His areas of re
Relations. i Politics, Inte
Dr. Adelokhai Dennis Idonijeis Senior Lecturer and Administration.
Head, Department of Public Administration, Ibrahim Ise Olorunkan
Babangida University, Lapai. He obtained his PhD degree of Political Scien
from Ambrose Alli University, E kpoma. H e specializes University, Om
in Comparative Politics and Public Administration. Sc. Degrees in I
Dr. Oluwasakin Ajinde teaches in the Department of Kano and Uni\
Political Science and International Relations, Landmark PhD Candidate
University, Omu-A ran. He earned his PhD fro m specialization is
University o f Ibadan. His area of Specialization is Segun Joshua
International Relations. Political Science
Samuel Oni is a Lecturer in the Department of Political University, Ota
Science and International Relations, Covenant University, Rotimi E. Mat
Ota, and currently a PhD Candidate in that Department. Economics, Lan
Segun Oshewolo currently lectures in the Department his B.Sc. and 1
of Political Science and International Relations, Landmark Kano and the
University, Omu-aran. He is a Junior Research Fellow areas of resear
of the Institute for French Research in Africa (IFRA- Political Econor
Nigeria). His areas of specialization include Comparative Awopeju Ayo
Politics and Political Economy. Political Science
Aleyomi, Michael B. is a Lecturer in the Department Ikeji-Arakeji, 0
10
 About The Contributors

tment of Political Science and International Relations, Landmark

enant University, Omu-Aran. He obtained his B.Sc. and M.
en ant Sc. Degrees in Political Science from University of Ilorin.
tional His areas of research interests include Comparative
Politics, International Relations and Public
rand Administration.
·ahim Ise Olorunkanmi Joseph is a Lecturer in the Department
egree of Political Science and International Relations, Landmark
alizes University, Omu-Aran. He obtained his B.Sc. and M.
Sc. Degrees in Political Science from Bayero University,
nt of Kano and University of Ibadan, respectively. He is a
mark PhD Candidate at the University of Ibadan. His area of
-
:rom specialization is International Relations.
)n lS Segun Joshua is a Lecturer in the Department of
Political Science and International Relations, Covenant
itical University, Ota where he is about to defend his PhD.
~rsity, Rotimi E. Mathew is a Lecturer in the Department of
nent. Economics, Landmark University, Omuaran. He earned
ment his B.Sc. and M.Sc Degrees from Bayero University,
mark Kano and the University of Ibadan, respectively. His
~llow · areas of research interest span Energy Economics,
'RA- Political Economy and Health Economics.
ative Awopeju Ayo is a .Lecturer in the Department of
Political Science, Joseph Ayo Babalola University OABU),
nent Ikeji-Arakeji, Osun State. He respectively obtained his
II
Introductory Text In Political Science

B.Sc. and M. Sc. Degrees in Political Science from

University of Ado-Ek:iti and the University of Ibadan.
He is presently pursuing his PhD at the University of
Ibadan. His areas of specialization include Comparative
Politics and Public Administration.
Ogoma Daniel Ebun obtained the B.A and M.A Degrees I
in Philosophy from Ek:iti State University and University Rc
of Ibadan respectively. He lectures in the Department
of Political Science and International Relations, Landmark
University, Omu-Aran. His area of specialization is N~ lnl
Political Theory. political scien
Solomon Adedire is a Lecturer in· the Department of contributed a
Political Science and International Relations, Landmark various writers
University, Omu-Aran. He is currently a PhD Candidate, depth, compet
Lagos State University. His area of interest is Public of political sci
Administration However, a ca
Ahmed Lestwa Mohammed lectures inDepartment of that in certain
Political Science, Ibrahim Babangida University, Lapai. was comprom
He obtained the B.Sc. Political Science from ABU, Zaria; meant, among
MPA from Usman Dan Fodio University, Sokoto and reading materi
M.Sc. Political Science, University of Ilorin. He is
...
Although som
currently a PhD candidate in the Department of Political coverage, they
Science, ABU Zaria. His area of specialization is Nigerian some of the s~
Government and Politics. the knowledge
in political sci1
12
 without
:adox.G.
·African
Joks.
lity and
?S Review,
Cl1apter Nine
tperation) PoLITicAL, SociAuzA-
Tli.Jm from TION AND PoLITicAL
:ss.
_tion and CULTURE
;.),Path to
Defence Segun Joshua

~Nigeria.
9.0 Introduction
ll societies, be it primitive or modern, often
Oxford:

mt (4th
A consciously inculcate in its citizenry, certain
cherished norms and values. The inculcation
in the citizenry of these norms and values is considered
necessary to prepare them to assume specific roles in
the society towards realizing the goals of easy societal
organization and maintenance of law and order. In other
words, if an individual does not internalize the beliefs,
norms and values of his society his behavioural
characteristics and tendencies may violate acceptable

245
Introductory Text In Political Science

standards of behaviour in the society.In the words of

Onwuka (1997), "the quality of an individual's
participation in community life is a function of the extent
to which he has internalized the norms, beliefs and values
of his community" (cited in Abonyi, 2006, p. 328).
The process by which individuals learn and internalize
the beliefs, norms and values of their societies, for societal
organization and maintenance of law and order, is referred
to as socialization. Socialization as a concept has been
variously defined. According to Nnoli (1990), socialization
is a process through which members of a society gradually
internalize and appropriate various physical, cultural,
technological, aesthetic values of the society throughout
their lives. Socialization thus simply connotes life-long
learning. Socialization means all forms of learning regardless
of setting or age of the individual. Individual members of
every group have to learn the rule, expectations and
knowledge of that group. The group can be a family, the
army or the state, among several other examples. As
aconcept, socialization clearly ·encapsulates the process
through which people acquire a social identity and learn
the way of life within their society, a process synonymous
to learning of culture (Abonyi, 2006). And the essence of
socialization is to bring about social conformity of members
in any given society.
246
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

In the words of Five forms of socialization have been identified. These

an individual's are: reverse socialization; developmental socialization;
tion of the extent primary socialization; anticipation socialization; and re-
beliefs and values socialization (Abonyi, 2005).
>06, p. 328). 1. Reverse Socialization: Reverse socialization
:n and internalize refers to when the younger generations. deviate
:ieties, for societal from the desired behaviour or enculruration. For
I order, is referred example, forming and joining secret cults and
:oncept has been getting involved in other anti-social behaviours
990), socialization and practices in higher institutions are demon-
a society gradually strations of reverse socialization.
>hysical, cultural,
2. Developmental Socialization: Developmen-
xiety throughout
tal socialization refers to when former behavioural
onnotes life-long
patterns are discarded for new ones, as part of
learning regardless
transition in one's life. The developmental so-
ridual members of
cialization occurs throughout the human life cycle.
expectations and
An example could be the experience of a young
m be a family, the
man or woman who leaves home to join the mili-
1er examples. As
tary: this will bring a sharp break from the past
1lates the process
and exposition to radically different norms and
identity and learn
values in the man or woman.
ocess synonymous
\nd the essence of 3. Primary Socialization: Primary socialization
xmity of members refers to the process through which people learn
the attitudes, values and actions appropriate for
247
Introductory Text In Political Science

them to tit into a particular culture. political so<

4. Anticipatory Socialization: Anticipatory so- based on t

cialization is when a person rehearses for future information

positions, occupations and social relationships. An peoples ins
example is an instance of a high school student its various a
who suddenly imbibes the dress code and man- or unofficia
nerism of a higher institution (the University, for Nnoli expla
instance) upon hearing he had been offered ad- To Rush (1
mission in a university (Abonyi, 2005). process of 1
understandiJ
5. Re-Socialisation: Re-socialisation is a type of so-
reactions
cialization that involves confinement, in jails or men-
Emamjome~
tal hospitals. Re-socialization could be as a result of
Verba (196
the fact that the person has done something wrong
continuous
and needed to be socialized before he/ she can go
political beh
back and be a productive member of society.
society with
\Vith the background on what socialization means and with the cha
its forms, it is pertinent to turn to the major concerns of Almond and
this chapter: political socialization and political culture. definition
socialization:
9.1 Political Socialization
standards an.
According to Almond and Powell (1998), political called cultun
socialization is a part of socialization that shapes political Basically, 1:'
attitudes. Most children acquire distinctive political to be emphas:
attitudes and behavioural patterns at relatively early ages. in an individ
This is corroboratedin Nnoli (1990), contending that (1990) rightly
248
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

political socialization is a perspective of socialization

icipatory so- based on the assumptions and perspectives about
ses for future information and certain behavioural patterns formed by
ttionships. An peoples in societies with respect to the government and
:hool student its various activities. The assumptions might be official
)de and man- or unofficial, planned or incidental, overt or covert, as
Jniversity, for Nnoli explained.
n offered ad- To Rush (1992), political socialization is a familiarization
)5). process of people with political system, which entails
understanding of politics to an acceptable level and their
ts a type of so-
reactions to 'political phenomenon (cited in
n jails or men-
Emamjomezadeli et al., 2012). According to Almond and
~ as a result of
Verba (1963), political socialization is part of the
nething wrong
continuous process of social order in which certain
1e/ she can go
political behaviours are taught to the new members of a
societr
society with the aim of making them think in accordance
)n means and with the changing political system they find themselves.
tf concerns of Almond and Powell (1988) gave a very simple and lucid
litical culture. definition of th·e twin concepts of political
socializationas"the way one generation passes its political
standards and belief to succeeding generations, a process
1 98), political called cultural transformation" (p. 34).
1apes political Basically, two points about political socialization need
:tive political to be emphasized. First, socialization is a continuous process
rely early ages. in an individual's life. It is a life-long process, as Nnoli
ntending that (1990) righdy observed. "Attitudes established during infancy

249
Introductory Text In Political Science

are always being adapted or reinforced as the individual ev(

passes through a variety of social experiences", in the words 19:
of Ahnond and Powel (1988, p. 34). The second point is
that political socialization may take the form of direct or
indirect learning (or transmission) of beliefs, norms and
values. In this respect, when socialization involves explicit
communication of information, values or feelings on politics
it is direct. The direct form of political socialization also
includes civics courses taught in public high schools, and
citizenship education taught in higher institutions can equally
be regarded as direct political socialization. According to
Ahnond and Powel (198~), political socialization is a process
by which people acquire relatively enduring orientation
towards politics in general and also to their political system
in particular.Conversely, indirect political socialization may
occur with force in theearly or formative years of a child.
Indirect political socialization may come in form of
developing an accommodating or aggressive stance towards
parents, teachers and friends, which may likely affect adult
attitude towards fellow citizens and political leaders.

9.2 Agen15 of Political Socialization

There are different agents or institutions through which
political socialization can be acquired in any political
system. These include family, school, religion, peer group,
occupation, mass media, political parties, governments,

250
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

the individual events, place, and tertiary institutions (Almond & Powe~
;", in the words 1988); Abonyi, 2006; Blass Rich (undated)).
;econd point is
1. The Family: The family is the basic and often
m of direct or
the most powerful and lasting agent of political
~fs, norms and socialization. Family has direct and indirect influ-
nvolves explicit ences on individuals which determine their atti-
:lings on politics
tudes towards religion, authority, etc. Although
>cialization also
learning is a life-time process, the Erst ten years
:rh schools, and
:> is the most important period socialization takes
ions can equally
place in a person's life. This is the period indi-
1. According to
vidual personality is formed- the formative years.
,tion is a process
Schaefer and Laman (1995) contended:
·ing orientation
political system We experience socialization Erst as babies and
JCialization may infants living 'in families; it is here that we de-
years of a child. velop an initial sense of self. 1\1ost parents seek
ne in form of to help their children become competent adoles-
e stance towards cents and self-sufficient adults, which mean so-
ikely affect adult cializing them into the norms and values of both
:al leaders. the family and the larger society. In this process,
adults themselves experience socialization as they
n adjust to become spouses, parents and in-laws
(cited in Abonyi, 2006, p. 337).
s through which
in any political Collective decisions made by the family may ap-
jon, peer group, pear authoritative and failure to comply may lead
~s, governments, to punishment (Almond & Powel, 1988). In addi-

251
Introductory Text In Political Science

tion, opportunities to participate in family deci-

sions early in life may sharpen the child's sense
of political competence and also endow the child
with capacity for political interaction and partici-
pation in the political system as an adult. The
child's behavioural pattern to family decisions may
assist in obedience to constituted authority as a
political subject.

Indeed, the political beliefs of most individuals

are often shaped by the behaviours, beliefs and
values they experienced in their family environ-
ment. Individuals must have absorbed perceptions
about politics from conversations overheard ·within
the family before becoming capable of making
political judgments ten themselves. Blass (not dated)
argued in the same vein that at age seven, most
children in the US already identified with one
political party or the other. Family upbringing may,
to a large extent, determine the manifestation of
political behaviour, whether activism or apath'y in
later adulthood of the children.

2. The School: Schools provide a veritable plat-

form for sustained and controlled contact with
students at the age their political beliefs can still
be molded. The school system contributes to
252
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

family deci- political socialization by providing the adolescent

:hild's sense with knowledge about the political world and his
)W the child role in it. Cherished attitudes and values of the
and partici- society are equally to a large extent being trans-
adult. The mitted by the schools. In view of this, the school
:Clstons may plays a pivotal role in shaping attitudes of the
tthority as a adolescent in accordance with the written and
unwritten rules of the society.

: individuals Specifically, through the school system affection

beliefs and for the political system can be reinforced and alle-
Lily environ- giance to the state instilled through common sym-
perceptions bols like the national flag, national anthem and na-
heard within tional pledge. At times, yet, the school system does
~of making serve as agent of indoctrination of cherished po-
;s (not dated) litical ideology, like it was in some communist coun-
seven, most tries (the former U.S.S.R, in particular).
::d with one 3. Religion: Religion connotes system of beliefs
mngmg may, or believing in supernatural beings and in the Cre-
ifestation of ator and Controller of the universe. Religions in-
or apatHy in culcate good morals in its adherents through calcu-
lated 'sermonization'. The moral and values taught
eritable plat- by most religions quite frequently have implications
:ontact with on politics and public policies. In fact, more often
liefs can still than not, religious groups transmit definite political
ntributes to preferences to their adherents. Churches through
253
Introductory Text In Political Science

their teachings instill strong belief systems in the (

Christians and hence shape the believers' views on s

socio-political is sues and policies ill<c abortion, gay tl
marriage, among others. b
• 11
In addition, among religions there are varieties of
tl
political beliefs. Por instance, Roman Catholics
b
arc traditionally noted for political liberation while
Protestants are conservative- although this con- 5
servativeness seems to vary from one denomina- a:
tion to another in the protestant churches. This b
has implications for ideological leanings. a1
Sl
4. Peer Groups: Although the school system and
ti
family are the most important agents of socializa-
ti
tion, the role of peer groups, including childhood
gt
play groups and friendship cliques, cannot be un-
a~
derrated too. This is because in a situation in which
G
both parents work, children tend to be socialized
more by peers than by families. Furthermore, after 'gt
st
formal schooling ends, the influence of peer groups
on people's political socialization increases. The b
ar
influence of peer groups on individuals also be- ·
come prominent at adolescent stage when they p<

begin to break away from the family structure, feel- M

ing more like young adults. m

254
 Political. Socialization and Political Culture

stems in the One of the ways through which a peer group

ers' views on socializes its members is by putting pressure on
abortion, gay them to conform to attitudinal disposition accepted
by the group. Thus, interests and behaviours of
• individuals are often subjected to modification to
e varieties of
reflect that of the group in order to be accepted
m Catholics
by its members.
~ration while
Lgh this con- 5. Occupation: Occupational and professional
e denomina- associations shape political attitudes of their mem-
urches. This bers by promoting and intensifying occupational
tngs. and class-related political values. Unions, profes-
sional associations, among others, are informa-
.1 system and
tion and communication channels for the cultiva-
of socializa-
tion and expression of beliefs of members. The
lg childhood
group an individual identifies with is often used
mnot be un-
as a political reference point, as individual politi-
tion in which
cal actions are evaluated in line with what the
be socialized
group stands for. Involvement in demonstration,
ermore, after
strike and picketing in wor~ places, championed
f peer groups
by organized labour unions may also influence
creases. The
an individual's behaviour when participating in
uals also be-
political activities.
e when they
tructure, feel- Mass media: It has been the age of revolution in
information technology. Hardly- can any society

255
Introductory Text In Political Science

function properly without effective network of divis

communication. In fact, it is no gainsay that the ence:
mass media - television, radio, newspaper and or s11
magazines and the internet - play a key role in ernrr
providing information about political events and supp
the major values on which a society agrees. For the r
most people, the mass media are their major 7. Tl
sources of information, and by the media their ment
political views and beliefs are formed. its ac
6. Political Parties: Political parties play a delib- good
erate, key role in political socialization. Parties are and 1,
often noted for arousing apathetic disposition of and ]
people. Parties as well in their efforts at canvass- posit
ing and mobilizing support for electoral candidates been

mold their members' or people's issue preferences. by tb

unfai
:Majority of people would not want to be active
towar
participants in political activities, but a steady flow
of party campaigns and programmes, combined with 8. Ev
the election every few years, inevitably keep citi- have
zens involved in political activities. some
(uncia
Here, it is essential to note that activities of po-
discu
litical parties can also be divisive. This is neces-
sarily so when parties' strategies to gain support 9. Tl
for their candidates often times come to involve can c
appeals to language, religion, ethnicity and other anm<
256
 Po litical, Socialization and Political Culture

: network of divisive forces that certainly emphasize differ-

nsay that the ences among people. Conversely, in communist
wspapcr and or single-party system parties can be used by gov-
a key role in ernments to inculcate common attitudes of unity,
al events and support for government and shared ideologies of
y agrees. For the ruling party.
their major 7. The State: The state, represented by govern-
~ media their ment, is also an agent of socialization. 1v1any of
ed. its activities are intended to paint government in
: play a delib- good image to the public so as to build support
m. Parties arc and loyalty for the government in power. Almond

:lisposition of and Powel (1988) averred that "no matter how

positive the view of the political system that has
ts at canvass-
,ral candidates been taught in sch?ol, a citizen who is harassed
by the police, ignored by welfare agencies, or
te preferences.
unfairly taxed is unlikely to feel much warmth
t to be active
toward the authorities" (p. 39).
: a steady flow
::ombined with 8. Events: Major personal and social events may
1bly keep citi- have notable impact on the political thinking of
some people. Those events according to Blass
(undated), can be classified into three. These arc
tivities of po-
discussed below.
This is neces-
J gain support 9. The Life-Cycle Effect: Personal experience
me to involve can change belief, behaviour and orientation of
city and other an individual. For example, James Bradley, Presi-
257
 I
Introductory Text In Political Science

dent Reagan's P~ess Secretary, was shot and he

became paralyzed in the assassination attempt
against Reagan. Her wife Sarah Bradley suddenly
Sc
became a committed activist on legislation on gun
cha1
control as a result of the experience.

10. Period-Effect: A major historical event can af-

fect an entire society and create generational impact
on public opinion. For example, it has been noted
that "millions of Americans who lived through the
Great Depression became life-long Democrats and
have continued to view government as a positive
force in society'~ (Blass, undated).

11. Cohort Effect: One historic event may have

great impact on a specific group of people. Vietnam
\\far, the hippie culture, and the Nixon presidency
appeared to have had notable effects on many Ameri-
cans approaching adulthood in the late 1960s.
9.3
Blass's classification, simply, establishes how. events
can be a medium for political socialization. Ha
agen
12. Total Institutions: The last agent of social-
relat
' going to discuss briefly is what
ization we are
co no
Abonyi (2006) described as the total institutions. Gene
Examples of total institutions are prisons, the parti
military, IIfental hospitals and convents. The afore- featu
2~8
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

ot and he mentioned instih1tions are capable of re-socializ-

n attempt ing people, either voluntarily or involuntarily.
y suddenly Schaefer and Lamm (1992) highlighted the peculiar
on on gun characteristics of the total instirutions:

1. All aspects of life are conducted in the

·ent can af- same place and under the same single authority; ~
mal impact
)een noted ii. Each phase of a member's daily activity is

nrough the carried out in the immediate company of others.

1ocrats and All members are treated alike and all members

. a positive do the same thing together;

iii. Daily activities are tightly scheduled. All

:may have activity is super-imposed upon the individual by

le. Vietnam a system of explicit formal rules; and

presidency 1v. A single rational plan exists to fulfill the

tanyAmeri- goals of the instirution (cited in Abonyi, 2006).
l960s.
9.3 Political Socialization and Political Culture
how. events
lOll. Having examined political socialization and its various
agents, it is pertinent to note that there exist a strong
t of social- relationship between political socialization and the
fly is what concept of political culrure.So, what is political culrure?
nstitutions. Generally speaking, political culture simply implies "a
·risons, the particular distribution of political activities, values,
. The afore- fearures, information and skills" (Almond & Powel, 1988,
259
Introductory Text In Political Science

p. 40). It also refers to beliefs, values, attitudes, habits

and bahavioural patterns peculiar to a political system.
Thus, political culture touches the minds of people, using
psychoanalytic tools to search for the reasons of their
political behaviours and orientations (Haywood, 1997,
cited in Emamjomezadeh et al., 2012). It simply means:an
individual's political orientation and behaviour perhaps
have a cause and effect relationship with political
cultures, values and symbols, as Haywood(1997)
explained (cited in Emamjomezadeh et. al., 2012).
It appears that for a society to succeed in maintaining
its political culture it must sustain the process of political
socialization accessing cultural transfer channels of the
society, through which such set of values that contribute
to political stability and solidity are obtained and improved
upon. Through political socialization people acquire
political culture, ind their orientations toward political
objectives are therebyformed, to put iE succinctly. For
instance, individuals' views on subordination and
'
cooperation and protesting and defiance are all influenced
by thefamily. Arguments or violent quarrels among
members of a family about policies and politicalculture
can inform a child's particular attitude toward the political
system (Agarwal & Bhushan, 1991).
Nevertheless, political socialization in Africa seemsto
differ from that of the West. This is premised on the
260
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

fact that the process of political socialization in the

~udes, habits
continent of Africa is often attended with turbulent and
ical system.
dramatic changes, brought about by the nature of
Jeople, using
ons of their thesociety and the structure of itspolitics. In fact, for

wood, 1997, each succeeding generationin Africasocialization forces

ply means:an appear radically different. This problem is exacerbated

our perhaps by several sharply different agents and ways of political

ith political learning in the continent - namely the family, school,
vood(1997) places of worship, streets, and so on, transmitting highly
2012). diverse and divergent political lessons and information.
It has also been noted for instance that in African families,
maintammg
there is no sense of partisan alignment or party
;s of political
identification to be either transmitted or ideological
mnels of the
orientation originating in the family. The structure of
at contribute
the family is not comparable to the \Vestern nuclear
.nd improved
family as many African children live with relatives either
ople acquire
as a result of financial difficulties, extended family ties,
vard political
or to further their studies in urban areas if their parents
Lccinctly. For
live in rural areas. The implication is that children are
ination and
exposed to political knowledge beyond the confines of
all influenced
their biological parents (Almond & Powel, 1988).
rrels among
Jliticalculture
9.4 How Political Culture is Formed
d the political
Formation of political culture comes in four stages:

frica seemsto politicization; cognition and recognition; the example

stage; and the internalization phase (Giddens, 1990).
mised on the
261
Introductory Text In Political Science

1. Politicization: The first stage is politicization,

a stage when the child makes effort to know ·the
political arena. This could be by listening to
thoughts and ideas of ' parents, teachers and oth-
ers about government. The child thus sees him-
self as a political being and becomes conscious
of the existence of government.

2. Cognition and Recognition: The second stage

is cognition and recognition, when a child is at
friction \Vith the political system, and understands
some forms of political domination or domina-
tion in the general sense. I'riction vvith the politi-
cal system may also be in form of a child trying
to make a choice between conflicting political
ideas. For instance, parents and religious instruc-
tors may teach a child that government is bad,
while teachers at school emphasize that govern-
ment is benevolent and that it is the responsibil-
ity of citizens to be loyal to it.

3. The Example Stage: The third stage is the

example stage, when the child turns to judge val-
ues and certain manners, and through them ne-
gates or demands judgment on the existing forms
of domination and politics (as a whole).

4. Internalization: The fourth stage is the inter-

262
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

is politicization, nalization phase in which the individual transcends

ott to know .the understanding some established political forms
by listening to and starts value-judging the entire constituents
~achers and oth- of the political system. It is in this stage that a
1 thus sees him- particular kind of political culture is formed by
omes consc1ous each individual.

9.5 Types of Political Culture

The second stage
1en a child is at Four (4) types of political culture have been identified.
and understands They are: parochial culture, subject culture, participatory
tion or domina- culture, and sub-culture (Almond & Powel, 1988).
1 with the politi-
1. Parochial Culture: Here with the parochial
of a child trying
culture citizens have vague or no awareness, ex-
flicting political
pectations, participation and orientation towards
religious instruc-
any political object or political system. They nei-
rernmen t is bad,
ther expect anything positive from government
3ize that govern-
nor do they expect to participate in the political
; the responsibil-
process. Politics is seen as the exclusive domain
of the elite and government is viewed as enforcer
:hird stage is the of the rules it made.
ttns to judge val-
2. Subject Culture: Unlike the parochial culture
Jtough them ne-
in which citizens have no cognitive orientation
he existing forms
towards some aspects of or the entire political
whole).
system, with the subject culture, citizens see them-
stage is the inter- selves more or less as subjects of governments.
263
Introductory Text In Political Science

Although they expect positive actions from gov-

ernment, thcv do not sec themselves as active 1

participants in the political process. Nl

3. Participatory Culture: with the participatory i
culture, citizens have cognitive orientation of dif- Po.
ferent parts of the political system as well as the j
entire political system. In societies "\Vith partici-
To.
patory political culture, the citizens tend to ex-
Cc
pect more from government, believe they can
j
contribute to the workings of the system and that
they affect the system as much as the system af- Pri
fects them. This type of culture is an essential Re
principle of any democratic society. po

4. Sub-Culture: ,1\Jmond and Verba (1963) deftned E

political sub-culture as "the type of political cul- M..
ture persisting in formally merged traditional units" bet
(p. 27). Generally speaking, political sub-culture Ira
simply means culture of a social group that can be C01
distinguished from the dominant one in a given (
political system. It is a set of political attitudes and Na:
orientations of a small gnmp within a political sys-
]\
tem different from the over arching one in the
Gn
larger polity. Although members of a sub-culture
share in the political culture of the larger society, 0
they have their own peculiar sub-cultural charac- zn
teristics that are very strong. Ah:
Pul::
264
 Political, Socialization and Political Culture

ns from gov- REFERENCES

ves as acuvc Abonyi, N.N. (2006).Political Science: A FundamentalApproach.
Nkpokiti, Enugu: John Jacob's Classic Publishers Ltd.
: participatory Agarwal, N.N, & Bhushan, V.B. (1991) .Principles of
1tation of dif- Political Science(13th ed.).New Delhi: R. Chand & Co.
as well as the Almond, G.A.,& Powel, G.B. (1988).Comparative Politics
, with partici- Todqy, A Wor/dview (4th ed.). London: Scot, Foresman&
s tend to cx- Company.
ieve they can
Almond, G.A.,& Verba, S. (1963). The Civic Culture.
1stem and that
Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press. Blass, R. (n.d.).
the system a f-
s an essen rial Retrieved from http: richblass.com/ downloads/
y.
poli tical%20socialization. pdf.
Emamjomezadeh, SJ., Mahmoodoghli, R, Rahbargazi,
(1963) defmcd
M.,& Keshavarz, H. (2012). Investigating the relationship
f political cul-
between political culture and political socialization (in
J.ditional units"
:al sub-culture Iran (Case study of Isfahan)). Interdisciplinary Journal o/
'up that can be Contemporary Research in Business, 3(12), pp. 357-363.
)ne in a given Giddens, A. (1990). Sociology(M. Sabori, Trans.). Tehran:
1l attitudes and Nahre Ney.
_a political sys-
Nnoli, 0. (1990).Introduction to Politics.Essex: Longman
lllg one in the
Group Ltd.
f a sub-culture
Onwuka, J. 0. (1997)Agents and Process
Socialization o/
:: larger society,
:ult:ura1 charac- in Traditional Nigeria 0.0. Onwuka & S.C.
Ahaiwe,Eds.).Nigeria Heritage: Okigwe Whytem
Publishers, Nigeria.

265
9 789780 573305 >