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Developing Person Through the Life Span 10th
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1. What is a developmental theory? Identify three things discussed in the text that a theory
can do.

2. Describe similarities between Freud's theory of psychosexual development and

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Next, describe ways in which these
theories differ.

3. Describe classical and operant conditioning. Next, identify the researcher who proposed
the concept of classical conditioning and the researcher who introduced the idea of
operant conditioning.

4. Explain social learning theory. From where did this theory originate, and what does it
emphasize? Next, describe the concept of modeling, and indicate at least three reasons
that a model is likely to be copied.

5. List Piaget's four stages of cognitive development in order, and explain what Piaget
believed facilitates intellectual advancement.

6. Define information-processing theory. How does this theory different from Piaget's
theory of cognitive development?

7. Your textbook describes seven techniques used by neuroscientists to understand brain

function. List and describe two of these techniques. Despite advancements in brain
imaging, why are theories still needed to understand human development?

8. Describe what Vygotsky meant by “apprenticeship in thinking” and “guided

participation.” Give an example of each.

9. Define Vygotsky's “zone of proximal development,” including how it relates to

learning. Provide two examples.

10. Maggie works is a child-care teacher who works primarily with toddlers. Most of the
children that Maggie works with are not yet toilet-trained. Explain the advice a
Page 1
psychoanalyst, behaviorist, cognitive theorist, and a sociocultural theorist would give
Maggie regarding her approach to toilet training.

Page 2
11. Describe the two biologically-based drives associated with evolutionary theory, and
explain how selective adaptation relates to this theory. Be sure to explain the process of
selective adaptation in your answer.

12. Define eclectic perspective, and provide an example of how a clinician might use this
approach to explain a case of childhood aggression.

13. List and describe the five theories that have contributed to our understanding of human
development.

Page 3
Answer Key
1. A developmental theory is a systematic statement of general principles that provides a
framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older. Theories
can produce hypotheses, generate discoveries, and offer practical guidance.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Defines Defines developmental Gives a vague Does not define a
developmental theory definition of developmental theory
theory developmental theory
Identifies the Tells the three things a Tells two things a Tells one thing or
three things a theory can do theory can do nothing that a theory
theory can do can do
2. Both Freud and Erikson proposed stage theories based on the belief that adult problems
echoed childhood conflicts. However, Erikson's psychosocial theory had eight stages,
while Freud's psychosexual theory had just four. Erikson named two polarities at each
stage, and his stages encompassed the entire life span, while Freud's ended at
adolescence. Erikson's theory also emphasized the influence of family and culture, while
Freud's theory emphasized unconscious sexual urges.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Describes similarities States that both men States that both Does not describe
had stage theories theories had stages accurately how the
based on the idea that theories were similar
adult problems echoed
childhood conflicts
Describes differences States all four ways in States three of the four States two or fewer
which the theories ways in which the ways in which the
differed theories differed theories differed or
does not accurately
describe how the
theories differed
3. Classical conditioning is the learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is
connected with a neutral stimulus that had no special meaning before conditioning. The
person gradually reacts to the neutral stimulus with the same behavior as the meaningful
one. Pavlov introduced the concept of classical conditioning. In operant conditioning, a
person performs some action, and then a response occurs. If the response is pleasurable,
the person is likely to repeat the action. If the response is unpleasant, the person is
unlikely to repeat the action. Skinner is associated with operant conditioning.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Describes classical Correctly Correctly describes one Does not describe either
and operant describes both type of conditioning type of conditioning or
conditioning types of confuses the two types
conditioning

Page 4
 Names the Correctly names Correctly names Pavlov Does not name either
researchers Pavlov and or Skinner Pavlov or Skinner or
associated with Skinner confuses who belongs
each with each type of
conditioning
4. Social learning theory is an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that
other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every
individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people.
Modeling is the central process of social learning, by which a person observes the
actions of others and then copies them. Models are people; they are most likely to be
copied if they are admired, powerful, nurturing, or similar to the observer.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Explains social States that the theory is States that everyone Is vague about the
learning theory an offshoot of learns through definition of social
behaviorism and how observation and learning theory
everyone learns by imitation
observation and
imitation
Describes Clearly describes how Describes imitation Fails to describe
modeling modeling is implicit in but not modeling modeling
social learning
Gives reasons why Lists at least three of the Lists two of the four Lists one or none of
a model is likely to four reasons reasons the reasons
be copied
5. The four stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational. According to Piaget, cognitive equilibrium facilitates intellectual
advancement because humans seek mental balance. Disequilibrium can cause cognitive
growth if people change their thinking through assimilation or accommodation.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Lists the stages of Lists the four stages in Lists three of the Lists two or fewer
cognitive order stages in order or stages or has the
development confuses the order of stages out of order
two of the stages
Explains causes of Understands how Understands that Does not adequately
intellectual people seek cognitive people seek cognitive explain Piaget's beliefs
advancement equilibrium and that equilibrium about intellectual
disequilibrium can advancement
cause assimilation or
accommodation
6. Information-processing theory is a perspective that compares humans' thinking
processes to a computer's analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored
memories, and output. Instead of interpreting responses by infants and children, as
Piaget did, information-processing theory focuses on the processes of thought—that is,
when, why, and how neurons fire before a response.

Page 5
 Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)
Defines Gives the definition of Knows that Gives an incorrect or
information-processi information-processin information- vague definition of
ng theory g theory processing theory information-processin
compares cognition to g theory
computer processes
Explains how the Differentiates Piaget's Partially differentiates Does not differentiate
theory differs from theory from Piaget's theory from between the two
Piaget's information-processin information-processin theories
g theory g theory
7. Students can list and describe any two of the following techniques:
EEG (electroencephalogram): This measures electrical activity in the cortex. It can
differentiate active brains from sleeping brains and brain states that are half-awake, or
dreaming.
ERP (event-related potential): The amplitude and frequency of brain electrical activity
change when a particular stimulus occurs. First the ERP establishes the usual patterns,
and then researchers present a stimulus that causes a blip in electrical activity. ERP
indicates how quickly and extensively people react.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): The water molecules in various parts of the brain
each have a magnetic current, and measuring that current reveals the amount of myelin,
neurons, and fluid in the brain.
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging): In advanced MRI, function is measured
as more oxygen is added to the blood flow when specific neurons are activated. The
presumption is that increased blood flow means that the person is using that part of the
brain. fMRI has revealed that several parts of the brain are active at once.
PET (position emission tomography): This can reveal the volume of neurotransmitters;
the rise or fall of brain oxygen, glucose, amino acids; and more.
fNIRS (functional near infrared spectroscopy): This measures changes in blood flow. It
depends on light rather than magnetic charge. By measuring how each area of the brain
absorbs light, neuroscientists can infer activity of the brain.
DTI (diffusion tensor imaging): This is another technique that builds on the MRI. It
measures the flow (diffusion) of water molecules within the brain, which shows
connections between one area and another.
Variations within and between people make it difficult to know what someone is
thinking via brain scans. This confirms the need for theory. Without an idea of what to
look for, or what it might mean, the millions of data points from all brain images might
lead to the same trap as earlier measurements of the skull—human bias.
8. Vygotsky stated that all adults teach children the skills expected by their society and
culture. Apprenticeship in thinking is how Vygotsky described the more skilled
members of the society acting as tutors or mentors to help a person develop skills.
Guided participation is the method used by parents, teachers, and entire societies to
teach novices (apprentices) the skills and habits expected within their culture.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Page 6
 Defines Gives a definition for Gives a definition for Confuses the two
apprenticeship in each term either term terms
thinking and guided
participation
Gives an example of Offers an example for Offers an example for Confuses the two
each each term either term examples
9. The zone of proximal development is the set of skills, knowledge, and concepts that a
learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help. A mentor breaks a large
task down into its parts and then motivates and assists the learner to achieve it, one step
at a time. Some frustration is permitted, but the learner must be actively engaged and
never passive or overwhelmed. Mentors continually push for more competence by
urging the learner to try something just a little harder rather than make a large leap.
Examples include a person helping another learn how to tie his or her shoes, swim, ride
a bike, or ice skate.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Defines zone of Defines the term and Defines the term and Does not define the
proximal explains clearly how it somewhat explains term or cannot explai
development and relates to learning how it relates to how it relates to
how it relates to (describes mentor and learning (describes learning (fails to
learning learner) mentor or learner) describe mentor or
learner)
Provides examples Provides two Provides one example Does not provide an
examples example
10. Psychoanalytic theory identifies the first year of life as the oral stage, which occurs
before the anal stage (years 1–3). Thus, psychoanalytic theorists believe that toilet
training should be postponed until the child is cognitive, emotionally, and biologically
ready—around age 2 for daytime training and age 3 for nighttime dryness.
A behaviorist would argue that toilet training should occur whenever the parent (or
adult) wishes to start, not at a particular age. Praise and reward should be used each time
the child uses the toilet, as they will increase the likelihood that the child will
successfully use the toilet in the future.
A cognitive theorist would suggest that a parent (or adult) wait until the child can
understand reasons to urinate and defecate in the toilet.
A sociocultural theorist would emphasize the vast differences between one community
and another. That is, different communities set their own guidelines for when and how
to begin toilet training. Therefore, toilet training should reflect the values and
expectations of the child's cultural environment.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Explains the advice Accurately explains Accurately explains
Does not explain how
that each therapist how each therapist how two therapistsany therapist would
would offer would advise Maggie would advise Maggie
advise on toilet
on toilet training on toilet trainingtraining or provides
incorrect information
11. According to evolutionary theory, every species has two long-standing, biologically

Page 7
 based drives: survival and reproduction. A basic idea from evolutionary theory is
selective adaptation, which proposes that humans today react in ways that helped their
ancestors' survival and reproduction long ago. Thus, some of the best qualities of
people—cooperation, spirituality, and self-sacrifice—may have originated thousands of
years ago, when groups of people survived because they took care of one another. The
process of selective adaption works as follows: If one person happens to have a trait that
makes survival more likely, the gene (or combination of genes) responsible for that trait
is passed on to the next generation if that person lives long enough to reproduce.
Anyone with such a fortunate genetic inheritance has a better chance than those without
that gene to survive, mate, and bear many children—half of whom would inherit genes
for the desirable trait.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Identifies the drives States the two States either survival Cannot identify either
associated with biologically based or reproduction survival or
evolutionary theory drives reproduction
Explains selective Explains both aspects Explains either aspect Does not adequately
adaptation, including of selective of selective adaptation explain either aspect
the process adaptation, including and process of selective adaptatio
the process or the process
12. The approach taken by most developmentalists is to apply aspects of each of the various
theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory. Childhood
aggression should be explained from at least two competing theories: psychoanalytic
(e.g., inner drives), behaviorism (e.g., learned from observation), cognitive (e.g., beliefs
that aggression is good or helpful), sociocultural (e.g., may need to be aggressive to be
successful in one's culture), and evolutionary (e.g., aggression was an adaptive response
among our ancestors or promoted survival).

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Defines eclectic Understands that most States that most Cannot define the
perspective developmentalists apply developmentalists eclectic perspective
aspects of multiple apply aspects of two
theories theories
Describes its use to Explains childhood Explains childhood Explains childhood
explain childhood aggression based on aggression based on aggression based on
aggression three or more theories two theories one theory
13. Psychoanalytic theory has made scientists aware of the importance of social and
emotional experiences during early childhood. Behavioral theory (or behaviorism) has
shown the effect that immediate responses and associations have on human learning.
Cognitive theory helps scientists understand how intellectual processes and thinking
affect people's actions. Sociocultural theories show how one's culture, social interaction,
and environment influence one's behaviors. Evolutionary theory suggests that human
impulses need to be recognized before they can be guided.

Good (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Weak (1–0 pts.)

Page 8
Lists theories Lists the five theories: Lists three of the Lists one or two of the
psychoanalytic, theories theories
behaviorism,
cognitive,
sociocultural, and
evolutionary
Describes how Describes how each of Describes how two of Describes how one of
theories have the five theories has the theories have the theories has added
contributed to added to our added to our to our knowledge of
understanding knowledge of knowledge of development
development development

Page 8
 1. A is an explanation of facts and observations, or a set of concepts and ideas that
organize the confusing mass of sensations that each of us encounters at every moment.

2. A theory is a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides

a framework for understanding how and why people change over time.

3. Theories can produce hypotheses, generate discoveries, and offer practical .

4. Jason learned that emotions affect performance. From this, he developed the idea that
students who are sad when they take a test will perform poorly, whereas those who are
happy will perform better. In this example, Jason made a specific prediction that can be
tested. This is known as a(n) “ .”

5. In her developmental psychology course, Avery learned about techniques that can be
used to reduce problem behavior in young children. She in turn implemented some of
these techniques in her job as a child-care supervisor. This demonstrates the idea that
theories offer .

6. A is an average or usual event or experience.

7. Filial responsibility—the idea that adults should care for their aged parents—is a
in most cultures.

8. In Western cultures, it is a for brides to wear white at their weddings.

9. is a theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all
people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.

10. theories are comprehensive, enduring, and far-reaching.

11. The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is inner drives, motives, and needs.

12. According to Freud, the stage is the first stage of psychosexual development.

Page 1
13. According to Freud's theory, adolescence occurs during the stage of
psychosexual development.

14. is the psychoanalytic theorist who described eight developmental stages, each
characterized by a particular challenge or developmental crisis.

15. Erikson's first stages are closely related to Freud's stages.

16. Erikson's stages emphasized , not sexual urges.

17. Behaviorism is also called “ theory.”

18. was the behavioral theorist who first described the process of conditioning.

19. The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral
stimulus is called “ .”

20. One example of classical conditioning is _, when past experiences with medical
professionals conditioned a person to be anxious.

21. After visiting the doctor's office several times and receiving a shot each time, Erin now
tenses and cries when her mother pulls into the doctor's parking lot. Erin's response is an
example of conditioning.

22. was developed to study observable behavior objectively and scientifically.

23. was the most influential North American proponent of behaviorism.

24. In conditioning, a particular action is followed by something desired or by

something unwanted.

Page 2
25. Two-year-old D'Angelo picks up his trains and puts them in the toy box. His father
smiles and claps, exclaiming, “Good boy! You cleaned up your toys!” The next time
D'Angelo plays with his trains, he eagerly cleans up, and his father responds the same
way. In this example, praise is operating as a _ for D'Angelo.

26. theory states that every individual learns many things through observation and
imitation of other people.

27. According to Bandura, _ occurs when people copy what they see others do.

28. Tim watches his father mow the lawn. After a few minutes, Tim takes a toy lawnmower
and begins following his father, row by row. Tim is his father's behavior.

29. Piaget's stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor, preoperational,

concrete operational, and operational stages.

30. According to Piaget, humans seek cognitive , or a state of mental balance.

31. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, is when new experiences

are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas.

32. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, is when old ideas are
restructured to include new experiences.

33. theory was inspired by the input, programming, memory, and output of a
computer.

34. Information-processing theory focuses on the of thought—that is, when, why,

and how neurons fire between a response.

35. Regarding brain-imaging techniques, shows that the brains of newborns are more
active when they hear the language that their mother spoke when they were in the womb
than when they hear another language.

Page 3
36. The central thesis of theory is that human development results from the dynamic

interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society.

37. Vygotsky asserted that each person develops with the guidance of more skilled members
of the society, who are tutors or mentors in a(n) in thinking.

38. Vygotsky developed the concept of “ ,” which is the method used by parents,
teachers, and entire societies to teach novices the skills and habits expected within their
culture.

39. According to sociocultural theory, the is an imaginary area surrounding the

learner that contains the skills, knowledge, and concepts that are close to being grasped
but not yet reached.

40. Mrs. Saxena is working with her toddler daughter, Arianna, on potty training. Each time
Arianna uses the toilet, Mrs. Saxena lets her pick a small prize out of a treasure chest.
Mrs. Saxena's strategy is consistent with the perspective.

41. The basic idea of theory in development is that in order to understand the
emotions, impulses, and habits of humans over the life span, it is important to
understand how those same emotions, impulses, and habits developed within Homo
sapiens over the past 100,000 years.

42. Selective is the process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to
their environment.

43. Keta believes that breast-feeding is a personal choice. That is, the woman should be able
to choose whether she breast-feeds her infant. Keta's belief is consistent with the
perspective.

44. Each theory, grand or newer, has received severe criticism. theory has been
criticized for being too subjective.

45. theories bring an understanding of intellectual processes.

Page 4
46. Dr. Carson believes that human impulses need to be reorganized before they can be
guided. Dr. Carson's beliefs are consistent with theories.

47. Most developmentalists prefer a(n) perspective, choosing what they consider to
be the best aspects of each theory.

Page 5
Answer Key
1. theory
2. developmental
3. guidance
4. hypothesis
5. practical guidance
6. norm
7. norm
8. norm
9. Humanism
10. Grand
11. unconscious
12. oral
13. genital
14. Erik Erikson (Erikson)
15. five (5)
16. family and culture
17. learning
18. Ivan Pavlov (Pavlov)
19. classical conditioning (respondent conditioning)
20. white coat syndrome
21. classical
22. Behaviorism
23. B. F. Skinner (Skinner)
24. operant
25. reinforcement
26. Social learning
27. modeling
28. modeling
29. formal
30. equilibrium
31. assimilation
32. accommodation
33. Information-processing
34. processes
35. fNIRS (functional near infrared spectroscopy)
36. sociocultural
37. apprenticeship
38. guided participation
39. zone of proximal development
40. behaviorist (behavioral)
41. evolutionary
42. adaptation
43. cognitive
44. Psychoanalytic

Page 6
45. Cognitive
46. evolutionary
47. eclectic

Page 7
1. An explanation of facts and observations defined by a set of concepts and ideas that
organize phenomena is called a “ .”
A) hypothesis
B) theory
C) conclusion
D) development

2. A systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for

understanding how and why people change over time is called a “ .”
A) hypothesis
B) developmental theory
C) conclusion
D) stage

3. Theories can do all the following EXCEPT .

A) produce hypotheses
B) solve developmental problems
C) generate discoveries
D) offer practical guidance

4. In class, Sam learned that some theorists link happiness to productivity. From this, he
developed the idea that happy employees in a factory will produce more products per
hour. In this example, Sam's theory led him to .
A) produce a hypothesis
B) solve a developmental problem
C) generate a discovery
D) gain practical guidance

5. Hannah theorized that sleep helps people behave in safer ways. She tested her theory by
conducting an experiment. She manipulated the amount of sleep participants got and
then tested their driving ability. Hannah learned that participants who got more sleep
were safer drivers. In this example, Hannah's theory led her to .
A) replicate research
B) solve a developmental problem
C) generate a discovery
D) change the behavior of many people

Page 1
 6. Lilly's 12-year-old son used to get out of bed easily and early on school days, but lately
he has been hard to wake. While reading a parenting book, Lilly came across the theory
of “delayed phase of preference,” which states that sleep patterns shift when young
people start to go through puberty. In this example, a theory helped Lilly _ .
A) design an experiment
B) change her own behavior
C) generate a discovery
D) gain practical guidance

7. A is an average or usual event or experience.

A) norm
B) theory
C) hypothesis
D) median

8. The term norm communicates _.

A) a common behavior that results from biological or social pressure
B) the presence and severity of atypical behavior
C) that some behaviors are more desirable than others
D) that individual differences in behavior may result from cognitive or social deficits

9. In the United States, the legal age for drinking alcohol is 21 years. Thus, age 21
represents a(n) .
A) median
B) norm
C) hypothesis
D) estimate

10. Which of the following statements about norms is correct?

A) A norm always represents a usual practice within a culture.
B) Norms tend to highlight deficits in development rather than strengths.
C) The terms “theories,” “norms,” and “facts” are used interchangeably.
D) Sometimes a norm in an expected behavior, even if it is not the usual practice.

11. is a theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all
people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.
A) Humanism
B) Behaviorism
C) Information processing
D) Ecology

Page 2
12. In the first half of the twentieth century, which two opposing theories dominated the
discipline of psychology?
A) humanism and cognitive theory
B) behaviorism and sociocultural theory C)
psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism D)
cognitive theory and sociocultural theory

13. Psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and cognitive theory are considered “grand”
because they are .
A) comprehensive, enduring, and widely applied
B) comprehensive, well developed, and universally correct
C) enduring, widely applied, and universally correct
D) comprehensive, widely applied, and unchallenged

14. The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is .

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives, motives, and unconscious needs
C) an individual's ideas and beliefs
D) self-awareness and willingness to change

15. Psychoanalytic theory originated with .

A) Piaget
B) Freud
C) Watson
D) Erikson

16. emphasizes unconscious drives and early experiences with respect to

development, whereas emphasizes learning by association, reinforcement, or

observation with respect to development.

A) Psychoanalytic theory; behaviorism
B) Psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory
C) Behaviorism; psychoanalytic theory
D) Cognitive theory; psychoanalytic theory

Page 3
17. emphasizes unconscious drives and early experiences with respect to
development, whereas emphasizes learning by understanding how a person
thinks.

A) Psychoanalytic theory; behaviorism

B) Psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory
C) Behaviorism; psychoanalytic theory
D) Cognitive theory; psychoanalytic theory

18. Which is the correct order of the stages of Freud's psychosexual theory, beginning with
infancy and ending with adolescence?
A) oral, anal, genital, phallic, latency
B) anal, oral, phallic, genital, latency
C) oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
D) latency, phallic, oral, anal, genital

19. Each stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of development is characterized by a conflict

associated with different parts of the body. According to Freud, how people experience
and resolve each conflict influences personality .
A) throughout life, because early years provide the foundation of adult behavior
B) throughout life, only if some of the conflicts are successfully resolved
C) only in childhood, with new conflicts emerging later that shape adult identity
D) at a particular stage of development, also called a sensitive period

20. According to Freud's psychosexual theory, the stage centers around breastfeeding
and weaning.
A) oral
B) anal
C) phallic
D) genital

21. Freud argued that the goal of a healthy life is to .

A) connect spiritually with another person
B) follow moral codes set by society
C) avoid conflict and promote social harmony
D) love and to work

Page 4
22. Although many of the theorists who follow Freud's psychoanalytic theory have modified
and expanded his ideas, they agree on the importance of .
A) early childhood experiences and psychosexual conflicts
B) psychosexual conflicts and the unconscious
C) early childhood experiences and the unconscious
D) psychosexual conflicts and stages of psychosexual development

23. Unlike Freud, Erikson .

A) only described development in childhood
B) believed that adult problems reflect childhood conflicts
C) emphasized family and culture in his stages
D) leaned toward the behaviorist perspective

24. Which psychoanalytic theorist identified unique stages of development from birth
through late adulthood?
A) Freud
B) Piaget
C) Skinner
D) Erikson

25. Within Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, each of the developmental stages
is characterized by a particular challenge, or a _ .
A) conflict negotiation
B) developmental conflict
C) developmental crisis
D) resolution

26. Which of Erikson's stages did he regard as particularly crucial for later development?
A) initiative versus guilt
B) intimacy versus isolation
C) trust versus mistrust
D) autonomy versus shame and doubt

27. Behaviorists believe that psychologists should focus on .

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives and motives
C) a person's ideas and beliefs
D) a person's sexual conflict

Page 5
28. Behaviorism has also been referred to as “ theory.”
A) conditioning
B) learning
C) modeling
D) operant

29. The process by which a response becomes linked to a particular stimulus is called
“ .”
A) psychoanalysis
B) cognition
C) observational learning
D) conditioning

30. Pavlov's experiments with dogs that salivated when they heard a specific noise without
the presence of food provide an example of .
A) classical conditioning
B) observational learning
C) operant conditioning
D) reinforcement

31. When a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful
stimulus, gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the
meaningful one, he or she is exhibiting .
A) classical conditioning
B) observational learning
C) operant conditioning
D) modeling

32. A balloon popped and made Bobby cry. It happened again when he was at a friend's
birthday party. Now when Bobby sees a balloon, he starts to cry. According to the
behaviorist perspective, Bobby cries in response to the balloon because of .
A) operant conditioning
B) observational learning
C) classical conditioning
D) modeling

Page 6
33. The type of conditioning that Skinner identified is referred to as “ conditioning.”
A) classical
B) observational
C) operant
D) cognitive

34. Operant conditioning is also referred to as “ conditioning.”

A) classical
B) instrumental
C) observational
D) reinforcement

35. Dominique, age 14, dislikes school. Her parents were recently informed that Dominique
has missed 12 days of school this quarter and has left school early on at least four
occasions. Dominique's father has decided to drop his daughter off every morning and
pick her up every afternoon to make sure she is attending school. Dominique is now
attending school, but she has gotten into serious trouble on multiple occasions, leading
to a five-day out-of-school suspension. Since Dominique dislikes school and prefers to
skip rather than attend, the out-of-school suspension represents a .
A) reinforcement
B) punishment
C) conditioner
D) norm

36. The boss praises his hourly employees for their good work. The boss hopes that the
praise encourages the employees to continue to work hard. In this example, the
reinforcement is _.
A) the boss's praise
B) worker productivity
C) the boss
D) an hourly wage

37. Any consequence that follows a behavior and makes a person likely to repeat that
behavior is called a(n) “_ .
A) punishment”
B) condition
C) reinforcement
D) observation

Page 7
38. Theorists who promote classical conditioning believe that learned behavior is the result
of , whereas theorists who promote operant conditioning believe that learned
behavior is the result of _ .
A) the association between one stimulus and another; past reinforcement
B) past reinforcement; the association between one stimulus and another
C) observing another person's actions; past reinforcement
D) the association between one stimulus and another; observing another person's
actions

39. Social learning theory indicates that learning occurs from _.

A) the association between one stimulus and another
B) past reinforcement
C) observing and imitating others
D) responding to a particular stimulus

40. A person observes the actions of others and copies them. Social learning theorists would
call this an example of “ .”
A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) modeling
D) cognition

41. Observational learning is also called “ .”

A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) modeling
D) cognition

42. Jimmy watches his friend kick a soccer ball into the goal. Later that day, Jimmy finds a
soccer ball and proceeds to kick it into the goal. Jimmy most likely engaged in the same
behavior as his friend due to .
A) classical conditioning
B) modeling
C) operant conditioning
D) reinforcement

Page 8
43. The modeling of behavior is more likely to occur when the model is all the following
EXCEPT _.
A) younger
B) admired
C) powerful
D) nurturing

44. According to the text, social learning is particularly noticeable in .

A) infancy
B) early adolescence
C) late adolescence
D) early adulthood

45. The foundation of cognitive theory is .

A) observable behaviors
B) inner drives and motives
C) a person's thoughts and expectations
D) cultural influence

46. was a cognitive theorist.

A) Freud
B) Watson
C) Piaget
D) Vygotsky

47. With regard to cognitive development, Piaget argued that is more revealing than
.
A) what children know; how they think
B) how children think; what they know
C) the cultural context; what children know
D) what children know; their cultural context

48. Piaget's four stages of cognitive development, in order, are .

A) formal operational, concrete operational, preoperational, and sensorimotor
B) preoperational, sensorimotor, formal operational, and concrete operational
C) sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
D) sensorimotor, preoperational, formal operational, and concrete operational

Page 9
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Leave them to me."
The beacon lights in the dragons' mouths roared gustily, glared
scarlet in the blue darkness where Flane came out of it with a naked
dagger in his hand. His rush toppled both guards. Before their
writhing mouths could make a sound, his right arm lifted, drove
downward twice with slim steel blade.
He straddled the still forms, curving an arm at the others who slipped
from saddle to earth and came toward him.
"We must be swift," Flane said. "The mekniks don't know of the truce
their kind have made. Do not be seen or we'll never reach the
temple."
Through side streets and alleyways Flane led them. Where shadows
bulked black and grim, their running forms made odd silhouettes.
Between two columns, they paused to stare at the Temple. It loomed
gigantic in the blackness. Besl grunted softly, "I've never seen
anything like it!" Then they were going across the quadrangle,
stooping low, eyes peering left and right.
The sentry whirled as Flane came for him, but he whirled too slow. A
brawny forearm locked about his throat, and he died with steel in his
chest.
Flane drove into the temple, across its tiled floor.
He came to a stop before the Machine.
The others came softly forward. They stood a little behind him,
staring up at the metal bulk, whose levers and dials shone with
reflected light from the three moons swirling across the skies.
Aevlyn sobbed wearily. Besl whispered prayers to his Darkside gods.
The old warrior whispered, "I have not looked on the glory of Klarn
for many years, but it seems only as yesterday that I saw and heard
the Keeper explaining its function. It works by radiation, you know.
The globes filled with whitish powder store up sun energy, via the
yellow prism in the desert. Solar energy, he called it. The Machine,
when it works, picks up that energy and sends it all over Klarn in
bands of power that drives all engines.
"It heats our cities. It lights our lights. It fires our guns. It even feeds
us by helping to raise food. At least—it used to."
Flane tried not to think of the utter weariness in the old man's voice
as he stepped forward. With his right hand he drew out the ruined
sword, stared down at it; ran a fingertip along the shattered blade.
The old man voiced the weariness of all the Klarn.
If the machine failed to work—
Flane did not like to think of that.
He stepped forward, lifting the blade.
He thrust it home, into the diamond-shaped opening. The blade
clicked in, fitting perfectly.
And nothing happened.
The Machine was truly dead above them. Aevlyn sobbed. She came
to stand with him, pressing her arm shoulder to his in comfort as he
leaned against the cold metal side of the Machine, hammering his fist
against it until the knuckles bled.
Behind them Besl sighed, "Now that is too bad. I shall hate to order
the kaatra-tail banners forward, but I have no choice."
Flane lifted his hand, looked down at the torn flesh, at the dark blood
staining his flesh. Aevlyn was whispering to him but he did not hear.
He was deaf to everything, at that moment.
A hand patted his arm sadly, and then the old man from Moornal
turned on his heel and went out of the Temple, bowed and broken.
With him went Besl. In the quadrangle before the Temple they came
to a stop and stared at each other. The big Darksider saw tears
furrowing the cheeks of the old man.
"I had thought to see a new world, Besl. The old world come to life
again. Gaiety and laughter, play and sunshine. I thought Flane was
the one the prophecy told of, with his foreign blood and his blue
sword. I would have staked my neck on it."
"Yes," grunted Besl. "So too would I."
"War," groaned the old man. "There will be nothing left of Klarn.
Nothing, except a few wandering tribes. The city-states will go.
Darksider and Klarnvan will eat each other up."
Besl nodded glumly.
Heavily they strode to the red Dragon Gate. Swinging into their
saddles, they swung their horses' heads around, and cantered into
the night.

From the Temple balcony that overlooked the city, Flane and Aevlyn
watched them. Like toys they seemed, rider and mount blending
motion to infinite grace. They saw Besl and the old man lift their right
arms, salute; saw them take separate paths as they rode on.
"Each goes to summon his people to war," Flane said heavily.
Aevlyn leaned her cheek against his bare, scarred arm.
"Failure!" Flane rasped harshly, with a bitter laugh. "I've failed all
right. Now will there be a war, and nothing but war. The dulars of
Klarn and Moornal and Yeelya against the Darksiders and the
mekniks. Few will survive."
Aevlyn turned him slowly, traced the lines of his cheeks and mouth
with quivering fingertips. Two tears glistened beneath her lashes as
she struggled to smile.
"We may still make a new world," she whispered. "It is not too late."
"When those riders reach their armies, a wave of steel and fire will
rise over Klarn."
Aevlyn rubbed her face against his throat. She whispered, "I love
you, Flane. Together we may bring order out of chaos. Somehow.
You are still my Keeper."
"Listen, darling," she went on, raising her glowing face to his. "I
swear fealty to the bearer of the sun-starred sword, for he shall be
my Keeper. By the grip that plunges home the blade, by the hand
that is turned away, by the—"
She broke off alarmed.
Her brown eyes sought Flane's face, read it—saw hope struggling to
rise through bitterness. His green eyes danced. His lips grew slack.
He hugged her to him; kissed lips, and cheeks and chin.
"That's it! That's it!" he shouted.
He leaped for the Temple interior, and Aevlyn had to run to keep up
with him. Half-laughing and half-crying, she sobbed, "What is it,
Flane?"
"The way the sword goes home! I was a fool not to have realized it."
"You're going to try the Machine again, with the sword? But it doesn't
work! You saw that."
Flane laughed, "No harm to try once more, is there?" He came before
the Machine and picked up the sword where he had dropped it in his
despair. To the star-friezes in the wall he came and held out the
sword to Aevlyn.
"In holding the hilt of a sword in combat, you usually grasp it with
the ends of the fingers toward you, as in a parry in tierce. Now
suppose I turn the hand away, like this, so that the fingertips are
away from me, and the back of my hand is toward me. By the grip
that plunges home the blade, by the hand that is turned away—"
With the back of his hand toward him, Flane slammed in the sword.
The five tiny stars imbedded in the star-guard began to glow weirdly
in their blue transparent envelope. Dully they shone at first, then
grew more brilliant until they blazed. Like tiny suns they twinkled,
fitted over the star-shaped frieze in the wall of the Machine. Flane
stared at them.
He knew, suddenly, and laughed aloud.
"It isn't the blade that does it," he cried in his delight. "There is no
key—not a key such as we know. The Machine operates via those
lights in the star-shaped guard of the sword, Aevlyn. They must be
bits of that white powder stored in the prism. They are solar energy!
Look how they shine in the Machine!"
They shimmered magically inside the blue stuff, glowing and
pulsating with white fire.
Aevlyn cried out, a hand lifted, pointing. The lights were going on, all
over Klarn.
One by one they came into being, glimmering fitfully as long-unused
filaments surged with flooded power. Whitely they shone, then grew
bright and still brighter. A pale halo of reflection lifted from street and
house and rooftop, bathing the city in its dim aura.
From the houses came the cries and screams of men and women.
The screams deepened, grew into a roar, a bellow of sheer,
unbelievable joy, of incredulous happiness. Flane and Aevlyn heard
the triumphal peal of it, the hope become reality in its tones. They
shivered in delight, laughing.
Flane drew her, an arm about her lissome waist, out with him onto
the balcony. Beneath them the city was aflame with brilliance.
Aevlyn whispered, "You turned another failure into your biggest
success, Flane. You made the Machine work. If you hadn't—" she
shuddered and crept closer in his arms. Her voice was dreamy as she
went on, "Now your word will be law on all Klarn. The Darksiders
under Besl will see to that. You are their champion. The dulars will be
so happy to have their lights and heat again that they will
acknowledge you, too. And the mekniks—well, they are heavily
outnumbered, and when they see what the machine will do for them,
they'll agree. Their power will fade as night when the lights went on."
Dawn was breaking all over Klarn.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWORD OF THE
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