A review on advancements in applications of

fused deposition modelling process

Sathies T., Senthil P. and Anoop M.S.
Department of Production Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

Abstract
Purpose – Fabrication of customized products in low volume through conventional manufacturing incurs a high cost, longer processing time and
huge material waste. Hence, the concept of additive manufacturing (AM) comes into existence and fused deposition modelling (FDM), is at the
forefront of researches related to polymer-based additive manufacturing. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the research works carried on
the applications of FDM.
Design/methodology/approach – In the present paper, an extensive review has been performed related to major application areas (such as a
sensor, shielding, scaffolding, drug delivery devices, microfluidic devices, rapid tooling, four-dimensional printing, automotive and aerospace,
prosthetics and orthosis, fashion and architecture) where FDM has been tested. Finally, a roadmap for future research work in the FDM application
has been discussed. As an example for future research scope, a case study on the usage of FDM printed ABS-carbon black composite for solvent
sensing is demonstrated.
Findings – The printability of composite filament through FDM enhanced its application range. Sensors developed using FDM incurs a low cost and
produces a result comparable to those conventional techniques. EMI shielding manufactured by FDM is light and non-oxidative. Biodegradable and
biocompatible scaffolds of complex shapes are possible to manufacture by FDM. Further, FDM enables the fabrication of on-demand and customized
prosthetics and orthosis. Tooling time and cost involved in the manufacturing of low volume customized products are reduced by FDM based rapid
tooling technique. Results of the solvent sensing case study indicate that three-dimensional printed conductive polymer composites can sense
different solvents. The sensors with a lower thickness (0.6 mm) exhibit better sensitivity.
Originality/value – This paper outlines the capabilities of FDM and provides information to the user about the different applications possible with
FDM.
Keywords Sensors, Rapid tooling, Fused deposition modelling, Scaffold, 4D printing, Drug delivery devices
Paper type Literature review

Abbreviations PLA = Polylactic acid;

PVDF = Polyvinylidene fluoride;
FDM = Fused Deposition Modelling; ESD = Energy Storage Device;
ABS = Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; PCL = Poly(e-caprolactone);
TPU = Thermoplastic polyurethane; HA = Hydroxyapatite;
EMI = Electromagnetic Interference; DDD = Drug Delivery Device;
CNT = Carbon nanotube; RT = Rapid Tooling;
CB = Carbon black; ECS = Environmental Control System;
TCP = Tricalcium phosphate; SLA = Stereolithography;
DDS = Drug Delivery System; SMP = Shape Memory Polymer;
HME = Hot Melt Extrusion; PEKK = Polyetherketoneketone;
PDMS = Polydimethylsiloxane; HIPS = High impact polystyrene;
SAE = Society of Automotive Engineers; 3DP = Three Dimensional Printing; and
SLS = Selective Laser Sintering; NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
PEEK = Polyetheretherketone;
PPSF = Polyphenylsulfone;
LCR = Inductance Capacitance Resistance;
1. Introduction
ASA = Aminosalicylic acid; Additive manufacturing represents the technologies that are
AM = Additive Manufacturing; used to construct three-dimensional objects in a layer by layer
PVA = Polyvinyl alcohol; fashion from a variety of materials (metals, polymers, ceramics,
composites, human tissues, photopolymer resins, etc.). Main
categories of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies are vat
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on
Emerald Insight at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/1355-2546.htm
Received 9 August 2018
Revised 21 January 2019
Rapid Prototyping Journal
6 May 2019
26/4 (2020) 669–687 16 July 2019
© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 1355-2546] 22 October 2019
[DOI 10.1108/RPJ-08-2018-0199] Accepted 1 January 2020

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photopolymerization (stereolithography, digital light Figure 2 Schematic representation of FDM

processing, continuous liquid interface production), sheet
Liquifier head
lamination (laminated object manufacturing), material
(X and Y
extrusion (fused deposition modelling), material jetting directions)
(polyjet), binder jetting, powder bed fusion (selective laser
sintering, direct metal laser sintering, selective laser melting, Build
Extrusion
electron beam melting), directed energy deposition (laser nozzles
material
engineered net shaping, electron beam arc melting), etc. and it spool Support
material
can be grouped under solid, liquid and powder-based AM spool
technologies (Chua et al., 2010). Figure 1 represents the Part
Support
general steps involved in the fabrication of components through Foam structure
AM. The advantages of AM techniques are geometric freedom, base
absence of tooling, low inventory requirement, less material
wastage, unattended operation and customized design
fabrication (Kumbhar and Mulay, 2016). AM finds application Build platform
(Z - direction)
in aerospace, automotive, architecture, medical,
entertainment, electronics, education, consumer products,
defence, nanotechnologies, repair, tooling, tissue engineering,
jewellery, etc. (Srivatsan et al., 2016). S. Scott Crump proposed Source: Mohan et al. (2017)
fused deposition modelling (material extrusion technique) in
the late 1980s, and Stratasys commercialised FDM in the early
1990s. FDM is the most preferred technique among AM (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate
processes because of its low cost, smooth operation, ease of (PC), nylon, polypropylene (PP), thermoplastic polyurethanes
support material removal, better raw material handling and (TPU), polyetheretherketone (PEEK), ULTEM, polyphenyl
ability to process different thermoplastics. In the FDM process, sulphone (PPSF), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), high impact
the structure gets built-in three-dimensional by extruding the polystyrene (HIPS) and composite filaments. Among these
heated thermoplastic filament through a nozzle on to build materials, PVA and HIPS are commonly used for support
plate as per CAD design. Once the building of a layer is structure construction, and the support structure requirement
completed, the bed moves down or the nozzle head moves up depends upon printing conditions.
according to required layer thickness for constructing a new Parts build by FDM are anisotropic, and it results in reduced
layer over the solidified previous layer. mechanical strength when compared to injection and
The schematic representation of FDM is shown in Figure 2. compression moulding. Stresses are also induced in the part
Parameters that can be varied in FDM are layer thickness, infill build because of the hot-melt filament being deposited over the
density, infill pattern, raster angle, raster width, build previously cooled layer. Other limitations associated with FDM
orientation, printing speed, perimeters, printing temperature, are support requirement, poor part strength, slow in
bed temperature, chamber temperature. Different infill patterns processing, limited accuracy, unpredictable delamination and
offered by open source slicing software are lines, triangles, tri shrinkage. However, these issues can be controlled when
hexagon, cubic, octet, quarter cubic, concentric, cross, zigzag, proper parameters are used for part construction. Surface finish
rectilinear, honeycomb, Hilbert curve, Archimedean chords attainable from FDM is also low because of the stair-stepping
and octagonal spiral. FDM is capable of printing polylactic acid effect. Numerous pre and post-processing works have been
reported for improving the strength, and surface integrity of
Figure 1 Steps involved in fabricating models from AM techniques fused deposition modelled samples. Figure 3 represents the
various pre and post-processing techniques adopted by
CAD Modelling System researchers. Chemical finishing techniques such as solvent
dipping and vapour smoothening diffuses the rough surface
CAD Modelling STL file generation
present on the surface of the polymer sample and improves the
STL File surface finish. Proper selection of solvent-based on the type of
polymer is demanded for attaining better results from chemical
Part Preparation
finishing techniques. A slight reduction in the strength of the
STL model verification components was reported because of chemical finishing (Garg
STL file error check and fixing
Part build up orientation STL file generation
et al., 2017; Jayanth et al., 2018). Mechanical finishing methods
Placement (packing) improve the surface features of three-dimensional printed parts
Support structure generation
by means of material removal. Applications of FDM include
Part building file
jigs and fixtures, prosthetics, medical models, automobile and
aerospace interiors, scaffolds, drug delivery devices, vacuum
Additive manufacturing system forming patterns and sensors. Medical models developed from
Process controller Part fabrication FDM assist doctors in surgical planning. Cranial defect repair
models (Espalin et al., 2010), and temporomandibular joint
implant (Deshmukh et al., 2011) are certain medical prototypes
Source: Lee (1999) developed by FDM.

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Figure 3 Pre and post processing techniques for improving surface finish

Surface Finishing Techniques

Pre Processing Techniques Post Finishing Techniques

Process Parameter Adaptive Slicing Mechanical Finishing Chemical Finishing

Optimization Techniques Techniques

Orientation Angle Slicing of Manual Sanding Manual painting

Tessellated CAD
Layer Thickness Abrasive Flow Acetone Dipping
Direct Slicing Machining
Raster Angle
Electroplating/
Orientation Angle Abrasive Milling Metallization
Raster & Contour
Width
Hot Cutter Vapour Finishing
Machining
Air Gap

Ball Burnishing
Temperature

Barrel Finishing/
Tumbling

Vibratory Finishing

Sand Blasting

Source: Chohan and Singh (2017)

2. Methodology techniques and would create a significant positive impact on

the welfare of society. Research works involving FDM and its
The objective of the present work is to summarize the different
applications are collected from Web of Science, Scopus and
applications that are feasible with the FDM technique. The
PubMed database. Additionally, standard textbooks and case
research works being done in the areas of sensors, shielding, four-
studies reported by NASA and Stratasys related to FDM
dimensional printing, rapid tooling, drug delivery devices,
technology are also considered. Articles published in the
scaffold and microfluidics channel construction using FDM are
English language between a time frame of January 2000 and
discussed. The role of FDM in fashion, architecture and
July 2019 are reviewed. From the information collected,
education section is also elucidated. In the future research scope
articles and case studies with significant scientific advancement
section, difficulties that are faced with FDM in the current
and which could act as a base for carrying further research are
scenario are explained, and also possible research options
taken for review. The initial search for articles begins with the
available are discussed. As an example for future research, a case
following terms and keywords:
study has been added in the manuscript, which depicts the solvent
FDM.
sensing potential of FDM printed ABS-carbon composite. The
Fused filament fabrication.
methodology followed in the present work is given below.
3D printing.
Review work begins by studying the current research trends
Four-dimensional printing.
in the FDM technique. From the literature reviewed, major
Additive manufacturing.
research areas in the FDM technology are identified as process
Rapid prototyping.
improvement, process quality improvement, new material
development, studies on material properties and applications. These terms are combined with a list of keywords relevant to
The number of review works reported on the applications of FDM applications, which include the following: rapid tooling,
FDM technology is less in comparison to review articles sensors, EMI shielding, scaffolding, drug delivery devices,
published on process improvement and new material prosthetics, orthosis, microfluidic devices, fashion, teaching,
development. Hence, a detailed study on the applications of aerospace, automotive, conductive filaments and composite
FDM technology is conducted. Applications that incorporate filament. A total of 115 articles is reviewed in the present work.
the benefits offered by the FDM technique and focus on the Figure 4 shows the details of the number of articles reviewed
multidisciplinary approach are given attention. Criteria application wise.
considered for the selection of application are:

Need and benefits of the application to society. 3. Applications

Role of the FDM technology in the application.
3.1 Sensing and shielding application

Scope for further research in the applications.
Application capabilities of FDM have improved tremendously
Different FDM applications considered for review can after the introduction of composite filament. Reinforcement of
overcome the issues involved in traditional manufacturing conductive particulates such as graphene, carbon fibre, carbon

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Figure 4 Details of articles reviewed area wise

Number of papers reviewed area wise

Prosthetic & Orthosis 9

Others (Architecture, Fashion, Education) 4
Microfluidic 12
4D printing 9
Automotive & Aerospace 10
Drug delivery 20
Scaffolding 9
Rapid tooling 8
Sensors & Shielding 26
Introduction to FDM 8

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
No. of articles reviewed

nanotube, conductive carbon black makes the FDM filament The composite film resulting from solvent casting could be
conductive, and it permits fabrication of functional converted into a filament of the required diameter through
components operating at low voltage. General steps involved in the hot-melt extrusion technique (HME). Advanced HME
the fabrication of conductive components using FDM are systems are capable of mixing the matrix and reinforcement
depicted in Figure 5. Production of conductive filament begins on its own, and it eliminates the need for the solvent casting
with the mixing of matrix and reinforcement. The solvent method. The principle behind three-dimensional printed
casting technique is widely adopted by the researchers for the sensors is the measurement of resistance change as a
proper mixing of matrix and reinforcement. Basic steps function of external stimuli. Table I provides a brief idea
involved in solvent casting are: about the different conductive filaments that are printable

Adding of the polymer matrix and reinforcement into the by FDM and their corresponding applications. Poly
suitable solvent. (vinylidene fluoride)/carbon nanotube composite sample

Stirring the mixture for required duration. developed by FDM is found to sense different solvent

Drying the stirred mixture in a controlled atmosphere for vapour. Upon exposure to vapour, the three-dimensional
the removal of solvent. printed composite swells and the resistance increases.

Figure 5 Major steps involved in three-dimensional printing of conductive components

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Table I Applications of conductive filaments

Authors Matrix Reinforcement Application
Kennedy et al. (2017) Poly (vinylidene fluoride) Multi-walled carbon nanotube Chemical vapour sensing of acetone, ethyl
(PVDF) acetate, allylamine, methanol, benzene and
chloroform
Aliheidari et al. (2017) Thermoplastic MWCNT Liquid sensing (ethanol)
polyurethane
Kim et al. (2017) Thermoplastic Carbon nanotube Multiaxial force sensors
polyurethane
Sajid et al. (2018) Polylactic acid (PLA) Graphene nano rods (GNR) Temperature sensor
Foster et al. (2017) PLA Graphene Anodes for Li-ion batteries
Christ et al. (2017) Thermoplastic Multiwalled carbon nanotube Strain sensing applications
polyurethane
Palenzuela et al. (2018) PLA Graphene Electrochemical detection of ascorbic acid
and picric acid
Marasso et al. (2018) PLA Graphite Temperature sensor
Singh et al. (2019) Recycled acrylonitrile MnO2, ZnCl2, NH4Cl, and graphite Energy storage devices (ESD) (dry cell)
butadiene styrene (ABS)
Jayanth and senthil (2019) ABS Carbon black (CB) Void fraction measurement in two phase
flow
Woosley et al. (2018) ABS Boron nitride Neutron radiation shielding
Schmitz et al. (2018) ABS CB, CNT and CB/CNT EMI shielding
Prashantha and roger (2017) PLA Graphene EMI shielding
Rymansaib et al. (2016) Polystyrene Graphite and carbon nano fiber Electrochemical Device for detecting Pb21
Honeychurch et al. (2018) Polystyrene Graphite and carbon nano fiber Electrochemical Device for detecting Zn21
Ecco et al. (2019) ABS MWCNT and graphene nanoplatelets EMI shielding
Viskadourakis et al. (2017) PLA and ABS Graphite, CNT and graphene EMI shielding
Maurel et al. (2018) PLA Graphite Negative electrode for Li-ion batteries
Qian et al. (2018) PLA Li0.44Zn0.2Fe2.36O4 Microwave absorption
Foo et al. (2018) PLA Graphene Electrode for photoelectrochemical sensor
and super capacitor
Dawoud et al. (2018) ABS Carbon black (CB) Strain sensing applications
Adams et al. (2018) PLA Graphene Glucose biosensor
Leigh et al. (2014) Polycaprolactone Magnetite particles Flow sensor
Leigh et al. (2012) Polymorph Carbon black (CB) Flex sensor, capacitive buttons and smart
(polycaprolactone) vessel
Foster et al. (2019) PLA Nanographite Electrochemical sensing
O’Neil et al. (2019) PLA Graphene Electrochemical flow cell

Change in resistance is used as a means for identifying the graphite, ZnCl2, MnO2 and NH4Cl was successfully
solvent. The sensitivity of composite parts depends on the employed for fabricating energy storage device (ESD). The
type of polymer and solvent, reinforcement type and its ESD proposed from the said material combination is
percentage of loading. Three-dimensional printed PVDF/ capable of operating up to 95°C. The voltage of ESD
CNT composite shows better sensitivity towards acetone enhanced from 0.04 V to 0.8 V upon the application of
(Kennedy et al., 2017). Multiaxial force sensor developed acetone (Singh et al., 2019). Jayanth and Senthil (2019)
from TPU/CNT nanocomposite is capable of detecting used ABS/CB conductive filament for fabricating the
forces applied. The resistance of sensor changes as a capacitive type void fraction measurement sensor.
function of external force (Kim et al., 2017). The Capacitance value achieved with the developed system is
temperature sensor fabricated from PLA/graphene proportional to the volume of the fluid present. The
composite is capable of detecting temperature variation of difference in capacitance value achievable between various
water and air up to 70°C. The resistance of composite void percentages is appreciable. Figures 6 and 7 show FDM
increases as the temperature increases. The response and printed electrodes (used for electroanalysis) and flow
recovery time of three-dimensional printed PLA/graphene sensors.
temperature sensor was 6 and 14 s (Sajid et al., 2018). The addition of 20 per cent boron nitride to ABS attenuated
Similarly, smart cap three-dimensional printed from the neutron radiation shielding potential of three-dimensional
conductive PLA filament was used for measuring printed ABS from 50 to 72 per cent (Woosley et al., 2018).
temperature variation (Marasso et al., 2018). Composite Owing to the heavy and oxidative nature of metal type
filament prepared from recycled ABS and reinforcement like electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, conductive

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Figure 6 Three-dimensional-printed electrode dimensions and shapes used in electroanalysis

Figure 7 (a) Photograph of the FDM impeller and flow sensor and (b) sense chemicals depends on polymer and reinforcement type.
macro image of the printed impeller Hence, the possibility of detecting different chemicals with a
single polymer composite is difficult. Besides, the three-
dimensional printed sensors are affected by the atmospheric
condition. Again the result obtained from the force sensor also
varies based on the composite used. With this, it learnt that
FDM parts have the ability to act as shield and sensor, but
requires more investigation for a better result. Further work
could be concentrated towards developing an application with
a high-performance polymer composite that can withstand high
operating temperatures.

3.2 Scaffold development

In tissue engineering, scaffold (a porous structure) acts as a
polymer composite is considered as an alternate material for synthetic extracellular matrix and supports cell adhesion,
effective EMI shielding. The inclusion of a different percentage proliferation and differentiation. Materials used for making
of carbon black, carbon nanotube and a hybrid combination of scaffold must have:
CNT/CB into ABS exhibits different shielding efficiency.
Suitable surface chemistry for the attachment and growth
Among various reinforcement type, CNT shows a higher of cells.
shielding effect. Further, shielding potential varies for the

Required biodegradability or bio-resorbability.
printing direction (Schmitz et al., 2018). FDM printed PLA

Sufficient mechanical strength; and
components containing 10 per cent graphene was able to shield

Good processability (Hutmacher, 2001).
16db in 8-12 GHz, whereas unreinforced PLA could shield The functioning of the scaffold depends on external
only 2db. Shielding occurs by absorbing or reflecting the geometry, porosity, pore size and mechanical properties.
incident energy. The percentage of shielding achievable could Conventional techniques used for constructing scaffold
be increased by increasing the loading of reinforcement structures are melt electrospinning, solution electrospinning,
(Prashantha and Roger, 2017). Issues such as nozzle clogging, emulsion freeze-drying, thermally induced phase separation,
brittle nature and part warping while printing should be taken melt moulding, solvent casting, and particulate leaching.
care of in printing conductive filament. Uniform dispersion of However, the manufacturing of highly interconnected
reinforcement is advisable for attaining better performance structures with repeatability is not possible with traditional
from composite filament printing. Three-dimensional printed techniques. Scaffold design meeting specific patient
conductive polymer composite achieves shielding effect, but requirements can be made rapidly from AM techniques.
the level of shielding achieved is comparatively lower when Moreover, better control over the scaffold structure can be
compared to metal-based shielding. Increasing the percentage obtained with AM. Different methods of implementing
of filler increases shielding efficiency, but it results in poor additively manufactured scaffold are shown in Figure 8. Low
printability. Thus, a compromise between printability and making costs, availability of different materials and the
shielding efficiency is demanded. Three-dimensional printed feasibility of making the sophisticated design are the advantages
sensor senses the external stimuli, but the repeatability and involved in using FDM for scaffold making. Hence, the
reproducibility of the sensor are limited to the lesser number of research works undergoing in scaffold making using FDM are
cycles. The ability of a chemical sensor printed by FDM to discussed.

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Figure 8 Scaffold implementing techniques

PCL is widely used for scaffold construction owing to its case of developing overhanging features and in certain cases
biocompatibility and offers slower biodegradation via post-processing may be required for improving functionality.
hydrolysis. Korpela et al. (2013) has demonstrated FDM of Moreover, strategies for improving the strength and
scaffold from L-lactide/e-caprolactone 75/25 mol per cent osseointegration attainable are also needed.
copolymer (PLC) and poly (e-caprolactone)/bioactive glass
(PCL/BAG) composite. Compared to PCL, better cell 3.3 Drug delivery devices
proliferation was achieved with PLC because it is more Drug delivery system (DDS) refers to the technique used for
hydrophobic and enables faster attachment of proteins before administrating drugs within the body in a controlled manner to
cell adheres. The size of the pores present in the additively achieve its desired function. Controlled release formulations and
manufactured scaffold is larger than the cell size. Hence, targeted delivery are the approaches involved in DDS.
Naghieh et al. (2017) fabricated compound scaffold containing Degradation, diffusion and swelling followed by diffusion are the
macro-sized PLA fibre and nano-sized PCL gelatin fibre using mechanisms through which DDS can administrate drugs. AM
FDM and electrospinning technique. Lam et al. (2009) enables drug delivery product customization and controlled drug
reported that the degradation rate of the FDM printed PCL/ release, and at present, the US Food and Drug Administration
TCP composite scaffold was found to be faster than plain PCL (FDA) approved the usage of three-dimensional printed
scaffold. Similarly, scaffolds fabricated with PCL/Calcium SPRITAM tablets (Prasad and Smyth, 2016). AM technologies
Phosphate composite exhibits better cell adhesion, finding applications in the pharmaceutical field are FDM, selective
proliferation and higher degradation rate than pure PCL laser sintering, stereolithography, inkjet-based three-dimensional
scaffold (Schantz et al., 2005). Kalita et al. (2003) developed printing and pressure-assisted micro syringe printing (Palo et al.,
scaffolds with a pore size of 160 m m from polypropylene and 2017). Among these techniques, FDM is cheaper and DDS of
polypropylene/tricalcium phosphate composite filament. In polymeric type can be produced efficiently from FDM. Polymers
vitro analysis for two weeks reveals that the scaffold fabricated used for DDS must be water-soluble and hydrophilic.
with the proposed material combination is non-toxic and Impregnation or hot-melt extrusion technique (HME) is used for
reasonable cell growth can be achieved. Scaffolds synthesized incorporating pharmaceutical ingredients into FDM filaments.
from PLA/HA microsphere demonstrates stiffness equivalent Impregnation through passive diffusion requires a concentrated
to that of trabecular bone. HA addition surges the surface solution, and it is expensive. Hence, HME is preferred for loading
roughness and decreases the mechanical property (Corcione drugs into polymeric filament, and drug loading to a maximum of
et al., 2019). Coating of polydopamine (PDA) over PLA 40 per cent can be achieved through HME. The surface area/
scaffolds aids in immobilizing the type 1 collagen over the volume ratio decides the release profile of DDD. PVA is widely
scaffold. As a result, better cell response and extracellular used for making drug delivery devices using FDM, and usage of
matrix deposition were achieved, and osteoinductivity of PLA polymers such as methacrylic, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) has also
scaffolds enhanced (Teixeira et al., 2019). Scaffolds printed been reported. Polymer filament with a melting point below the
from polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)/TiO2 have higher degradation temperature of drugs is recommended for FDM of
compression modulus, glass transition temperature and DDS. Lack of controlled and complete drug release and
wettability in comparison with structures developed from pure unavailability of suitable polymers are the problems involved in
PLGA (Rasoulianboroujeni et al., 2019). With the above making drug delivery devices through FDM.
works, it is clear that the scaffold of required geometry is Drugs fabricated from polyethylene glycol filaments loaded
possible to manufacture by FDM. However, the FDM printed with indomethacin (IND) and hypromellose acetate succinate
scaffold lacks cell adhesion and the ability to proliferate and (HPMCAS) exhibits less bitterness and has a rapid dissolution
differentiate cells is comparatively lower. The functionality of a rate (Scoutaris et al., 2018). Work done by Goyanes et al.
polymer-based scaffold is modified by the addition of (2016) concluded that the drug release rate is a function of drug
reinforcement such as tricalcium phosphate, HA, TiO2, etc., characteristics and its volume of loading. Controlled release
but requires further investigation. Other, drawbacks involved in gastro-resistant caplet has been fabricated using PVA filament
FDM for developing scaffolds are an only a narrow range of loaded with 4.14 per cent of budesonidemodel drug (Goyanes
polymer materials are available, the maximum resolution et al., 2015). Hollow intragastric floating sustained-release
achievable is limited, support structures may be required in (FSR) tablets were prepared by Chai et al. (2017) using FDM

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technology for reducing the frequency of administrating RT methods are those in which additively manufactured
tablets. Tablets made by three-dimensional printing technique tooling is used for fabricating prototypes and functional parts
using PVP/dipyridamole composite filament found to from a variety of materials, whereas through indirect
disintegrate within 30 min (Okwuosa et al., 2016). Caplets methods, tooling’s of required strength is built from
manufactured with the FDM technique has higher polymer conventional techniques using RP master patterns indirectly.
content and provides a slower drug release rate. So, the concept Tooling time and cost involved with RT is much less
of perforated channels for FDM printed caplets has been compared to traditional technology, whereas the number of
proposed by Sadia et al. (2018) to enhance the drug release. components that can be fabricated with RT is limited.
From the works published related to FDM printed drug Examples of indirect RT methods are silicone rubber tooling,
delivery devices, it is learned that usage of FDM permits the spray metal tooling and epoxy resin tooling. Epoxy resin
fabrication of personalized drug delivery devices in custom punch and dies constructed through indirect rapid tooling
shapes. Further, FDM made DDD has high drug uniformity, technique reduce the cost involved in forming Al-Mg alloy
and no post-processing is required. While fabricating DDS, sheets up to 87 per cent (Kuo and Li, 2016). Kuo (2018)
strength is not a significant concern, but accurate control over fabricated wax filament through indirect tooling technique
dosage content is highly demanded. Proper mixing of drugs and and manufactured wax conformal cooling channel using
polymers before and during extrusion is needed for obtaining a FDM. Injection moulding inserts developed from nylon/iron
uniform dispersion. The problems reported in FDM of DDD composite filament was able to fabricate 70 low-density
are lack of suitable filament, nozzle clogging while printing, polyethylene parts and 40 ABS parts (Masood and Song,
poor surface finish and dimensional deviations. Prior 2004). The photolithography wax stamping technique
understanding of drug characteristics and their printability adopted for developing paper microdevice incurs high cost.
needs to be known before filament fabrication and three- So, the concept of a PDMS stamp was proposed for
dimensional printing. Under some circumstances, there is a producing paper microdevice, and the applicability of FDM
chance of recrystallization of the drug during filament printed mould in fabricating PDMS stamps has been
production, and it may affect the overall filament quality. The discussed. The minimum barrier and channel width of FDM
quality of drugs also affects filament property. High loading of mould that obtained optimum flow were 1 mm and 1.1 mm,
crystalline drugs may result in brittle filaments that are difficult below which failures were noted (Montgomery et al., 2018).
to print. Die swelling is another issue that has to be taken care The stamping capability of FDM printed dies was studied by
of while developing and printing drug-loaded filaments. Key shaping DC04 and S355MC material. Three-dimensional
parameters that have to be taken into account while developing printed dies successfully shaped 100 parts of DC04 materials
DDS through FDM is depicted in Figure 9 (Aho et al., 2019). within the tolerance level. The higher hardness of S355MC
Table II lists various research work that engages FDM for makes it challenging to shape within tolerance requirements
fabricating DDS. and deforms the die after shaping a few parts (Durgun, 2015).
Electric discharge machining electrode fabricated from the
3.4 Rapid tooling FDM technique and coated with copper machines titanium
Rapid tooling (RT), an advancement of the rapid prototyping alloy. Material removal rate and tool wear rate obtained with
process refers to the method of tool making in a faster the three-dimensional printed electrode are slightly inferior to
manner, and it is categorized as direct and indirect. Direct the conventional copper electrode (Danade et al., 2019).

Figure 9 Factors to be considered in FDM of multicomponent drug system

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Table II Drug delivery systems developed using FDM

Authors Reinforcement Polymer Intended application
Scoutaris et al. (2018) Indomethacin (IND), hypromellose Polyethylene glycol (PEG) Taste masking and immediate release
acetate succinate (HPMCAS) tablet
Goyanes et al., 2015 Budesonidemodel drug PVA Controlled release gastroresistant
caplet
Chai et al. (2017) Domperidone (DOM) Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) Hollow intragastric floating sustained
release (FSR) tablets
Okwuosa et al. (2016) Dipyridamole or theophylline PVP Immediate release tablets
Sadia et al. (2016) 5-ASA, captopril, Methacrylic matrix, Filler: TCP Patient-tailored immediate release
theophylline and prednisolone tablets
Skowyra et al. (2015) Prednisolone PVA Extended-release tablet
Genina et al. (2016) Indomethacin Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) Intrauterine systems (IUS) and
subcutaneous rods (SR)
Holländer et al. (2016) Indomethacin Poly(« -caprolactone) Intrauterine system (IUS)
Goyanes et al. (2015) 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA, PVA Modified-release tablet
mesalazine) and 4-aminosalicylic
acid (4-ASA)
Kollamaram et al. (2018) Ramipril Kollidon VA64 and Kollidon 12PF Low temperature thermolabile drug
Goyanes et al. (2017) Paracetamol Hypromellose acetatesuccinate (HPMCAS) Modified-release tablet
Shin et al. (2019) – PLA Gastroretentive (GR) delivery
system systems
Fu et al. (2018) Progesterone and polyethylene Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/polycaprolactone (PCL) Vaginal rings
glycol (PEG) 4000 (8:2) and Tween 80
Luzuriaga et al. (2013) – PLA Micro needles for transdermal drug
delivery

The investment casting technique is justifiable for mass production Administration (FAA) has certified Ultem 9085 as a flame
only because of higher wax pattern making costs. Rapid investment retardant polymer having airworthiness to be used in aircraft
casting refers to a process in which rapid prototyping (RP) (Stratasys, 2017). As per literature, the components such as
technology plays a role in sacrificial pattern creation. The inlet guide vanes, acoustic liners and engine access doors were
incorporation of RP in IC eliminates the time and cost involved in identified for replacement by lightweight FDM printed
making metallic tooling for fabricating wax patterns (Lee et al., components. Stratasys reported about the fabrication of ECS
2004). Issues reported by researchers in using RP patterns directly duct for aerospace application (Stratasys, 2019). Grady et al.
for IC are ceramic shell cracking, incomplete pattern burning and (2019), studied the feasibility of developing full non-metallic
ash presence after burning. Aluminium filled epoxy resin mould gas turbine engines. FDM components (inlet guide vanes,
used for the development of investment casting wax pattern requires acoustic liners and engine access doors) compatibility was
high cycle time due to its lower thermal conductivity. Hence, an investigated for the reduction in noise and fuel consumption by
aluminium filled epoxy resin mould with conformal cooling making a prototype and tested in the simulated engine
channels (made by FDM) has been developed by Kuo et al. (2017). environment. The study revealed a significant reduction in
Thin shell cooling channels prepared from ABS material was weight, manufacturing cost, fuel consumption and carbon
incorporated into the aluminium filled epoxy resin mould during its dioxide emission by replacing metal parts with FDM based
preparation, and the integrated conformal circuit was removed from polymer and ceramic additive manufactured components in
the final mould using acetone flushing. The proposed method helps aircraft. FDM has emerged as a proven technology in the
to transfer heat efficiently. The inferior surface finish and non- fabrication of unmanned aerial vehicles. Klippstein et al.
availability of high-performance thermoplastics filament for FDM (2017), have reported wide use of FDM technique for
hinder it from to be used as direct tooling. FDM can be successfully developing unmanned aircraft structures. Further, this
used in indirect rapid tooling, but the time and cost involved are technology can be adapted for fabricating electronics
comparatively higher. FDM based rapid tooling permits fabrication embedded structures with conductive thermoplastic polymers
of customized components in low volume. However, the possibility (Gardner et al., 2016). Three-dimensional printed quadcopter
of achieving higher resolution with FDM based rapid tooling is structures embedded with electronics can survive a higher
limited. Reinforcement such as iron powder and aluminium powder temperature environment. The ability of FDM to create
are added to make FDM based tooling tougher; even then the lightweight structures capable of noise reduction and integrated
performance is lower than the conventional tooling technique. with electronic circuits can witness new applications in the
aviation industry.
3.5 Aerospace and automotive applications The automotive industry aims to develop lightweight
The use of fire retardant polymers in FDM has paved its components with acceptable performance. FDM is one of the
applicability in the aviation industry. Federal Aviation manufacturing techniques satisfying this requirement.

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Applicability of FDM components ranges from ergonomic 3.6 Microfluidic devices

improvement in the assembly line to functional components Microfluidic devices are the equipment that is used for
such as shield covers, engine manifolds, cover plates, etc. The exploiting chemical and physical properties of gases and liquids
Jigs and fixtures developed using FDM are widely used in the at the micro-scale. Microfluidic devices are used for the
automotive assembly line to improve ergonomics and separation of liquids, sample preparation, detection, and fluid
productivity (Joe and Stratassys, 2011). Such printed manipulation. Conventionally, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)
lightweight jigs and fixtures reduce tool handling effort and is used for fabricating microfluidic devices because it is
thereby minimising workers fatigue (Schmid and Eidenschink, chemically inert, transparent, non-toxic, permeable and cures
2006). Many case studies have been reported about the at low temperatures. The soft lithography technique is adopted
functional testing of FDM printed automotive components. to manufacture PDMS microfluidic devices, but it is labour
Accelerator pedals were designed and fabricated using Poly-jet intensive and offers less efficiency. Moreover, PDMS
and FDM additive manufacturing techniques for student microfluidic devices are not rugged, and it leads to a flow profile
formula car requirements (Prada et al., 2016). FDM fabricated problem. Hence, the researchers started using AM for
lightweight accelerator pedals, showed an acceptable level of constructing microfluidic devices because AM allows the
performance in analysis and static experiment testing. Dynamic fabrication of devices with robust connection ports, complex
testing also assured the technical viability of the printed flow regulating components and allows integration of detectors
components in the automotive application. The air intake and on-chip cells. Limitations of additively manufactured
system of the formula SAE engine created using FDM microfluidic devices are low resolution, poor surface property
technology is shown in Figure 10. The printed component is and compatibility and transparency issues (Chen et al., 2016).
then covered with a composite layup to suit the application Though the resolution obtainable with FDM is low for micro
requirements of high temperature and pressure. The proposed channels, FDM is preferred over SLA and polyjet printing for
intake system sustained high pressure and temperature with making micro mixers because of its low cost and capability to
advantages of weight reduction and low-cost manufacturability print multiple materials with required surface roughness.
(Ilardo and Williams, 2010). Cazon et al. (2015) manufactured Entirely three-dimensional printed microfluidic device
containing integrated conductive PLA/CNT electrode was able
oil sump for formula SAE formula student racing car using
to generate microdroplets and measure its size by using the
FDM technology and covered it with composite layers of
concept of capacitively coupled contactless conductivity
carbon fibre. The designed model was analysed for sloshing at
measurement technique. The size of the water droplet in oil
different accelerations, braking and movement direction. The
flow or oil droplet size in water flow was measured by
design was then physically tested and was found suitable for the
measuring the residence time microdroplet in the detection
application.
cell. As the flow rate increases from 10-55 m L/min to 55
In spite of enormous potential in the automotive sector,
m L/min, water droplet sized decreases from 3.4 mm to 2.3 mm
FDM also faces the barrier in the widespread deployment of the
(Duartea et al., 2017).
technology. Limitation in production technology, unavailability
FDM has been used to construct fluidic devices (for
of skilled labour, lack of trust in technology, intellectual
nanoparticle preparation) containing microchannels of a
property threat in digital inventory, etc. is paving hindrance to
squared cross-section (800 m m  800 m m) from a transparent
the widespread development of this technology (Dwivedi et al.,
polyethylene terephthalate filament (Bishop et al., 2015).
2017). These barriers can be overcome with proper research on Three-dimesional printing of reactionware permits the end-
machinery, identifying appropriate conventional components user to have better control over topology, geometry and
replacement with additive manufacturing and adequate training composition over chemical synthesising devices. The concept
on implementing the technology. The potential of FDM of reactionware fabrication by AM is represented in Figure 11.
technology to fabricate lightweight structures with the required Kitson et al. (2012) manufactured polypropylene miniaturised
level of performance is having a realm of opportunities in the fluidic reaction ware devices used for synthesising amine,
automotive sector. polyoxometalate clusters and gold nanoparticles. Similarly,
Scotti et al. (2017) reported the development of miniaturised
Figure 10 Three-dimensional printed air intake system of formula SAE polypropylene reactor through FDM for Diels–Alder reaction
car engine and retro Diels–Alder reactions characterisation. Figure 12
shows the CAD model, and the three-dimensional printed PP
reactor ware. Tothill et al. (2017) demonstrated that fused
deposition modelled PLA microfluidic device can be used for
measuring glucose concentration in PBS pH 7.4 solutions by
using calorimetric assay data. Further, a fused deposition
modelled microfluidic chip has been used for the detection of
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (bacteria) and
influenza hemagglutinin (virus) (Chudobova et al., 2015;
Krejcova et al., 2014). Kataoka et al. (2017) developed PLA
based microfluidic devices (solid-phase extraction devices) for
petroleum processing. Exposure of PLA microfluidic devices to
methanol, toluene and n-heptane does not affect its function.
With FDM, it possible to realize a complex flow profile, but

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Figure 11 Schematic representation of reactionware fabrication using Figure 12 (a) Three-dimensional printed PP reactor and (b) three-
FDM dimensional model of reactor with all components

most of the materials printable by FDM lack transparency.

PMMA and transparent PLA offer transparency, but it is not
comparable to that of features attainable by PDMS based
microfluidic devices. Other problems reported in the
construction of microfluidic devices using FDM are low
accuracy, reduced gas permeability, slow-building time. Even
though the FDM technique is simple and the cost involved is
lesser, the presence of voids and high roughness hinders the
adequate flow of fluids in FDM made microchannels.
Compared to other AM techniques such as SLA, SLS
resolution obtainable with FDM is also limited. Figure 13
shows the microscopic view of FDM printed microchannels Figure 13 SEM image of FDM printed micro channels containing (1)
that possess collapsed structure, wall tears and rough surfaces collapsed surface (2) tears and (3) deformed surfaces
(Macdonald et al., 2017). Optimum selection of process
parameters can counter these effects but could not eradicate the
drawbacks. Moreover, solvent resistivity of FDM printable
polymers also has to be considered before the printing of the
microfluidic device.

3.7 Four-dimensional printing

Four-dimensional printing is the technology that integrates
three-dimensional printing with smart materials to add
dynamic characteristics to the print. Four-dimensional printed
parts are capable of changing the characteristics as a function of
time in response to appropriate stimuli. Figure 14 depicts the
concepts of four-dimensional printing. Most of the three-
dimensional printing techniques can be adapted for achieving
the time dependency characteristics. The adaptability of
printing technique, triggering stimulus, responsive materials
and predictable responsiveness are the rudiments of research in and self-evolving structures (Bodaghi et al., 2016). The role of
four-dimensional printing. Reported applications of four- FDM in four-dimensional printing is discussed further. The
dimensional printing are actuators for soft robotics (Wu et al., researches in four-dimensional printing using FDM is focusing
2016), controlled sequential folding systems (Lee et al., 2015) on:

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Figure 14 Characteristics of four-dimensional printing

3D
printer
3D
printing
Static
Material structure

3D printer:
To be able to print
multimaterial
structure

Stimulus

Smart Smart Smart

4D
material static dynamic
printing
structure structure

Interaction
Mathematics: mechanism
Mainly an inverse
problem to find the
printing paths

Source: Momeni et al. (2017)

The development of four-dimensional printable FDM scope in future development in four-dimensional printing. By
filament materials with predictable time-dependent further researches, more stimuli-responsive filament materials
characteristics. and predictable mathematical models can be developed for

Modifications required for the static FDM printers to FDM four-dimensional printing.
adopt four-dimensional printing.

Modelling the dynamic behaviour of the print. 3.8 Other applications
Zhou et al. (2015) and Leist et al. (2017) demonstrated the use Ease of fabricating complicated shapes allows FDM to be used
of PLA and nylon in four-dimensional printing and highlighted for the development of customized prosthetics and orthosis.
its ability to shape memory effects, self-assembly and sequential Table III provides a brief idea about selected research work that
stability. The FDM printed compliant mechanism using nylon involved the construction of prosthetics and orthosis using
filament was capable of switching between two stable positions FDM technology. Compared to other additive manufacturing
in a fully recoverable manner. Four-dimensional printability of techniques, for orthosis development, FDM incurs less cost.
PLA filament was authenticated by fabricating a cup which However, the surface finish of FDM printed prosthetic and
changed shape based on the temperature of water poured into orthosis is comparatively lower. Apart from the applications
it. The concept of smart textile by four-dimensional printing discussed, FDM finds space in areas such as education,
PLA on nylon fabrics was also demonstrated (Leist et al., architecture and fashion. Advantages such as low cost,
2017). possibility to print different thermoplastics and user-
Ly and Kim (2017) compared the thermal responsiveness of friendliness allowed FDM to gather huge space in the
components printed with polyurethane-based shape memory education sector. Adopting FDM in education helps the
polymer (SMP) and SMP CNT composite filaments. A water students to understand difficult concepts easily and foster
bath experiment was conducted to study the shape recovery creativity and imagination among students. The usage of FDM
time of the print. The study revealed that the time required for in architecture enables the designer to plan the design of the
shape restoring reduces with an increase in temperature of the building efficiently and makes the user visualize the proposal
water bath. Zhao et al. (2017) compared the shape memory efficiently. Lead time and cost involved in the development of
characteristics of FDM printed and compression moulded building models could be reduced, and the stability of the
samples of zinc neutralised poly (ethylene-co-methacrylic model fabricated by FDM is found to be higher than traditional
acid) – (PEMA). The four-dimensional printed parts exhibited model-making techniques (Stratasys, 2012). The utilization of
a lower percentage of recovery in the first cycle. However, FDM technology in the fashion field permits the designer to
subsequent thermal triggering cycles showed better recovery exhibit a distinctive design. FDM has been investigated for:
than compression moulded samples. Li et al. (2016) illustrated
Developing entire clothing.
the development of a methyl acrylate-co-styrene copolymer
Partial printing of design on clothes
filament that could be used for four-dimensional printing of
Fabricating accessories.
deformable thermoplastic block. Three-dimensional printing
with stimulus-responsive materials has added time-dependent Footwear manufacturing company, Feetz has fabricated
adaptability to parts. Being the most economical technique to customized shoes using FDM based three-dimensional
adopt four-dimensional printability, FDM foresees immense printing method. However, the lack of suitable material limits

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Table III Prosthetics and orthosis developed using FDM

Author Material used Prosthetic and orthosis developed using FDM
Kwon et al. (2019) TPU Robotic ankle-foot-orthosis for post-stroke patients
Sanchez-Tena et al. (2019) PLA Scleral cover shell prosthesis
Tao et al. (2017) PLA Prosthetic foot
Ferreira et al. (2018) PLA and TPU Hand prostheses
Lee et al. (2016) TPU Finger prosthesis for the patient with right thumb amputation
Vivek et al. (2018) ABS Orthosis for club foot deformity
Mutlu et al. (2016) TPU Flexure hinges for soft monolithic
prosthetic fingers
Schrank et al. (2013) PC Ankle-foot orthoses
Burn et al. (2016) ABS, PLA Prosthetic
hands for children

the efficient usage of FDM in the fashion field (Vanderploeg metamaterial structure has to be explored. Generally,
et al., 2017). properties of the polymers degrade upon recycling. FDM
printability of recycled polymer and polymer composite
4. Future research scope filaments needs to be analysed.
FDM permits producing a scaffold of intricate design, but its
Research works related to FDM have gained momentum osseointegration ability is less. Hence, the addition of
because of its simplicity, low cost and ability to process a vast reinforcement such as TiO2, TCP, PCL, HA, collagen is
range of thermoplastics and it’s composite. The capability of suggested. Further methods for achieving better functions from
the FDM to print composite filament allows it to be used for FDM printed scaffolds are demanded. Also, the inflammatory
four-dimensional printing, rapid tooling, scaffolding, sensors response of the fused deposition modelled scaffold has to be
and drug delivery device. As FDM is developing in terms of analysed in detail. The drug release rate of three-dimensional
application, tremendous work can be carried further for printed DDS is non-controllable. Suitable techniques for
improving the capabilities of FDM. The major issue faced controlling the drug release rate of FDM made DDS are
during the fabrication of the microfluidic devices by FDM is demanded. Besides, suitable parameters for developing and
the lack of resolution and transparency. Hence, studies towards printing different drug-loaded filaments have to be identified.
a methodology for improving the resolution of FDM are The effort could be devoted to the development of filament for
demanded. Polymer products intended for medical application drug delivery devices, which can meet regulatory norms. The
needs to be sterilized. Effect of sterilization on mechanical usage of FDM in microfluidics reduces the cost and enables the
characteristics of FDM printed polymer products needs fabrication of complex profiles, but the presence of voids and
experimental investigation. Post-processing techniques have high roughness affects the flow of fluids. Means of controlling
been proposed for improving the features of FDM parts, but these issues in microfluidics need to be addressed. As most of
most of the proposed approaches are material-specific, and the three-dimensional printer dimension is limited, various
there is a lack of a standard methodology that can process all weld ability studies on FDM printed components are needed.
types of material. Further, post-processing works can be The role of FDM in topology optimization demands further
extended for advanced materials like HIPS, PPSF, PEEK, investigation. Modification of the printing head allows FDM to
composites, etc. The quantum of applications that are be used for the printing of continuous fibre-reinforced
disclosed with the developed composite filament is limited, and composites. However, the quantum of applications reported
it can be explored. Most of the sensors are built from low with FDM of the continuous fibre-reinforced composite is
melting point filaments like conductive PLA, ABS, TPU, etc., limited, and further research could be progressed in that
which cannot be used above 250°C. The possibility of using direction as well. The introduction of FDM in the fashion field
high-performance conductive composite like PEEK/CNT, permits fashion designers to exhibits innovative design. Lack of
PEEK/graphene, PEKK/graphene for sensing application can suitable filament material and issues in the sticking of polymers
be studied. The sensing strength of a three-dimensional printed on fabrics renders extensive usage of FDM in the fashion field.
sensor is a function of filler type and its percentage of loading. Strategies for countering the mentioned issues in the fashion
The effect of filler concentration on different sensing field demand researcher attention. With the research works
mechanisms demands further research work. Brittleness of reviewed, it inferred that FDM, as AM technique is growing in
most of the conductive filaments renders its effective printing. terms of application development and further contribution, is
Hence, investigation on the effect of adding different necessary to achieve the full potential of FDM.
plasticizers on mechanical characteristics of three-dimensional
printable filaments has to be explored. Electroplating on
polymer makes polymer conductive to a certain extent. The
5. Case study: solvent sensing
effect of electroplating on mechanical and sensing 5.1 Problem definition
characteristics of FDM printed samples could be explored. Solvents refer to chemical substances (organic liquid) that are
Efficient EMI shielding could be achieved with metamaterial. used to dissolve or dilute other materials or substances.
EMI shielding potential of three-dimensional printed Industries that found the usage of solvents are paint

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manufacturing, rubber processing, printing, textiles, footwear, Table IV Sensitivity of FDM printed ABS-carbon black composite
pharmaceutical manufacture, dry cleaning, plastic processing,
Sensitivity
etc. However, the exposure of solvents beyond permitted levels
Sensor thickness (mm) Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5
can cause detrimental health effects, and a simple monitoring
system is required for preventing solvent leakages in industries. 0.6 0.245 0.654 1.321 4.185 5.140
1 0.234 0.344 0.5 0.714 0.908
5.2 Objective 2 0.092 0.135 0.197 0.249 0.287
In the present case study, the usage of FDM printed conductive
ABS-carbon black composite in the sensing of acetone is
owing to the evaporation of solvent from the sample. The
elucidated.
time required for the thicker samples to react with the solvent
is higher, and it leads to poor sensitivity with the thicker
5.3 Methodology
sensor. The resistance of the sensor observed at the beginning
Resistance variations happening in the three-dimensional
of the second, third, fourth and fifth sensing cycle is
printed samples after dipping is accounted for determining
comparatively higher than the initial resistance of the sensor.
its sensitivity. Solvent sensing test is conducted with U The solvent that got accumulated in the sensor while dipping
shaped samples of width 4 cm, height 4 cm and thickness is not completely evaporated during the stipulated drying
(0.6 mm, 1 mm and 2 mm). Constant dipping height of time, and it results in the higher resistance of the sensor at the
10 mm is followed in the experiment. Using LCR meter, end of each cycle. However, the performance of the sensor is
resistance changes happening during experimentation are not affected because of the solvent accumulation, and
measured. The sensitivity of the sensor is calculated based on instead, better sensitivity is observed in the successive sensing
equation (1). Schematic representation of the experimental cycle. Sensors of 0.2 mm and 0.4 mm thick are also capable of
setup is provided in Figure 15. The sensing cycle followed sensing solvent but upon reusing sensors become very flexible
in the present study consist of 1 min dipping in solvent and find difficulty in reusing. From the present case study, it
and 14 min drying in the atmosphere. The reusability of can be concluded that FDM printed conductive composites
the sensor is checked by repeating the sensing cycles five are good in sensing solvents. The work can be extended
times. towards the sensing of various solvents with different polymer
composites.
Rf  Ri
Rrel ¼ (1)
Ri

where Rrel is relative resistance change, Rf is the resistance of Figure 16 Resistance changes happening in sensor during sensing
the sensor at time t (say 60 sec) in particular sensing cycle and 800,000
Ri is the initial resistance of the sensor in a particular sensing
700,000
cycle.
600,000
Resistance (ohm)

5.4 Result and discussion 500,000

Table IV contains the sensitivity values of sensors achieved
400,000 0.6mm
from experimentation. Among different thicknesses considered
1mm
for experimentation, the sensor with 0.6 mm thickness 300,000
2mm
exhibits better sensitivity. The effect of sensor thickness on 200,000
the sensitivity is depicted in Figure 16. During dipping, 100,000
polymer swells and the electrical network gets affected. As a
0
result, the resistance of sensor increases in the dipping stage 1 901 1,801 2,701 3,601 4,501
and reduction in resistance was observed at the time of drying Time (sec)

Figure 15 Schematic view of experimental setup

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6. Conclusion 2017 Conference on Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures and

Intelligent Systems, September 18-20, 2017, Snowbird, UT.
Research works carried related to the application of FDM are
Bishop, G.W., Satterwhite, J.E., Bhakta, S., Kadimisetty, K.,
collected, and the results obtained from the works are
Gillette, K.M., Chen, E. and Rusling, J.F. (2015), “3D-
discussed. Though the utilization of FDM has grown from
printed fluidic devices for nanoparticle preparation and flow
prototype development to functional component fabrication,
injection amperometry using integrated Prussian blue
there are miles to go to achieve its full potential. Issues such as
nanoparticle- modified electrodes”, Analytical Chemistry,
high surface roughness, anisotropy and less strength, hamper
Vol. 87 No. 10, pp. 5437-5443.
the FDM from broad adoption. The establishment of
Bodaghi, M., Damanpack, A.R. and Liao, W.H. (2016), “Self-
conductive filament empowers the FDM to fabricate chemical
expanding/shrinking structures by 4D printing”, Smart
sensors, force sensors, void fraction measurement sensors,
electrodes for electrochemical devices and radiation shielding. Materials and Structures, Vol. 25 No. 10, p. 105034.
Burn, M.B., Anderson, T. and Gogola, G.R. (2016), “Three-
More research works are needed towards the identification of
required filler percentages for each sensing principle which may dimensional printing of prosthetic hands for children”, The
vary in each sensing case. Usage of FDM in rapid tooling Journal of Hand Surgery, Vol. 41 No. 5, pp. 103-109.
reduces the time and cost associated with traditional tooling Cazon, A., Prada, J.G., Eric Garcia, E., Larraona, G.S. and
fabrication, however, the strength of FDM based tooling is Ausejo, S. (2015), “Pilot study describing the design process
lower and as a result, the number of parts producible is lesser. of an oil sump for a competition vehicle by combining
FDM permits fabrication of controlled-release dosage forms, additive manufacturing and carbon fibre layers”, Virtual and
sustained-release dosage forms, rapid/immediate–release Physical Prototyping, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 149-162.
dosage forms, drug-loaded implants, dosage forms with Chai, X., Chai, H., Wang, X., Yang, J., Li, J., Zhao, Y., Cai,
multiple medications, complex-shaped medicines and taste- W., Tao, T. and Xiang, X. (2017), “Fused deposition
masked drugs. However, the behaviour of drugs during modeling (FDM) 3D printed tablets for intragastric floating
filament production and its printing should be known for delivery of domperidone”, Scientific Reports, Vol. 7 No. 1,
realizing the expected result. Drug type, its volume of loading, p. 2829.
matrix characteristics and the design of DDS, regulates the Chen, C., Mehl, B.T., Munshi, A.S., Townsend, A.D.,
drug release rate. Biocompatible and biodegradable scaffolds Spence, D.M. and Martin, R.S. (2016), “3D printed
fabricated through FDM have required porosity and facilitated microfluidic devices: fabrication, advantages and
cell adhesion and growth. Yet, approaches are demanded to limitations – a mini review”, Analytical Methods, Vol. 8
improve the functionalities (such as better osseointegration, No. 31, pp. 6005-6012.
reduced inflammation and expected biodegradability) of three- Chohan, J.S. and Singh, R. (2017), “Pre and post processing
dimensional printed scaffolds. The ability to manufacture techniques to improve surface characteristics of FDM parts:
lightweight structures with greater geometric design freedom a state of art review and future applications”, Rapid
has created enormous potential for FDM in automotive Prototyping Journal, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 495-513.
applications. The case study presented in the current work Christ, J.F., Aliheidari, N., Ameli, A. and Pötschke, P. (2017),
confirms that FDM made conductive polymer composites are “3D printed highly elastic strain sensors of multiwalled carbon
good in solvent sensing. Further, the effect of reinforcement nanotube/thermoplastic polyurethane nanocomposites”,
type and its volume of loading on the sensing of solvent could Materials & Design, Vol. 131, pp. 394-401.
be explored. With this, it concluded that FDM has the Chudobova, D., Cihalova, K., Skalickova, S., Zitka, J., Angel,
proficiency to produce functional components, and proper M., Rodrigo, M., Milosavljevic, V., Hynek, D., Kopel, P.,
selection of process parameters and filament material is Vesely, R., Adam, V. and Kizek, R. (2015), “3D printed chip
required for fabricating functional parts through FDM. for detection of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus
labeled with gold nanoparticles”, Electrophoresis, Vol. 36
No. 3, pp. 457-466.
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