Introduction

Religion, by nature, is esoteric and cannot be entirely examined through empirical science.
However, its role, importance, and credibility can be assessed by observing its effects on
society. Religion has a dual nature, much like Janus, the Roman god of doors and gateways,
with one face looking forward and another backward. Similarly, religion can be both
constructive and destructive depending on how it is used.

The chapter references Bishop Kukah (2011), who describes religion as a "double-edged
sword," capable of nation-building when properly utilized but also a source of division if
misused. Religion plays a crucial role in promoting social cohesion, crisis management,
tolerance, and moral values. However, when religious authorities deviate from its original
messages of peace, love, and charity, it can become a tool for segregation and disunity. The
emergence of Christianity and Islam has contributed to religious divisions in modern times,
leading to a shift in how religion is perceived and understood.

The chapter outlines key objectives for discussing religion in contemporary African society,
including:

1. Understanding the true concept of religion.

2. Analyzing the position of religion amid modern challenges.

3. Linking African worldview to religious experiences.

4. Highlighting the ethical role of religion in shaping society.

5. Evaluating the decline in religious practice over time.

While religion has had its failures, including moral and leadership derailment, it also
positively impacts society. Madu (1997) explains that religion gives meaning to life by
connecting humans with God, offering fulfillment, self-realization, and a moral guide. The
purpose of the chapter is to examine religion's original intent, how it is practiced today, and
its relevance to contemporary African society.

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Theories of Religion

1. The Concept of Religion

Religion is a fundamental aspect of human experience, providing individuals with moral

direction and spiritual guidance. Historically, religion has played a central role in shaping
cultures and societies. Scholars have developed different theories to explain the origin and
function of religion.

2. The Theological Theory

This theory views religion as humanity's search for a connection with God. Scholars like
Otto and Feurbach argue that humans naturally seek divine guidance and assurance. Otto
sees religion as an experience of the sacred, while Feurbach believes religion is a
projection of human desires onto a divine being.

3. The Sociological Theory

Emile Durkheim (1915) is a key proponent of the sociological theory of religion. He argues
that religion serves as a force of social cohesion and order. Religious institutions help
maintain stability by providing shared beliefs and moral values. Societies create gods and
religious structures to maintain collective consciousness and social harmony. Durkheim
believes that religion is not divinely inspired but rather a product of human social needs.

4. Anthropological Explanation of Religion

Ludwig Feuerbach and Omoregbe argue that religion is a human projection. According to
Feuerbach, God is an idealized image of human qualities and aspirations. When people
worship God, they are actually worshiping their own human nature, projected onto a divine
figure. This theory suggests that religion is a psychological tool created by humans rather
than a divine reality.

5. The Psychological Dimension

Sigmund Freud explores religion from a psychological perspective. He claims that religion
originates from childhood experiences, particularly the relationship with a father figure.
According to Freud, people create gods as protective figures to compensate for human
weaknesses and insecurities. Religion, therefore, serves as an emotional support system
rather than a reflection of divine reality.

6. Marxist Theory and Philosophical Approach to Religion

Karl Marx, as cited by Omoregbe (2002), views religion as a tool for economic exploitation.
He famously described religion as "the opium of the masses," meaning it pacifies people
and prevents them from challenging oppressive systems. According to Marx, religion is
created by the ruling class to justify economic inequality. The poor are encouraged to
accept their suffering in this life in exchange for a promised reward in the afterlife. This
theory criticizes religion as an instrument of social control rather than a means of spiritual
enlightenment.

African Worldview and Religion

This explores African religious beliefs, particularly focusing on the Igbo worldview, the
relationship between religion and daily life, and the broader implications of religious
thought in contemporary African society. Below is a structured summary:

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1. Religion as an Integral Part of African Life

Religion is deeply ingrained in African life, influencing every aspect of existence—whether

farming, politics, education, or burial ceremonies.

Mbiti (1969) argues that Africans are inherently religious, believing that spirits exist in
everything.

Nwala (1985) notes that the Igbo cosmology consists of spirits permeating every facet of
life.
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2. Igbo Cosmology and Structure of the Universe

The Igbo worldview comprises three realms:

1. The Sky (Heaven): The Supreme Being (Chukwu/Chineke) resides here, along with major
divinities like Amadioha (thunder god) and Anyanwu (sun god).

2. The Earth: Home to humans and minor deities, including Ala (Earth goddess), Edo, and
Idemili.

3. The Underworld (Spirit World): Inhabited by ancestral spirits and other supernatural
entities.

Death is seen as a transition, not an end, with multiple burial rites marking the journey into
the spiritual realm.

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3. Religion and the Moral Structure of Society

Africans seek to live a morally upright life to maintain harmony with the spiritual world and
avoid divine punishment.

Moral and spiritual balance is emphasized, as human actions (good or bad) affect cosmic
equilibrium.

Life is viewed as a cycle (birth-life-death-rebirth), reinforcing the idea of continuity.

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4. Features of Worldview

Hostility and intolerance: Different worldviews often oppose each other, explaining
religious conflicts in Nigeria.

Faith-based nature: Worldviews rely on beliefs that cannot be scientifically proven.

Self-assurance: Converts to religions often feel they have found ultimate truth.

Missionary inclination: Worldviews actively spread through teaching, propaganda, and

social institutions.

Technical application: Religious doctrines provide methods for interacting with both the
spiritual and physical worlds.
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5. Relevance of Worldview

According to Madu (1997), worldviews offer direction and purpose in life.

They help explain reality, space-time events, and the relationship between humans and the
universe.

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6. Religion in Contemporary African Society

Religion has evolved over time, shifting from a purely spiritual guide to an entity that
influences politics, economy, and social dynamics.

The modern practice of religion includes both positive and negative elements:

Positive: Encourages morality, unity, and personal discipline.

Negative: Can be manipulated for economic or political gain, leading to conflicts and
extremism.
Omoregbe (1999) highlights religion's crucial role in social development, education, and
ethical guidance.

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7. Functions of Religion in Society

Social cohesion: Promotes peace among different faiths.

Interpersonal relationships: Strengthens social bonds among members.

Bridging wealth gaps: Unites the rich and poor through shared moral values.

Moral guidance: Encourages ethical behavior.

Economic function: In modern times, religion has become a profession, with scholars and
spiritual leaders earning a livelihood through religious teachings.

Detailed Summary of the Text on Religion and Social Conflict

The provided text explores the relationship between religion, social conflict, and
intolerance, particularly within the African and Nigerian contexts. It discusses how religion,
while having the potential to unite people, has also been a source of division, violence, and
social unrest due to historical grievances, intolerance, and extremism.

Historical Roots of Religious Conflict

The text discusses the long-standing historical grievances that contribute to religious
conflict, particularly between Islam and Christianity. These grievances stem from past
injustices, oppression, and domination, which continue to fuel modern-day violence in
regions like Nigeria’s Middle Belt.

It highlights the reminiscence of history as a factor that exacerbates religious violence,

using examples such as the conflict between Fulani herdsmen and local farmers in Benue
State, as well as clashes between cult groups in Rivers State. These conflicts are often
deeply rooted in historical, religious, and cultural differences.

Additionally, religious proselytization (the act of converting others to one’s faith) has
contributed to hostility between different religious groups. This trend is particularly
noticeable in Nigeria, where Islam and Christianity have coexisted in a state of mutual
hostility, with conversion efforts often leading to tensions.

Religious Intolerance and Its Consequences

Religious intolerance is identified as a major factor dividing societies. It is defined as a

blind refusal to understand and respect differing religious views. This intolerance manifests
in both religious and psychological hostility towards opposing beliefs and practices.
Leaders often reinforce these attitudes, leading to discrimination, conflict, and societal
division.

A quote from Ekwunife (1992) suggests that religious intolerance is fueled by myopic,
selfish, and sentimental misunderstandings of religious doctrines. Many religious
founders, denominations, and sects claim moral and juridical superiority, which intensifies
intolerance.

The text argues that religious intolerance ignores the personal and emotional aspects of
faith. Instead of allowing individuals to experience their religion freely, religious leaders
often coerce or manipulate their adherents into rejecting opposing beliefs.

Religion as a Double-Edged Sword

The text emphasizes that religion has a dual nature—it can either unite or divide societies.
If the divisive elements of religion are not properly managed, they create tension, unrest,
and conflict.

Ekwunife (1992) describes religion as both integrative and divisive:

When handled properly, it fosters unity and moral values.

When misused, it leads to religious riots, intolerance, and discrimination.

The text references Kukah (2011), who argues that religious conflict arises when religion is
used to spread hatred and discrimination rather than peace and unity. Such conflicts are
influenced by historical, cultural, and societal backgrounds.

Historical Origin of Religious Conflict

The text traces religious conflicts back to:

The rejection of Jesus by Judaism, which created division between Christianity and
Judaism.

Conflicts between African traditional religion and foreign religions, which emerged during
the colonial era and led to the imposition of foreign religious beliefs over indigenous
traditions.

The history of Crusades and Jihads, where universal religions sought to impose their
doctrines on others, often through warfare.

According to Kukah (2011), these historical conflicts continue to fuel suspicion, hatred,
and rejection in contemporary religious interactions.

Conclusion: The Need for Religious Tolerance

The chapter concludes by emphasizing that religion can be a valuable tool for societal
development if used correctly. However, it also warns that religion has often been misused
by extremists, who turn it into an instrument of war and violence.

The text urges mutual respect among different religious groups and discourages the use of
force in religious conversion. Religious tolerance and respect for religious liberty are
essential for peaceful coexistence in society.

Key Takeaways

Religious conflicts are deeply rooted in history, often linked to grievances over past
injustices, cultural domination, and forced religious conversions.

Religious intolerance is a major societal problem, leading to discrimination, hostility, and

violence.

Religion has both unifying and divisive elements—how it is used determines whether it
promotes peace or conflict.

Historical religious conflicts continue to influence modern religious interactions,

particularly between Islam, Christianity, and African traditional religions.
Religious tolerance is crucial for peaceful coexistence—extremism and coercion should be
rejected in favor of mutual respect and understanding.