Music& Bridging Material & Living Cultures

Ritual Raquel Jiménez, Rupert Till and Mark Howell, eds.

Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology, Vol. 1

Music& Bridging Material & Living Cultures

Ritual Raquel Jiménez, Rupert Till and Mark Howell, eds.

Music & Ritual: Bridging Material & Living Cultures
Jiménez Pasalodos, Raquel / Till, Rupert / Howell, Mark (eds.)

Publications of the ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology, Vol. 1

Series Editor: Arnd Adje Both
Berlin: Ekho Verlag, 2013

394 pages with 78 figures, 4 tables and 2 charts

ISSN 2198-039X
ISBN 978-3-944415-10-9 (Series)
ISBN 978-3-944415-11-6 (Vol. 1)

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Printed: DDZ Berlin

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or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
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Funding Entity: Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad

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Ref: HAR2011-15090-E
 5

Contents

9
Introduction to the Series
Arnd Adje Both

15
Preface and Acknowledgments
Maria Antonia Virgily Blanquet / Juan Peruarena Arregui / Raquel Jiménez Pasalodos

17
Introduction
Ritual Music and Archaeology: Problems and Perspectives
Raquel Jiménez Pasalodos / Rupert Till / Mark Howell

25
The Round-Bodied Lute (Ruan) and the Ideal of the ‘Cultivated Gentleman’
in Fourth- to Eighth-Century Chinese Funerary Arts: A Preliminary Study
Ingrid Furniss

43
Divinized Instruments and Divine Communication in Mesopotamia
John C. Franklin

63
Sounds for Gods, Sounds for Humans: Triton Shell Horns in Phoenician and
Punic Contexts from the Western Mediterranean
Antonio M. Sáez Romero / José M. Gutiérrez López
6 Contents

93
Music and Death: Razors, Stelae and Divinities in the Punic Mediterranean
Agnès Garcia-Ventura / Mireia López-Bertran

117
Paestum: Ritual Music in Honour of the Dead
Daniela Castaldo

133
The Archaeoacoustics of a Sixth-Century Christian Structure: San Vitale,
Ravenna
David J. Knight

147
Acoustics, Architecture, and Instruments in Ancient Chavín de Huántar, Perú:
An Integrative, Anthropological Approach to Archaeoacoustics and Music
Archaeology
Miriam A. Kolar

163
The Flight of the Sorcerers: Sound, Power and Hallucinogens in Wari
Expansion Strategies during the Middle Horizon, Peru (ca. AD 500-900)
Mónica Gudemos

189
Membrane Drums as Cosmic Symbols and Shamanic Portals in the Shell Art
of Spiro, a Mississippian Mound Site in Oklahoma
James A. Rees, Jr.

209
Ethnoarchaeomusicology: Social Reproduction, Music (Sound Production)
and Ideology in the Rituals of Alutiiq and Yup’ik Societies
Jesús Salius Gumà
 Contents 7

227
Sound and Ritual in Levantine Art: A Preliminary Study
Margarita Díaz-Andreu / Carlos García Benito

257
Vaccean Rattles: Toys or Magic Protectors?
Carlos Sanz Mínguez / Fernando Romero Carnicero / Roberto De Pablo Martínez /
Cristina Górriz Gañán

285
The Ritual Significance of the Scandinavian Bronze Age Lurs:
An Examination Based on Ethnographic Analogies
Gjermund Kolltveit

307
A Shaman Drum Hammer from the Medieval City of Turku, Finland
Riitta Rainio

327
Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones
Zdravko Blažeković

345
Ritual and Symbolic Aspects of the Midwinter Horn in the Netherlands
Annemies Tamboer

359
The Return of Ritual: Sacred Popular Music Cultures and Cults
Rupert Till

389
Contributors to the volume
 327

Representations of Dance on
Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones

By Zdravko Blažeković

On the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in the adjacent regions of Serbia, Monte-
negro and Croatia, have been accounted over three thousand funeral places with a total of some
70,000 gravestones, known as stećci. Until recently, the prevailing opinion was that the stećci
were used by the followers of the Christian sect of Bogomils, a neo-Manichaean sect inspired by
the teaching of Mani, a reformer and prophet born in Babylon in AD 216. Newer evidence how-
ever indicates that these casket-shaped stone tombs were used also by the Serbian Orthodox and
Roman Catholics, and therefore should be seen as a regional cultural phenomenon. The stećci
emerged in the early 13th century and were carved by the local stonemasons until the early 16th
century with the utmost consistency and stability concerning their style and form. Stylistically
they follow Romanesque models which inspired a variety of symbolic and mystical decorative
elements, many of which remaining enigmatic. They can be classified into several categories
according to their function, artistic features, and subject matter (the crescent moon and the
sun, chivalrous tournaments and horsemen, hunting scenes, rosettes, vine leaves and grapes,
processions of deer, a man with his right hand raised). About 130 examples represent dancers
in different line formations consisting of up to twelve dancers, both male and female. Dancers
sometimes hold in their hand branches or flowers, and wear masks over their faces. Frequent are
tournament scenes combined with line of dancers, and also some scenes combine dancers with
a deer. Considering that both visual and textual sources
for medieval dances originating from this geographic area 1 The 1000 kuna banknote of the Independent
are extremely rare these representations are important State of Croatia from 1943 had on its obverse
testimonials about dance practices and its symbolism. the picture of a stećak, and post-World War
II Yugoslavia, as well as post-1991 Bosnia and
Herzegovina issued postage stamps with the
The phenomenon of medieval Bosnian and image of a stećak. Even when the Salzburger
Herzegovinian gravestones has held an iconic Nachrichten (24 July 1993), in the middle of the
place in the nation’s self-representation since the Bosnian war, was examining Bosnian claims to
1940s and they are often used today as a preferred its renewed statehood in the article “Sind die
marker reflecting Bosnian national identity.1 By its Bosnier eine Nation?” by Lujo Toncic-Sorinj,
the chosen illustrations provided along the ar-
ticle included a stećak and outlines of the seals
of the fourteenth-century Bosnian ban Stjepan
II Kotromanić and king Tvrtko I Kotromanić.
328 Zdravko Blažekovic

uniqueness, their art is today not only an easy marker for catching attention, but they
also relate the country—whose history has involved negotiating between the Islamic,
Eastern Orthodox, and Roman Catholic cultures—to its medieval pre-Islamic roots.
In vernacular, they are commonly called stećci (singular stećak). The distribution of
this type of gravestones geographically coincides with the widest extent of the medi-
eval Bosnian state and the duchy of Hum (present-day Herzegovina and Dalmatian
coast from Pelješac to the river Cetina) with influences present in the Dubrovnik
Republic, western Serbia and Montenegro. The tradition emerged in the early 13th
century and they were produced until the early 16th century with the utmost consist-
ency and stability exhibited in style and form. A survey from the 1980s identified
about 70,000 preserved gravestones of this type. In Bosnia and Herzegovina 59,539
gravestones were identified at 2,687 locations, in Croatia 4,447 at 247 locations, in
western Serbia 2,267 at 121 locations, and in Montenegro 3,049 at 107 locations
(Poklečki Stošić 2008: 17). It is estimated that their total number in medieval times
was about forty percent higher. There are probably two main reasons for their preser-
vation in such large numbers. Firstly, they are often placed at locations with difficult
access. Secondly they used to be associated with magic powers and beliefs, such as
that people who deface or destroy them will have misfortune for the rest of their
lives or will be attacked by a deadly illness, or that moving the stones will bring on a
powerful storm. Although they were carved in stone, the most durable material that
medieval sculptors had to work with, they are deteriorating and their ornaments are
sometimes hard to recognize today.
Regardless that the stećci have an iconic place in the collective memory of the
Bosnian (and Croatian) historical and cultural geography, and the bibliography
of writings about them is rather long, there has yet to be produced a satisfactory
synthesis of their stylistic features and of the changes which occurred on them over
the three centuries of their production. Most scholars studying them were concerned
with their topographical locations, description, and cataloguing (Bešlagić 1954;
1956; 1960a; 1960b; 1962; 1965; 1969; 1972). Only recently have convincing theories
explaining their origin been formulated, and scholarship has not produced the final
word about their cultural significance in medieval Bosnia and Hum.
In the mid-19th century a theory was put forward connecting them to a heretical
Christian sect, the Bogomils, and the Bosnian church, which developed in this region
since the 10th century. The Bogomils called for a return to early Christianity and a
 Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones 329

rejection of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. This argument was based on the theory that
the Bogomil sect spread in Bosnia and Herzegovina over the identical territory as the
gravestones, that the sect flourished roughly during the same period when the stones
were produced, and there were also found parallels between the iconography of the
gravestones and the religious believes of the Bogomils. However, the Bogomil sect was
also present in Bulgaria and Macedonia, where we do not find this type of sepulchral
architecture. Also, stećci can be found in the territory of the Dubrovnik Republic,
which did not tolerate Bogomils, and where most stones are located in the vicinity of
Roman-Catholic churches (Ivancich Dunin 2011: 58).
The second theory about the origin of the stećci is related to the Vlach popula-
tion. Also called the Morlachs, Vlachs were nomadic shepherds living in the western
Balkans, originating from the Romanized indigenous people of the ancient Roman
Illyrian provinces and newly settled Roman military veterans and colonists. Just like
the first theory, this one also has its supporters and opponents but lacks a sufficient
scientific basis. The archaeological excavations of graves situated beneath the stones
have yielded very few objects and little evidence about the status of buried people to
support such a theory.
Considering the historical, social, political and statistical indicators, it is today
clear that these grave markers belonged to social classes affiliated with all three faith
practices in medieval Bosnia and Hum—the Orthodox, the Catholic and the Bosnian
churches—with the stone’s shape, size, the extent of the decoration, artistic quality,
and iconography reflecting the social significance of the deceased and wealth of their
family. Persons from the highest social strata could have afforded large stones with
elaborate high-quality decorations; less wealthy members of the nobility may have
been buried under smaller stones modestly decorated, and persons with even less
resources to spend on their final resting place had a stone with just a simple sign or
even without any markings. The more ornamented stones are located in the vicinity
of fortified towns and courts, which had wealthier populations than remote villages
(Lovrenović 2011: 69). Lack of written historical sources from medieval Bosnia and
Hum, in addition to the anonymity and timelessness of these markers, today compli-
cate the contextualization and deconstruction of their iconography, making it diffi-
cult to understand the meaning of their symbolism in the funeral ritual practices.
As a group, the stećci represent among European sepulchral monuments the
transformational form between the early medieval anonymity of unmarked graves
330 Zdravko Blažekovic

Fig. 1 Stećak in Hudovo,

eastern Bosnia.

Fig. 2 Stećak in
Radimlje near Stolac,
eastern Herzegovina.
Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones 331

Fig. 3 Stećak of Herko

(Jerko) Kustružić, today on
the grounds of the Muzej
Hrvatskih Spomenika
in Split, Croatia.

Fig. 4 Stećak in
Brtonjice near the church
of St. Luka, Konavle near
Dubrovnik, Croatia.
332 Zdravko Blažekovic

Fig. 5 Stećak in Radimlje

near Stolac, eastern
Herzegovina.

Fig. 6 Stećak in
Borje-Klobuk, western
Herzegovina.
Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones 333

Fig. 7 Stećak in Radimlje near Stolac, eastern Herzegovina.

Fig. 8 Stećak in Boljuni near Stolac, eastern Herzegovina.

334 Zdravko Blažekovic

Fig. 9 a) Sir Geoffrey Luttrell on horseback leaving for tournament, sent off by his
wife and daughter-in-law. The Luttrell Psalter (English school, 1325–1335). Velum.
London, The British Library, MS Add. 42130, f. 202v. © The British Museum.
b) Stećak in Budimir near Trilj, Dalmatian hinterland, Croatia.
 Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones 335

and late medieval markers with their metaphoric portraits of the deceased. 2 It is
possible that precisely the illiteracy of individuals unable to self-represent themselves
with written epitaphs influenced the creation of iconographic concepts carved into
the stones, providing us with a rich visual legacy about Bosnian social life, religious
believes, and its chivalraic culture.
The stećci were carved by the native stonecutters, usually in the vicinity of the
cemetery itself. Considering their weight, sometimes reaching dozens of tons, their
distant transportation in rigid and mountainous terrain would be extremely diffi-
cult. From their carved signatures, thirty-four stonecutters known by name (locally
known as kovači ) have been identified. As medieval Bosnia was not a society of wide-
spread literacy, epitaphs appear infrequently (in today’s Herzegovina there are fewer
than 200 epitaphs).
There are several main types of stećci: the slab, the coffin-like shape, the sarcoph-
agus-like shape, the pillar stone, and the cross. In some burial places all forms appear
together, with the form depending on the wishes and the economic means of the
deceased and his family. The amount of decoration also varies a great deal because
obviously larger gravestones, with more intricate decorations were more expensive.
It is estimated that only less than ten percent of all gravestones, or about 4,000 of
them, have some kind of carved decoration (Škobalj 1970: 227), and the British art
historian Marian Wenzel published in 1965 their definitive catalogue (Wenzel 1965).
Many of these stones have decorative elements organized in the form of, what to us
appears as, abstract compositions. The simplest are architectural elements combined
with grape vine, rope, or spiral. Among the more complex figurative ornaments could
be included an apple, grape cluster and vine branches, a tree, a sword with shield, a
star, a crescent moon, a hand or arm, and animals (such as birds, deer, horses, dogs,
fish or snakes). These motives are usually repeated in the most stylized way, and prob-
ably did not have a heraldic role. While simple artistic compositions have decorative
ornamentation only along the top, more complex compositions are framed on all
sides giving the impression that they have been modeled upon manuscript illustra-
tions, which were at the time frequently presented within a frame articulating the
space on the page.
Iconographically the most complex representations involve a particular narra-
tive, and these usually concern three common aspects of chivalry: hunting, tourna-
ments, and riding. The hunter is shown mounted
2 The carving of the name on the grave’s mark-
er became in neighboring Dubrovnik obliga-
tory only in the first decades of the 15th century
(Petrović 1991: 129).
336 Zdravko Blažekovic

on a horse, holding a sword or throwing a spear or arrow at a deer, a wild boar or a

bear. He is sometimes assisted by a dog or hawk. In the tournament scenes knights
fight with spears or swords. Sometimes shown in their background is an architectural
detail or noble ladies observing the fight. There are also scenes showing a knight on
the horse led by his page, or a knight departing from a woman.
Dancers are represented in different formations ranging from what may be a
single dancer to line formations consisting of up to twelve dancers. They are shown
as full-length figures, holding hands at the shoulder height, with leading and ending
dancers having a free hand placed at the waist. Women wear long bell-like dresses,
and men short tunics with a belt tighten at the waist. The direction of the dance
movement is sometimes apparent from the placement of men’s feet, the way how they
bend their knees, or from the way how the women’s skirts are upraised.
These scenes are the earliest representations of dance from the South Slavic
areas, and ironically precisely these images make the medieval dance better docu-
mented than dance from the 16th century onwards, from which time we do not have
any visual sources. 3 However, such rich iconographic resources, in which images
are seemingly vivid and realistic, could be at the same time dangerously misleading
and puzzling. On one hand, most of their meaning and symbolism has been lost for
today’s viewers, while on the other, in designing their compositions stonecutters were
limited by the shape and size of the stone slab and possibilities of a hard material. In
sculpting the stones, they followed certain conventions, traditions, and established a
symbolism that we can interpret today with only a limited certainty. Therefore, it is
profoundly important in interpreting the iconography on the stones to keep in mind
both their symbolic and realistic nature, because it is too easy to make a mistake
and attribute realistic qualities to an image which has only symbolic meaning, and
possibly could even reflect an imaginary vision of the afterlife. A single person with a
raised open hand might appear to us as a dancer and some scholars have interpreted
it in that way, but such an image was a frequent
topos on the stones and so instead of the dancer
3 Authors provide different numbers of dance
images on stećci. Bešlagić (1987: 2) mentioned we might have here an image where the artist
“over 130 examples”, Ivancich Dunin (2011: 56) followed certain symbology and conventions.
“approximately 132”; Wenzel (1965: 352-359) Similarly, a man and a woman holding hands
provided 122 reproductions; and Krstonijević might be a dancing couple, but the composition
(1999: 25), referring only to Bosnian grave- could be as well a portrait of the couple buried at
stones, said that “among 176 dance scenes 148
motifs show compositions of three to eleven
dancers”.
 Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones 337

the site (Fig. 1). Looking at the stone showing two couples side by side, we are unsure
whether this is a static image of a male couple contraposed with a female couple
separated by a decorative ornament, or whether the artist used an open perspective
showing two couples dancing face-to-face (Fig. 2)?
The composition of a man leading three women behind could be seen as a dance
group, but also as a representation of the deceased followed by his wife and daugh-
ters (Fig. 3). A formation of four persons together is frequently represented, but it
is unclear that all such representations show dancers. Some dancing groups consist
only of women, and some are mixed male and female. Finally, we have representa-
tions of longer line formations, where dance movement can be clearly recognized,
consisting of alternating dancers of both gender, or lines made-up of the same
gender, in what appears to be a scene of dancers facing each other (Fig. 4). Dancers
sometimes hold in their hands branches or flowers, and wear masks over their faces
(Fig. 5). The end dancer frequently appears to be facing the line, which would indi-
cate that the dancers are moving in an open circular form.
Although today we have to be aware that the stones were exposed to the elements
for at least six hundred years and that representations certainly did include more
details when they were made, carved figures were always presented with an extreme
simplification, verging sometimes on abstraction. It is clear that medieval Bosnian
stonecutters intended to show to (mostly illiterate) passers-by the symbolic side
of their universe. Nevertheless, even taking all such ambiguities of interpretation
into a consideration, these symbolic representations can provide plenty of evidence
about individual and collective life and daily activities; sometimes combined with
epitaphs underlining the eschatological concerns of medieval Bosnians. Looking
at figures in present-day traditional dances we can find certain parallels with
the postures of the single female or a couple shown on stones—as Elsie Ivancich
Dunin has recently done—but we should not forget also a possibility that these
postures might be a result of artistic or symbolic conventions rather than realistic
representations of dance movements.4 Counting
the dancers shown on the gravestones is just as 4 Elsie Ivancich Dunin has interpreted several
counterproductive not only because stonecutters such compositions as showing dancers; for ex-
were limited in their designs by the size and shape ample, a couple on the tombstone at Hudovo
of the stone slab and guided by their artistic in Herzegovina (2011: 65, Fig. 3.5), or a man
visions, but also because in a chain dance any with his raised opened hands accompanied by
smaller figures on each of his side on the tomb-
stone from Radimlje in Herzegovina (2011: 66,
Fig. 3.7).
338 Zdravko Blažekovic

number of participants can usually join in.5

The negotiation between realism and symbolism is particularly apparent in
complex compositions where perspective is achieved through the superimposition
of different horizontal sections. A tournament scene with a line of dancers suggests
a scene occurring in front of us, but such reading of the image is deceptive because
the composition might be a composite of elements organized by their symbolic
significance, particularly since the dancers appear the next time wearing masks
(Fig. 6). A different kind of the visual symbiosis between natural and supernatural
comes in representations of dancers combined with deer, which could be a line of
dancers led by a stag (Fig. 7), a man mounted on the stag’s back (Fig. 8) or some other
combination.
The stag is a frequent element on stones and it is apparent that its symbolic func-
tion is significant in the eschatological context although it is not clear how we should
read it. Its rich symbolism can be traced in European cultures back to prehistoric times
and spans pagan to Christian practices. Its Judaeo-Christian symbolism emerging
from Psalm 42:1 is well known—“As a deer longs for flowing streams, so my soul
longs for you, O God”—and indeed, there is a gravestone with iconography which we
could read precisely against this attribute: the stećak in Mesići, north of Goražde, in
southeastern Bosnia (Bihalji-Merin/Benac 1962: Figs. 8-9). However, the appearance
of a stag in the context of sepulchral dance should not be interpreted in terms of
Judaeo-Christian symbolism but rather referring to pagan traditions that existed on
a parallel track. Christianity was introduced gradually into the region between the 7th
and the 12th century and it was mainly the religion of the elite flourishing in urban
centers. Amongst the rural majority, old Slavic myths continued to remain strong.
The Serbian archaeologist Dragoslav Srejović
5 Concerning the stećci in the Dubrovnik area, traced the cult of deer in southeastern Europe back
Ivancich Dunin (2011: 71) writes “the range of to the Paleolithic era. He explained that the deer
dancers on a single stone extends from one to acquired a special relationship with the soul of the
twelve. If this is representative of a past real-
deceased by guiding it to the afterworld, and this
ity, it suggests a maximum of twelve dancers
participating at any one time. This is relatively reading is congruent with the sepulchral iconog-
a small number of participants, but it is indeed raphy on stećci (Srejović 2001). In southern Serbia
possible this number does represent reality for and Macedonia, dancers with masks featuring deer
both the past and the present because of the horns traditionally performed for the health of the
population numbers and the physical environ- people and cattle (Knežević 1969).
ment in which dancing occurs.” Ivancich Dunin
argues that the topography in the Dubrovnik
area does not leave large open spaces to accom-
modate larger formations of dancers.
 Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones 339

It is clear that the dance iconography here has significant and archetypal
symbolic meaning, but not all images fall in the same category and we wonder if
they show a courtly performance, or a robust exuberant dance associated with old
Slavic rural rituals, or maybe even a heavenly kolo (traditional circle dance) reserved
exclusively for the blessed people? Is the circular form of the Slavic kolo—which could
not have been shown in such form on the stones although the position of the dance
leader sometimes indicates that the dance is moving in a circle—a metaphor for the
perpetual life cycle eternally repeating itself and returning to the primordial state of
perfection? Could such round dance have a symbolic relation with fertility rituals
that have a central place in the Slavic ritual calendar? All of these questions will
possibly remain unanswered since there are no medieval Bosnian texts or parallel
artworks that could be used as referential indicators to help resolve them. The only
clues could possibly point to some rituals still practiced in the region, particularly in
southeastern Serbia, although we should always keep in mind that in adopting these
modern-day rituals to interprete ancient dances means we are spanning the many
hundreds of years that separate the former from the gravestones.
Today, dance is still part of commemorative ceremonies for the deceased among
the Serbian and Vlach peoples. In southwestern Serbia, the region adjacent to Herze-
govina, and an area that also has preserved stećci, people perform in commemorative
celebrations for the deceased. The dance called sitan tanac (small dance) performed
here, has in its first part the purpose to help the soul of the deceased join other
ancestral souls, while in its second part to protect the participants from evil forces.
With this dance, the relatives of the deceased are establishing a connection with
the world of the dead. Its steps are simple; the dancers move in a double rhythm,
and the line progresses in the direction contrary to the usual chain dance, which is
what gave the dance its alternative name kolo naopako (retrograde kolo). The dance
is performed with a vocal accompaniment not called singing (pjevanje), but rather
counting (brojanje). It is possible that the sitan tanac originated from the ritual called
tužba (grieving), also performed during the funeral ceremonies in the area, in which
the participants have an opportunity to grieve collectively. This ritual consists of a
procession in which the flag bearer is followed by women related to the deceased
and then by other relatives. The procession circles in slow steps several times around
the grave, but it could also be around the deceased’s hat, the socks he used to ware
to the market fair, his weapon, or in special circumstances around his horse. In the
340 Zdravko Blažekovic

more recent times it is also performed around the photograph of the deceased or even
circulating around the woman performing a lament. In all of these performances, the
fundamental idea of movement is circling (Vasić 2004). In a different version of the
sitan tanac, performed also in southwestern Serbia and in Herzegovina during the
Carnival night, the dancers move through the arches formed by the raised arms of
other dancers, and this way weave and unweave their chain. The motive of walking
under the raised arms is considered the symbol of rebirth and renewal (Zečević 1961).
The masks worn by the dancers and flowers which they hold in their hands (Figs.
5-6) might signal parallels with the recent Carnival customs in southeastern Europe
in which the participants wear costumes resembling animals. This origin is appar-
ently tied to ancient religious and mythological concepts. The ancient zoolatric cults
believed that man after his death turns into its totem, and that the animal costume
and the mask, in some circumstances, symbolize his ancestors. Such a relationship
between the mask and ancestor cult has been documented in many archaeological
excavations in the Mediterranean area, but also among areas inhabited by the Celts
and Germans. The ancestors wear masks to attract new inhabitants for their kingdom,
to lead children into adulthood, or to transfer to their descendants the knowledge,
power, or skills which will make them recognized in society. Therefore zoomorphic
masks in Carnival processions could be viewed as dance and music of the afterworld
(Lozica 2007: 205).
Among the images of dance shown on gravestones, not one shows a musician, but
their absence is not a critical factor in determining whether the representation shows
dance or not. Unlike the dance shown in wall paintings of Serbian medieval churches,
which involve a significant amount of realism, images on gravestones have highly
symbolized meanings, and musicians may not have been important in such context.
The other reason could be that a relatively significant number of dances of the Dinaric
people have been performed without instruments or only with vocal accompaniment.
In the mid-20th century forty types of kolo were identified in the area without music
accompaniment. These were known as nemo kolo (silent or mute kolo), in which only
jingling jewelry on women’s chests provided the aural accompaniment. Their number
increased to seventy-eight types by the end of the century (Vasić 2005: 13).
I do not want to imply here that scenes of dance are related exclusively to pagan
customs, or a mixture of pagan and Christian traditions, and I would like to bring
into focus again the frequent chivalry scenes. For some social or religious groups
 Representations of Dance on Late-Medieval Bosnian Gravestones 341

dance might have meant mystic departure from the terrestrial life, but for others it
could be a snapshot of favorite courtly activities of the deceased. These images also
represent symbolic gates where the earthly and otherworldly lives meet, and could
not only be a projection of the deceased’s eschatological expectations but also an
image in which his or her earthly life is transposed to memoria left behind for the
family and friends. In the negotiation between the eschatological and the commemo-
rative aspects of one’s life, the sepulchral markers used are supposed to reflect on
the stećci related to the Bosnian chivalric culture the commemorative side has won.
Here, the iconography on these stećci does not focus on the Christian symbolism
about the salvation. The dance does not have memento mori qualities of the medieval
dance of death. The knight is not shown in his eternal sleep waiting for his resur-
rection, but he is still present in action. The anonymous Bosnian knight—sitting on
a horse with his wife passing to him his lance and shield—was remembered with
almost identical memento composition as was Sir Geoffrey Luttrell (1276–1345) in the
famous psalter produced by the English school in 1325–1335 (Figs. 9a-b). At the two
opposite geographical sides of Europe, chivalric archetypes were identical. In a way,
the philosophy of the chivalric stećci iconography comes closer to Roman sepulchral
markers picturing the deceased’s biography, often showing his or her portrait and
items identifying his or her occupation, than to Christian markers, which are weighed
down by the eschatological story of resurrection and salvation. This has changed only
in rare cases when the stone also bears an epitaph, among which we do find religious
formulas, references to hope in salvation, and moral messages.
As we have already pointed out, what makes this iconography particularly hard
to interpret is that we are dealing with profoundly unique compositions, originating
from a time when we have no written sources, a time that could directly situate them
within the cosmological and religious beliefs of their creators. Also, contemporaneous
architectural objects or artworks which would supplement their iconography are
extremely rare. For the most part we have lost from our collective memory references
to the symbolism these images bear, and without knowing the boundaries between
their symbolism, mythology, and cosmology, we can only understand their realistic
traits up to a point.
342 Zdravko Blažekovic

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