CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

Literature is a word that has a lot of interpretations and meanings. It is a collection of

artistic work in written form which is considered to be a work of art. In an attempt to
produce newer experiences, Literature explains the past that focuses on its culture, tradition,
other important aspects and background of a place or generation. The highly recognized
artistic values of literature are imagination and creative writing. Literature is a collection
of prose, poetry, novels, short stories, novellas, fiction and dramas. In the recent century,
some forms like autobiographies, essays, diaries, and letters have also been acknowledged
and their prominence as a form of literature is accepted worldwide. In general, literature
is the mirror of life or the overall path of knowledge and experience throughout life in all
aspects. The main aim of literature is to transmit knowledge from one generation to the other.
Literature includes love, sorrow, pain, sufferings and overall characteristics of an individual
throughout the life. It is completely different from history in its form, source, knowledge
and characteristics. According to Hudson [2015], “Literature is a vital record of what men
have seen in life, what they have experienced of it, what they have thought and felt about
those aspects of it which have the most immediate and enduring interest for all of us”.
The word literature is derived from the Latin word ‘Literatura’ which means “learning,
writing, grammar”. In spite, the term is common for spoken or sung texts. The development
of printing technology leads to an ever-growing form of literature and now it has stepped
into a technological era of digital form. During the end of the twentieth century, oral genres
are kept as a part of the literature worldwide and it is termed Oral literature. Oral literature
is considered to be the oldest form of literature. Emezue [2018] states that the term oral
literature has been variously referred as folklore, folk literature, oral narrative, traditional
literature and orature.
According to Griffith [2010], “There are enough mysterious elements in the literature
to make a complete definition impossible. Most critics who tried to define it, however, agree
on a few common elements”. Creators of literature use language in a special way, a way
different from that of scientists or the common men. They use language connotative and

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short for their expression and emotional qualities. Another quality of literature is that it
gives pleasure to the readers. The quality of aesthetics cannot be explained or described
perfectly by anyone but could be felt by everyone. In a good work of art, all the elements
are combined by order and coherence which make the readers fancy over literature.
In literature, the voice of the writer is expressive. During the beginning of the
twentieth century, Literature transformed into a vehicle of expression concerning struggle,
pain, sufferings and identity crisis faced by a section of people. Literature was used as a
powerful weapon against the oppressors and on the patriarchal society. Pen is mightier than
sword and hence, Literature voices the voiceless and breaks the fences constructed in the
patriarchal society in the name of a class, colour and so on. According to Albrecht [1954],
“Literature is interpreted as reflecting norms and values as reflecting norms and values, as
revealing the ethos of class struggle, and certain types of social facts”. Literature is a deep
ocean in which one never fails to notice the Aboriginal, Dalit, Black, Indigenous, and women
writings coming to the forefront.
Literature is true though the works of literature are fictional. Literature can be faithful
to the facts of reality, as in descriptive prose and poetry. The main work of literature
is to make an imaginary world in which it deals with how the real world works. The
interpretations of the real-world in literatures are subjective because the writers themselves
express their point of view about the world. Literature is affective because it evokes the
emotion of the readers. According to Miller [2003], “Literature is a part of our basic human
needs to create imaginary worlds and to have stories”. Some writers make the readers more
emotional towards discrimination, marginalization and so on. The readers might not have
experienced with such issues directly but the writers trigger the consciousness of the readers
and make them voice against those issues. Literature leads to a developed society. The
writers dream of a society which is peaceful with joy, truth and love for life. The writers
induce their idea on the readers with their literary experience. Literature makes the readers
empathetic which results in their better understanding of the world.
Ancient Sumerian Literature was considered to be the world’s oldest literature. It
includes poems, hymns, prayers and tales which are written in the form of verse. In between
the time of the twenty sixth and the twenty second BC, the themes mainly focused on
great people like warriors, kings and prominent administrative officials. The ancient Greek
Literature was in the form of oral literature. Homer’s epic poetry, ‘Michael Gagarin’ was
widely performed on the stages in front of the distant audience. The folklores and legends

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were enacted on the stage; the actors would create characters according to the locality. Greek
and Roman ritualistic and religious tradition were transmitted in the form of oral literature.
The native North Americans are good at oral literature, and the art of storytelling
flourished in a context without any written form. Some of the oral stories fuse with the
tribal experience in moral, social, psychological and environmental issues. The plots were
completely related to the real-life situation and without any exaggeration. They used a story
to teach and make aware their children of good and bad. In early China, literature was
broadly based on agriculture, poetry, prayers and scriptures. China is noted for making
paper and woodblock printing. After the invention of paper, Chinese literature flourished to
its peak. Ancient Chinese literature mainly focused on military science and historiography.
In Europe, the theological works in the language of Latin were the dominant form of
literature. It includes western philosophy, epics and other forms of literature. In the medieval
period, fiction became more popular in Europe. Fiction consisted of themes like romances,
adventures and sometimes magical elements like angels and fairies. Controversy in religion,
politics and morality were themed by the European writers after the invention of the printing
press by Gutenberg. The medieval romances were later shifted into novels and novellas. In
Australia, aboriginal literature relied upon oral literature and history that passed on from
generation to generation. The literature from Australia, at present mostly, seems to be the
same genre seen in European countries.
In India, literature started from oral narration which included stories, poems and
prayers. It was transmitted from one generation to the other by the Gurukula system of
schooling. Early genres included fables, hymns, mantras and dramas. Sanskrit literature
of India began in the Vedic period during 1500 B.C. The period between the sixth and the
first century B.C., India witnessed two great epics Mahabaratha and Ramayana. Other major
works of the first-century B.C. were Ramacharithmanas and Krishnacharitmanas. In the
modern era, India focuses upon a variety of literature for instance Karisal, Transgender etc.,
which originates from the states of Tamilnadu and Maharashtra respectively. The art of
translation makes the Indian works reach global audience.

1.2 INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

Indian writing in English is unique literature written by Indian writers who have their
ancestral background in India. The history of Indian Writing in English is vast and deep

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rooted. According to Prasad [2005], “In Indian tradition of art and literature, poets and
artists are very close to yoga. In order to create great work of art, they had to pass through
the various rigorous steps of yoga”. In the beginning, the works of literature from India
were in Sanskrit. English was introduced by the British during their reign as the East
India Company. They introduced English as a communicative language to equip Indians
to help them in business and trade. Singh [2012a] states that “Indian writers by and large
have sincerely endeavoured to express a modern Indian personality through their works.
However, Indian Writing in English had the same origin as the other modern literatures,
though; of course the foreign elements in it may seem to be more obvious, more pronounced
than in the latter”. The first generation writers of Indian Writing in English are Rabindranath
Tagore and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. Rabindranath Tagore translated his work Gitanjali
into English from Bengali and Chatterjee wrote the first English novel Rajmohan’s Wife. The
first generation writers focused on the themes of spirituality, culture, tradition and patriotism.
The first generation writers were followed by Mulk Raj Anand, who made a famous
masterpiece Untouchable, and Raja Roa who wrote Kanthapura. They relied upon the
themes of social issues like caste system, religious issues, gender issues and problems of
women in the constructive patriarchal society. R.K.Narayan, Raja Rao and Mulk Raj Anand
are considered to be the famous trio in Indian English Writing who have contributed to Indian
fiction. The fictions of Indian writers focus on the exploration of ideas and the contemporary
issues faced by the people in the society. The women fictional writers have contributed to
the growth of creative writing in English. The works are strong with cultural and traditional
heritage, geographical elements and indigenous flavour of Indian land.
After the independence, Indian Writing in English has been accepted as a part of Indian
Literature. The Post-Independence writings are famous for the themes of patriotism, culture
and development. It is true to accept the fact that Indian Writing in English has failed to
represent the culture of India in the work of art. In the mid of 1980’s, Indian Writing in
English was represented as post-colonial literature. At present, it is refined and termed as
Indian Literature in English. According to Shukla [2010], “on literature by colonized people
which attempts to articulate their identity and reclaim their past in the face of that past’s
inevitable”. The twentieth-century writers like Salman Rushdie, Sashi Tharoor, Amartya
Sen and many other elite groups have contributed a lot to Indian Literature.
Indian Literature in English has the ability to attract the world literature for its style,
concept, themes and ideologies. A work of art in Indian Literature could represent the

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entire background of the locality, culture, tradition and daily routine of the people. Indian
writers are keen on mentioning all the unique details in their writings. The women writers
in Indian Literature are the pioneers of creativity in literature. They represent the condition
of women in Indian patriarchal society. The women writers have influenced the women of
Indian society by their feminist ideology. According to Yadav [2012]; “Women in modern
India have now emerged from the dark recesses of their haveli and have managed to come
out from Purdah. In the development of Indo-Anglian novel, the feminine sensibility has
achieved an imaginative self-sufficiency which merits recognition in spite of its relatively
later manifestation. All these realities about women in India today are reflected in the
contemporary Indian fiction in English”. Social change is initiated by them through their
writing. The Women writers deliver the issue faced by the women with clarity and the
reader could understand who a woman is and what her roles are in society as well as in the
family. Kumar [2012] says that “What women writers write is not a presentation of just
figment of their imagination; it is rather a presentation of their real life situation”. Indian
women writers stick upon their traditional values on the other hand they want women to
be active participants in society. Considerably, Indian writers are against the influence of
Westernization in India. They consider that their traditional culture represents equality to
women and it was changed only after various invasions happened in India. Feminism,
Cultural Studies, Travelogues, Eco-criticism are the new theory inculcated by the Indian
writers.
Indian Writing in English has developed into various dimensions. Tribal Literature,
Indigenous Studies, Karisal Literature, Transgender Literature, Dalit Literature, Climate
Literature, Green Literature, Aquatic Literature, Third World Literature are some of their
forms. It has a sense of bringing down all the issues in society. India is a land with
various and vivid people living in unity. There are various issues related to gender, family,
environment, and ecology represented and discussed in Modern Indian Literature in English.
It also paves a way for all the issues at the right dimension. The novels, fictions, poems,
epics, novella, and other forms achieved their importance in Indian Literature in English in
post-independent era. According to Singh [2012b], “The novel owes its origin to the West.
As a result of Indo-British contact it came to India and stimulated the Indian literary genius
in the second half of nineteenth century”.
The art of translation made a great impact on the field of literature. Indian Literature
in English also enjoyed this impact with the sudden leap of the works from various Indian

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languages getting translated into English. The entire universe is looking towards the artistic
works of Indian writers after translation. The themes, creativity and style have impressed the
entire world. The realistic life portrayed by the Indian writers is purely natural and there is no
place for fancy narration. The artistic works from Tamil Nadu, Kerala, North Eastern states
have made Indian Writing in English reach its zenith. The famous Thirukural was translated
into many European languages. The art of translation has shown that the Indian works are
not only for the Indian subcontinent but for the entire world. It teaches the importance of
tradition and morality to the world. In recent years, many Indian writers are appointed as
lecturers in European countries as well as in America for their artistic writing style. This is
the witness for the effectiveness of Indian Literature in English. In the recent years, Tribal
Literature gets more attention in the Indian literary arena. Tribal literature focuses on tribal
culture and its uniqueness with ecological consciousness. It also gives more importance on
climate change, environmental distress, global warming and pollution.

1.3 TRIBE

The word ‘tribe’ is derived from the Roman word ‘tribus’ which means a political group
or section and it has been used to refer to a social group of people living in a territory they
occupy. Later, the word tribe was used to denote primitive people who live in a group and
a group having common ancestors with common cultural and traditional practice. In the
modern era, the term tribe is used to refer to indigenous or aboriginal people of a particular
area or territory. This term came into existence during the colonial rule to differentiate and
manage records of the indigenous people of different countries. Tribal communities are a
group of people who lead their life along with nature. The tribal people follow a specific
culture and tradition which they learned from their ancestors. In the past, they survived
only in the forest like nomads. At present, the tribes are scattered around different places
across the globe and they have been living in hills, dense forests, and villages. Even in
this technological world, they love to stay away from modern development, science and
technology. In general ideology, the tribes are the natives of the world who rely upon nature
for their daily needs.
According to Oxford dictionary “A Tribe is a group of people in a primitive or
barbarous stage of development acknowledging the authority of a chief and usually regarding
themselves as having a common ancestor”. According to Majumdar [1967], “A Tribe is a

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social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no specialization of functions,
ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognizing
social distance with other tribes or castes, without any social obloquy attaching to them,
as it does in the caste structure, following tribal traditions, beliefs and customs, illiberal of
naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and
territorial integration”.

1.3.1 Tribal Literature - An Overview

The tribal literature expresses its views on the culture, tradition and art of tribal people
worldwide. It is referred by various names in different countries. In American and the
European countries, it is termed as Native Literature, Slave Literature, Black Literature and
Coloured Literature. After the colonial impact in the African continent, African-American
Literature became well-known and could be termed under tribal literature. In African
continent, tribal literature is termed as Black Literature and in Australia, it is known as
Aboriginal Literature. In the field of English literature, it is termed First People Literature or
Primitive Literature. In the Asian context, it is commonly known as Tribal folk or Classical
Literature. In India, it is known as Adivasi Literature. It is a literature of exposing the past
and present tribal generations, resisting modern inventions, forms of exploitation from the
civilized majority, and the threat of tribal identity and existence. It offers the global audience
the past traditional knowledge with a notion of preserving the old form of literature. Tribal
literature explicitly depicts the image of the tribal culture and tradition and the naturalistic
style of living. It also discusses the prolonged emotional journey of tribal citizens through
exploitation. According to Baral [2005], tribal literature re-examines tribe and non-tribe
relationship, tribal developmental policies, missionaries and conversion, myths and legends,
art and craft.
Tribal literature is a difficult concept to be defined and its characteristics are
unpredictable. Every nation has a variety of tribes and each one is different from the
other. The oral narration and the culture of tribes are based on the landscape. In the
African continent, some tribes are nomadic in their lifestyle. These types of tribes follow a
variety of lifestyle which are incalculable. According to Southall [1970], “tribal literature
is politically autonomous with its own distinctive language, culture and sense of identity
and tribal religion”. Tribal culture is rich in art, dance, songs and prayers. Tribal literature
can be classified as ‘Nature’s Literature’ because tribal life and the presence of nature are

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inseparable.
In the modern era, the term tribal literature is referred to as the work of art including
folklores, oral narratives, prayers, songs and cultural practices of the tribal community.
Every country is rich with its heritage of tribal literature or Indigenous literature. Tribal
literature of the past is completely oral. Even now in countries like India, some tribal
languages do not have a written form. The cultural knowledge is transmitted from the elders
to the young vocally without any scripts. In general, oral tradition is a way of life and it
is a base for people’s literature, cultural norms, social behaviour and a total sum of human
experience. In the modern era, tribal literature gets its prominence only after the oral stories
got published into written scripts. The tribal literature got universalized after the work of
art got translated into various languages. Tribal literature includes the theme of culture,
tradition, ecological concern and the sufferings of tribes in the modern era.

1.3.2 Tribal Literature in Indian Scenario

In the Indian context, the term ‘tribe’ has been put forward by the colonial administrators
under the Government of India. It is framed to identify the people who do not come under the
caste system. These groups are isolated from the mainstream and they are completely away
from the rest in terms of cultural and ritual practices. According to Vidyarthi and Rai [1977],
the tribes are classified by their regional names as follows, “Vanayajati (castes of the forest),
Vanvasi (inhabitants of the forest), Pahari (hill dwellers), Adimjati (original communities),
Adivasi (first settlers), Janjati (folk people), Anusuchit Janjati (Schedule tribe), and so on.
Among these terms, Adivasi is known most extensively, and Anusuchit Janjati Scheduled
Tribes is the constitutional name covering all of them.
India is the country which has a huge mass of tribal community than any other country
in the world. In India, 8.6 percentage of the total population consists of tribal people (Census
2011). All the tribal sections are classified under a single term ‘Schedule tribe’ and the
region where they live are termed as ‘Scheduled areas’. Andhra, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Bihar, Goa, Maharashtra, Manipur, Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Mizoram, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Odisha, Sikkim and Uttar Pradesh are the states rich in tribal population and they
are classified under the Constitution of India. The government has been providing various
reservation and other steps of welfare for the tribal community. There are some acts to
prevent the tribes from exploitation and other means of chaotic issues.
The tribes of India are heterogeneous as they are different from other mainstream

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society. They are different in culture, language, tradition and rituals. Tribes can easily
be differentiated from the other sections of society by their daily routine and cultural
practice. Tribal clan believes Mother Nature is their primary God and they believe in some
supernatural elements. Each clan in India is different in their ethnicity and they are different
in physical appearance. In cultural practice, every tribal clan follows a different cultural
practice inherited from their ancestors. All the tribes of India are common in their naturalistic
perspective of living. The tribal society as a whole considers serving nature is like serving
God.
The tribes have been the continuous history of alienation, marginalization, exploitation
and dispossession by the non-tribal majority and they have been neglected in the history
of India for years. After the independence of India, there was a new beginning for the
people especially the marginalized. They wanted to ensure themselves in the development
of the newly democratic country. Khanna [2008] opines that in the constitution assembly,
the first Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru has promised that “adequate
safeguards shall be provided for minorities, backward and tribal areas, and depressed and
other backward classes”. The promises given are still as they are; there is no change among
the Adivasi communities. They are subjected to sufferings even though the socio-economic
status of the country had a desirable change. The mainstream people are not conscious about
the road to the culture, art, tradition, language and political rights of the Adivasi community.
The Adivasis are the victims of colonization, democracy and developmental policies of
the government. Governmental policies such as hydroelectric projects, conservative projects
in the name of wildlife and national park, mining, tourism projects etc. victimize these
people. The policies which are profit-oriented displace the Adivasi’s from their native
homeland. They are left behind in the hands of an unwelcoming society where they are
forced to be bonded labourers. The present tribal works focus upon the themes of ecology,
environment, culture, tradition and issues in the globalized world. The art of tribal or
traditional medicine is universalized for its quick remedy without any side effects. Many
writers have requested the mainstream to obtain some ideologies of the tribal community for
successful progress on environmental issues.
According to Shah [2005], “One would not have a complete sense of Indian Literature
without the knowledge of folklore”. The tribal literature in India is in the form of lamenting
over the lost glory of the past. All the writers portray the experience of their ancestors
towards the modern world. In the past, they lived happily along with nature and there was no

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discrimination. In the modern world, natural resources are exploited and the tribal folks are
discriminated based on their living and culture. The writers bring out the myths, legends and
other folk narratives in the fictional form to make Indian Tribal Literature reach the level of
universal acceptance. At present, Indian scholars have accepted the Eco-critical perspective
of tribal writings by giving importance of one’s own identity and culture. Indian Tribal
Literature inhibits the solution for modern issues and sorting the way towards the glorifying
future.

1.3.3 Issues Faced by Indian Tribes

Indian tribes are subjected to face various issues in the global world. Some of the issues are;

i. Land Alienation

ii. Enforced Migration

iii. Climatic Changes

iv. Cultural Discrimination

v. Developmental Programmes

vi. Identity Crisis

vii. Cultural Displacement

viii. Lack of Education

ix. Health and Nutrition

x. Tourism

xi. Exploitation

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN TRIBES

According to Hasnain [2017], due to the multiplicity of factors and complexity of problems
involved, it is not very easy to classify the Indian tribes into different groups. Keeping this
aim in mind, the state governments were asked to suggest the characteristics which seemed
to be the most suitable in distinguishing the so-called “aboriginal” groups from the rest of
the population”. The governments of different states made a deep analysis and suggested

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their opinions on tribal classification. Some of the important classifications are linguistic,
geographical, economical, religious and so on. Among these, geographical and religious
classifications are the most welcomed because these two factors determine the entire culture
and traditional background of the tribes.

1.4.1 Geographical Classification

The geographical classification is divided into four sections,

i. The Southern Zone

ii. The Central or Middle Zone

iii. The North or North Eastern Zone

iv. The Island Zone

The Southern Zone includes the region which is located towards the south of the
Krishna River to Cape Comorin. It includes Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Telangana, etc. Kanikkar, Mala Arayar, Kadar, Malakuravan, etc., are the most
primitive tribes of India and they inhabitated the dense forest along with the ranges in Kerala.
The slopes of Coorg hills are inhabitated by Irula, Paniyan and Kurumba. The groups like
Toda, Badaga and Kota live in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. The tribes of the Southern Zone
mostly rely upon agriculture, fishing and hunting. They believe in nature and ancestral
worship. The issues faced by tribes of this zone are climatic change, forced migration and
illiteracy.
The Central Zone consists of plateaus and mountains which include the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Maharastra, Rajasthan, Bihar, etc. The important
tribes of this zone are Juang, Kharia, Kond, Paraja and Bhiya of Orrisa. Chotanagpur plateau
is the place of Santhal, Munda, Oraon and Ho. In the Vindhya ranges, Gond is the largest
group and so the location is named Gondwan land. Baiga, Muria, Agaria and Pardhan
live around the Satpura ranges. The tribes of this zone are notable for shift cultivation.
The communities like Munda, Santhal and Gond are good at plough cultivation which has
resulted from their cultural contact with the rural population. They believe in ancestral
worship and most of the communities of this zone worship a goddess in the form of Devi.
The issues faced by these groups are displacement, human trafficking and so on.

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 The Northern Zone consists of the Himalayan region and the mountainous regions of
eastern India. Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal are
the parts of this zone. The Naga tribes of Nagaland are the most prominent tribe of the
northern zone. Kuki, Lukashi, Tharu, Bhoksa, Raji are some of the tribes on the eastern
frontier. This geographical zone is much vaster than the other and the population of tribes
is low when compared to other zones. The tribes of this zone follow terrace cultivation or
shifting cultivation. They worship nature and their ancestors. Polygamy is common in this
zone. Hunting and food gathering from the forest is their cultural practice. The problems
faced by the tribes are poverty, alienation of land, and illiteracy. Moreover, language barrier
makes it difficult to communicate with them which segregate them from the rest of the world.
This zone is much affected during the British colonial rule and its impact could be sensed
still now.
The Island Zone comprises the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal
and Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea. The main tribes of this region are Jarawa,
Sentinelese, Great Andamanese, Onge, Nicobari, etc. Sentinelese is a clan that lives in
Northern Sentinel islands which never allow any invaders to enter into their territory. They
attack the intruders with arrows and stones till death. Hence, the Indian government has
banned visitors to North Sentinel Island. The tribes of this zone rely upon hunting, fishing
and honey collecting for their livelihood. They lack the knowledge on agriculture. Most of
the tribal clans of this zone are naked. They are classified under the most uncivilized clans
of the Indian sub-continent. The common threat of this zone is that all the tribal clans are
slowly getting extinct.

1.4.2 Religious Classification

The major religions of India have influenced tribal beliefs. The tribes, who blindly follow
their native religious belief with purity, are still living in the dense forest without any social
relationship with the civilized. In Indian context, nearly ninety percent of the tribes have
adopted Hinduism as their religion. Christianity has been adopted by six percent. The tribes
who follow Islam, Buddhism and Jainism are very least in number. Even though the tribes
have adopted a religion, Hasnain [2017] says that “the major religions have not shed their
local tribal beliefs and rituals and many of them are found to be practising their traditional
faith along with their acquired faith”. The tribal clans in the island zone are influenced by
Islam. In the northeastern zone, Christianity is the major religion acquired by the tribes.

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The impact of Buddhism is seen only in the Himalayan region and Jainism is seen only in
Arunachal Pradesh.

1.5 RENOWNED WRITERS OF INDIAN TRIBAL LITERATURE

Mamang Dai is a notable tribal writer from Arunachal Pradesh. She was an IAS officer of
1979 batch but left her job for pursuing her ambition to be a journalist. She has written many
articles in journals and newspapers. She is a social worker, journalist, and writer. She voices
the North-Eastern regions through her writing style and techniques. Her works focus upon
the agony, sufferings and resistance of the tribal people of North Eastern Zone. The themes
of exploitation, culture, ecology and environment, nature and traditional beliefs are discussed
in her novels. In her works, she has highlighted the culture, tradition and ritual practices of
almost all the tribes of her state. She presents the variety and diverse culture of Arunachal
Pradesh through media. She portrays the beauty of Arunachal Pradesh’s natural scenery in
all her books. She speaks about the importance of traditional culture and its transformation
in the modern era. She uses women characters to fight in the patriarchal society for what
they deserve. Her famous novels are The Legends of Pensam, The Black Hill, and Stupid
Cupid. Apart from novels, she has published poems, short stories and books.
Gobinath Mohanty is one of the most influential writers of Indian Tribal Literature.
He was born in Cuttack in 1914. He worked in Odisha Administrative Service where he
got a chance to know about the tribal issues in Odisha. He was the first person to receive
the National Sahitya Akademi Award for his novel, Amrutra Santana in the year 1955. He
served as an administrative officer, a social worker, a writer and a teacher. His works focus
upon the issues encountered by the tribal community in Odisha because of modern influence.
His works are based on one’s love for the land and nature. He has discussed land alienation,
forced migration and other climatic issues faced by the tribes in the modern world. His
famous novels are Dadi Budha, Paraja, and Man Gahirara Chasa. Apart from novels and
short stories, he has published an essay on the tribal community of Odisha. As a translator,
he has translated Tolstoy’s War and Peace into Odia as Yuddh O Shanti.
Tenmsula is an influential writer who belongs to the Ao tribe of Nagaland. She is
a novelist, short-story writer and journalist. She has proved that Ao tribes have a good
sense of literary art. Most of her works are translated into German, English and some
Indian languages. She expresses her own culture, tradition, ritual practices and beliefs in her

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writings. She is a notable author who binds the myth, folklore, legends and tales of their oral
tradition. Her themes revolve around ecology, environment, war and violence, colonialism
and the impact of those in the daily life of her community. Her only novel, Aosenla’s Story
was published in 2018. Some critics state that the novel is based on her experience of living
with her country folks.
Writer Ram Dayal Munda was a renowned academician and expert in regional music.
He was born in Diuri village in Ranchi. He was a strong supporter of the Adivasi and had
written several books about their life. He got admired by the naturalistic life style of the
tribes. He always stood for his culture and tradition and this lifestyle made him to be a
participant of the Cultural Reawakening Movement in Bihar. He was the pioneer in starting
the Tribal and Regional Languages Department at the University of Chicago. He had written
several books and was a strong supporter of the Adivasi tribes. He devises ideas to the issues
of the tribal community. He was awarded Padma Shri for his contribution to the field of art.
He represents his country India, in almost all the cultural events organized in China, Japan,
Malaysia and South-East Asian countries.
Mahasweta Devi is one of the most renowned women writers in Indian history. She
was born in Bengal in the year 1926. From her adolescence itself, she had a strong ideology
of empowering the downtrodden people of the society. She used to work for empowering
the Adivasi communities of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal. Her
famous works are Hajar Churashir Maa, Titu Mir and Aranyer Adhikar. The theme of
her writings focuses on tribal issues and tribal culture. She had authored short stories,
novels etc., and many of her novels were adapted to films. She was honoured with the
most prestigious awards of India like Padma Vibhushan, Padma Shri, Magsaysay Award,
Sahitya Akademi Award.
Malsawni Jacob is a writer of Mizoram who belongs to the Mizo tribe. She has
authored a novel and many short stories describing the life of Mizo tribes’ culture, tradition
and ritual practices. Her writing style is unique because she provides the entire details of a
region from geographical features to topographical features. She has portrayed the agony and
sufferings of her people in her writings. She has the art of creativity and imagination through
which she has brought down the ethnic features of the Mizo tribe. In certain instances,
she has mentioned about the Naga tribes of Nagaland who are victimized by the settlers or
outsiders. Her main notion in writing is to restore the peace and stability of the past which
has been replaced by violence and brutality. Zorami: A Redemption Song is her first debut

14
novel in the field of Indian Tribal Literature.
Easterine Kire is an eminent scholar, short story writer, novelist, poet and essayist
whose works are deeply rooted in the Nagas of Nagaland. She was born in Nagaland in an
Angami Naga tribal family in 1959. She was the recipient of the Governor’s medal for the
representation of Nagas literature. She has translated so many oral narratives of Nagas into
the English language. She addresses the life of the tribal people and their complexity of
living in the modern world. She brings out the importance of traditional values and opines
the quality seen in tradition. She writes to define the perspective of the world in the tribal
sense. She promotes the tribal cultures and works of literature for the rest of the world to see,
appreciate and accept its uniqueness. Her famous works include Don’t Run My Love, Son of
the Thundercloud, When the River Sleeps, A Respectable Woman, Mari, Sky is My Father:
A Naga Village Remembered, and A Terrible Matriarchy. Most of her works are translated
into various languages including German and French.

1.6 TRADITION AND MODERNITY

Tradition is considered to be a belief that has been transmitted from one generation to
another within a group or a society. The tradition includes the transmission of knowledge,
skills, techniques, customs, rituals and values. Traditional values are age old but small
changes can be implemented as per the demand of the situation with the hope of surviving
in the future. Traditions are framed by ancestors for a reason. The people of India follow
various traditional values which are transmitted from the past. When those traditional values
are evaluated, they reveal a lot of scientific truth. Spraying water mixed with turmeric is
considered a tradition in most of the states in India. Scientifically it is proven that the mixture
of water and turmeric is an antiseptic which can protect people from various diseases.
Tradition is a subject that is used in academic fields such as tribal studies, folklore,
anthropology, archaeology, biology and social science. At present, there are various forces
that lead to the forfeiture of tradition. Globalization and industrialization are the main
reasons for the loss of traditional values. In most of the countries, the importance of tradition
has been understood and several strategies have been made to preserve traditional values.
Traditional values include traditional medicine, traditional dance, traditional art, folk song,
traditional language and so on.
The new ideology which formed itself as an alternative to tradition is termed modernity

15
or modernism. Modernism is a period of transition. During the period of modernism,
science and technology have started to rule the entire world with new modernistic ideologies.
Modernity teaches people to believe in science and scientific invention. Modern medicinal
science replaced herbs with tablets and injections. Folk dance and folklores are replaced
with pop and jazz. The scientific temper makes the people think rationally and the values of
tradition are questioned by modernity. In the beginning, it questioned only the superstitious
beliefs in tradition, and later on, the entire value of tradition.
The clash between tradition and modernity is inevitable and it has been continuing
for years. There are two sections of people around the world. The first section stands
for tradition and the next for modernity. Modernity portrays that the base of tradition is
completely wrong and there is no scientific evidence for scientific values. Misra [2011]
opines that “the invasion of an alien culture that lays exclusive claim to modernity and
progressiveness and compels the indigenous to be apologetic about their own culture”.
Tradition, on the other hand accepts the development of science and technology and it is
conscious of the negative impact of modernity. Modern inventions are a boon to the universe
and all inventions should be used for developing a better future. Modernity teaches luxury
and profitable deeds which lead to exploitation and destruction of the earth’s resources.
Traditional ideology has no agreement for exploitation of nature; it teaches that the earth is
common for all the living things. Tradition expects and moralises an individual to preserve
the environment for the future generation.
Tradition is a part of civilization; it enriches society with beliefs, spiritual ideologies
cultural practices and ways of living. During the period of early civilization, the ancestors
used to preach good things which have to be practised by the young. The preachings of the
ancestors paved way for the birth of tradition. All the traditional art forms are born from
those preachings. The preachings include the duty of an individual in the world, position
of women, knowledge on animals and birds, humanity, service to God, maintaining the
ecosystem, agricultural skills, rules and regulations and so on. Traditional ideas are to
enhance equality among all beings. It teaches people to respect each and everything and
there are no creatures inferior to the human race.
Modernity has begun after the development of scientific skills and technological
innovation. It teaches people to accept the scientific way instead of traditional beliefs. It
focuses on the development of the human race and there is no equality for other creatures.
Modernity begins with a patriarchal base on women; each and everything is inferior to

16
human beings. Even woman is considered physically and mentally secondary to a man.
Buildings, advanced vehicles, chemical fertilizers in agriculture, communicative devices are
termed under modern values. All the modern values yield a huge profit with side effects.
For example, after the invention of cell phones, signal towers are constructed which makes
communication so easy. On the other hand, the radiation from the signal towers is harmful
to honey bees. It ends up the natural pollination in plants leading to the loss of biodiversity.
In the twenty first century, modernity teaches selfishness, nuclear behaviour, and nuclear
family system.

1.7 SELECT WORKS FOR THE STUDY

i. The Last Wave An Island Novel - Pankaj Sekhsaria

ii. When the Kurinji Blooms - Rajam Krishnan

iii. Kocharethi (The Araya Woman) - Narayan

1.7.1 The Last Wave An Island Novel

The Last Wave An Island Novel was written by Pankaj Seksharia and published in 2014 by
HarperCollins publication. Pankaj Sekhsaria is a notable environmentalist and social worker.
He is a doctoral degree holder in Technology from Maastricht University, Netherlands. He is
an Associate Professor at the Centre for Technology Alternatives for Rural Areas (CTARA),
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay. He is a member of Kalpavriksh, an environmental
action group, in the islands of Andaman and Nicobar. He is a photographer, editor, journalist
and author on wildlife and nature. He is interested in Nature, Environmental issues, Wildlife
conservation, Island Studies (especially on Andaman and Nicobar islands), Media Studies
and Green Literature. He has published so many articles in National and International
journals regarding environmental issues and the conservation of species that are on the verge
of extinction. He has authored three books, The Last Wave An Island Novel, Island in the
Flux are the two books that express the reality of Andaman and Nicobar islands. In these
two books, he has discussed tribal clans, natural vegetation, wildlife, marine ecosystem and
issues faced by the islands in the modern world. The third book is Instrumental Lives: An
Intimate Biography of an Indian Laboratory which is related to technological development
in India.

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 The Last Wave An Island Novel is the first novel written by Pankaj Sekhsaria. The
novel gives a detailed analysis of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands’ landscape, natural
environment, native people, and issues faced by the islands in the modern era. The novel
is in the form of a travelogue in which the main characters used to travel from one place
to another. The characters bring out the situation which prevails in Andaman and Nicobar
islands. The main characters in the novel are Harish, Seema, Dr. David, Uncle Pame, and Dr.
Sreekumar Kutty. The novel starts with a research institute headed by David. Harish stays
in that institute to make a documentary on the native people of the Andaman and Nicobar
islands. Seema is a research scholar doing her research on the people of the Andaman
Islands. Pame is one of the native Karen men of Andaman who helps David in his research
and survey.
David used to go for the survey of crocodiles and turtles accompanied by Harish and
Seema. Throughout the survey, he explains the loss of wildlife in those islands after the
people of the mainland started to settle in those islands. The politicians and other villagers
support poachers to loot and plunder the wealth. The nature is protected only in Jarawa
reserve (Tribal Reserve) and other places are subjected to deforestation and logging. David
exclaims that when he was young, he could see wide diversity of animals all around but now
everything has gone.
Harish visits some of the villages near Jarawa reserve to get details about the Jarawas.
The people report that Jarawas are good while comparing with policemen and politicians.
The policemen are appointed to safeguard the people but they go to Jarawa reserve for
hunting and fishing. Even some policemen used to abuse Jarawa women which end up
in disaster. The settlers want Jarawas to be thrown out of the islands because they are violent
but the fact is that they are mistreated by the policemen and other settlers. Harish collects
data on Trunk road which connects the entire island. It is usual to see Jarawas on the side of
the road. Trunk road is the biggest source of tourism and transport. Tourism is a great threat
to the islands because tourism leads to the spread of disease in the Jarawa community. The
tourists give pan masalas and alcoholic drinks to the Jarawas. Jarawas are primitive tribes of
India and are naked. The tourists used to take photos of Jarawas even though photography is
banned.
Harish’s meeting with Dr. Sreekumar Kutty is the main part of the novel. Sreekumar
explains that illegal logging is done by government officials for money. He gives a detailed
report on how forest lands are changing to villages. He urges Harish to do something to

18
save the environment of the evergreen islands through his documentary. Harish discusses all
these with Seema and they find that ban of Trunk road is the only way to stop all the issues.
Harish says, the Trunk road is the means of all illegal activity.
In the end, Seema loses her life in Tsunami and Harish is hospitalized as one of the
victims. In the hospital, three Jarawa boys are admitted for measles. Harish understands
the spread of disease is because of Jarawa’s contact with the outside world. Harish is very
upset that he has failed to save Jarawas. Harish is clear that measles should have spread to
the entire Jarawa community and it might be the end of the Jarawa race. At last, the settlers
may ruin the evergreen forests of Andaman and Nicobar islands preserved by the natives for
years.
Pankaj Sekhsaria wants to convey a message that the civilized majority can shift
themselves from one place to another. On the other hand, the tribes have no other place
to move from their homeland. The influence of the settlers and invaders can demolish nature
with their scientific inventions. He stresses that nature, once destroyed cannot be regained
with any man-made inventions. This novel is an alarm for the people about the environmental
issues and change of biodiversity in Andaman and Nicobar islands.

1.7.2 When the Kurinji Blooms

When the Kurinji Booms is written by Rajam Krishnan in Tamil as Kurinjithaen and it was
later translated by Uma Narayanan and Prema Seetharaman. Rajam Krishnan is one of the
notable Tamil women writers. She is known for various Feminist movements in Tamil Nadu.
She was born in Tiruchirapalli in the year 1924 and died on October 20, 2014, in an old age
home. She had a little formal education and all the themes in her writings reveal the realistic
situation of the people who live in society. She writes about the class which gets meagre
attention in Modern Literature. She uses farmers, women labourers, small-time criminals,
salt pan workers, tribes as main characters in her writings. She has written more than eighty
books of them forty are novels, two are biographies, twenty are plays and the rest of them
are short stories. She is also a notable translator who has translated many Malayalam books
into Tamil. Tharu and Lalita [1993] say that Krishnan’s background for writing emerged
from extensive research and evaluating social conditions prevailed then in the society. They
quote, “referring to the extensive research that Krishnan did in evaluating social conditions
a background for her writings”.
Her famous works are Uthara Kaandam, Kurinjithaen, Valaikaram, Veruku Neer,

19
Sathiya Velvi, Mullum Malarum, and so on. Most of the above mentioned works are
translated into English, Malayalam and Telugu. She has won so many awards in the field
of literature nationally and internationally. In 1950, she was awarded the New York Herald
Tribune International Award for her short story collection. She got Kalaimagal Award in
1953 and she is the winner of the Anantha Vikatan Novel Prize of the year 1958 for her
novel Malargal (Flowers). She was awarded Sahitya Akademi Award for Tamil for her
novel Veruku Neer (Water for the Roots). In the year 1975, she was awarded Soviet Land
Nehru Award for Valaikaram (Wrist with Bangles). In 1991, she was awarded with Thiru.
Vi. Ka Award by Tamil Nadu Government.
The novel When the Kurinji Blooms begins with a hill festival where all the main
characters are introduced. Lingayya’s sister comes to the village with her daughters. Madhan
(Lingayya’s brother) is a drunkard and so his wife got divorced from him in front of the
entire village. Madhan has a son and a daughter named Rangan and Rangammai. Rangan is
mischief involving himself in the habits of stealing, bullying others, and telling lies. There
was a village meeting headed by Kariamalla in which the villagers discussed the new priest
for their temple. Krishnan is Kariamalla’s grandson studying in school. Lingayya takes
care of Madhan’s family and considers Rangan as his son. Rangan is jealous of Krishnan
because of his wealth. Lingayya wants Rangan to take charge of the temple so that he will get
blessings from their ancestor Hethappa. Rangan develops hatred towards his uncle Lingayya
because of his decision and so he runs away from the village with some money stolen from
Lingayya.
Lingayya is very sad that he failed in his duty of making Rangan to be a good citizen.
Jogi (Lingayya’s son) is appointed as the priest in the temple. Rangan works in Ooty and his
only motive is to earn more money. Krishnan receives his graduation in law. He becomes one
of the leading lawyers in Ooty. Rangan’s envy flares by hearing about Krishnan’s position.
Krishnan comes back to the village and meets Paru (Jogi’s cousin). They both fall in love
with each other and want to get united by marriage. In the meanwhile, Rangan comes back
to the village with a huge sum of money. Rangan gets inspired by the beauty of Paru and
decides to marry her. Jogi’s duty in the temple as the priest gets over and a new priest is
selected by the elders in the village. Jogi’s mother, Madhi has an idea of marrying Paru to
her son Jogi. The news of three men claiming for a girl spreads everywhere in the village.
The old people of the village decide to organize a competition of stone lifting and one who
wins the competition gets Paru.

20
 Jogi comes to know about Paru’s love towards Krishnan and so he promised Paru that
he will not lift the stone. In the competition, Rangan defeats both Krishnan and Jogi by
lifting the stone. Paru has no other choice but to marry Rangan. After marriage, Rangan
mistreats Paru by all means. He insults her by reclaiming her past relationship with Krishan.
He drinks alcohol, and smokes cigarette in front of his wife Paru. One day, he marries a
girl named Gowri without any prior intimation. Having been thrown out of the house, Paru
comes to live in Jogi’s house. Jogi is married to Paru’s sister Girijai. Jogi is kind and lovable
towards his wife and he takes care of her in all circumstances.
In Ooty, Krishnan becomes famous day by day and Rangan is unable to bear this. He
shows his enmity to Krishnan’s family. The feud between the two families gets exposed to
the entire village at the death of Lingayya. The leader Kariamalla is insulted by Rangan in
front of the entire villagers. Jogi is sad and so he does not respond to the attitude of Rangan
which makes Kariamalla’s family believe that both Rangan and Jogi are against them. Girijai
dies in the hospital while giving birth to a son named Nanjan. Paru takes care of Nanjan.
Krishnan joins a political party and he does all sorts of help to his village but he never
considers Jogi’s family. Paru and Jogi work hard in their land to lead their life. The villagers
are forced to suffer by nature due to the failure of rain. Paru somehow manages to take care
of the family. Paru decides to send Nanjan to the school. She believes that education can
make Nanjan succeed like Krishnan. On the other hand, Rangan’s sons and daughter are not
good at education. Each and everything that Rangan does is against Krishnan. Rangan too
joins a party and works hard to defeat Krishnan in the election.
Nanjan’s school headmaster meets Paru and asks for the piece of land near to the
school for the extension of the school. She gets shocked because it is the only land that
feeds her family. Jogi thinks that it was Krishnan’s plan to take revenge on their family.
Paru wants Nanjan to pursue his study and so she accepted the head master’s wish. She
has an idea of asking for a piece of empty land from Krishnan so that she could cultivate
on it. To execute her idea, she goes to meet Krishnan. While she was meeting Krishnan
in a tea estate, Rangan’s first son Dharman comes there with a stick and attacked Krishnan.
Dharman claims that Krishnan was threatening Paru and so came to support his aunt.
Nanjan completes his schooling and wants to join a college. Paru came to know that
he needs more money for paying college fee. She asks help from Rangammai’s son Raman,
a lorry driver. Raman agrees to pay the fee for Nanjan’s education. Nanjan completes his
engineering degree and comes back to his village. Paru is proud that she has made Nanjan

21
attain the top position. Nanjan is appointed as an engineer in the Kumari dam construction
project in his village. Kumari dam plan was initiated by Krishnan and so Rangan wants
to stop the plan. He organizes some people from the village and starts to protest against
the dam project. Jogi joined with Rangan because Jogi is sure that this plan will ruin the
environment and most of the villagers will have to lose their land. Nanjan comes to know
that Krishnan is the one who helped him with his studies. It is a secret deal between Krishnan
and Kochuraman to help his old friend Jogi’s son. Now, Krishnan wants to end the feud
between the two families and so he wants Nanjan to marry his granddaughter Vijaya.
Rangan comes to know about the marriage proposal made by Krishnan for Nanjan.
Rangan tells Jogi that Krishnan has planned to divert them from the protest. Nanjan explains
about Krishnan’s character but no one is ready to accept the views of Nanjan. Nanjan
continues his work as an engineer in the dam projects. He rarely comes home to meet
Paru and his father. Finally, Nanjan decides to marry Vijaya without the permission of his
father and Paru. When Paru comes to know about the plan, she meets Nanjan. She is afraid
that they would take Nanjan away from her. Though Nanjan was Girijai’s son, she brought
up him as her own. Nanjan consoles Paru and asks her to accompany him for the marriage.
The marriage is planned to be taken place in the Palani temple. Nanjan takes Paru
along with him to the bus stand. It is the day of the protest of the villagers against the dam
project. There is a gunshot and an ambulance rushes to the hospital. Finally, Nanjan comes
to know that his uncle Rangan was shot dead by the policemen. Paru is shocked to hear
about the tragic end of her husband. Krishnan comes to the hospital and cries looking at
the corpse of Rangan. He pleads Jogi to end up the feud between the two families by the
marriage of Nanjan and Vijaya. The days pass on and Nanjan lives happily with Vijaya. Paru
is happy with Nanjan till she confirms herself with mother earth. Jogi is very old and he can
see so many youngsters performing their rituals to their ancestors. The novel ends with Jogi
thinking that the young can flourish in education as well as in their culture and there will not
be any dark for the better future of the hill folks.
When the Kurinji Blooms (Kurinjithaen) is a novel that explains the transformation
of the Badaga tribes of Nilgris from one generation to another due to the influence of
modernization. The novel explains the three generations of Badaga in the Nilgiris. The
first generation characters are Lingayya, Madhi (Lingayya’s wife), Kariamalla, Madhan
(Lingayya’s brother), etc. They are good, God-fearing and united in all the deeds of the
village. They treat other children as their own and there is no selfishness. They rely upon

22
agriculture and cattle rearing. They preserve nature and consider cutting trees is a sin. The
elders are taken care of by family members. Based on their occupation, they are segregated
into different caste but there is no discrimination. Women are respected and they enjoy a
good position in the family as well as in the village. They believe in ancestral worship and
worship Lord Shiva in the form of Nanjundaeswaran.
The second generation characters are Jogi (Lingayya’s son), Rangan (Madhan’s son),
Krishnan (Kariamalla’s grandson), Paru (Wife of Rangan), Girijai (Wife of Jogi). In this
generation, a few characters accept their ancestral way of living and few get influenced by
modernity. Rangan is greedy and moves to Ooty to earn money. He considers money is
the form of respect and success. Rangan never respects his wife Paru and mistreats her
whenever he gets a chance. He married a girl Gowri without the knowledge of his first wife
Paru. Krishnan studies well and become one of the most reputed lawyers in Ooty. Rangan is
always jealous of Krishnan and wants to get into topper position than Krishnan. Jogi obeys
his parents and respects his wife. He gives equal rights to his wife and accepts the ancestral
way of living. Jogi is amused to see the change in his hills. The entire hills are changed as
tea and coffee plantations. The unity in the village has started to collapse. Jealousy, hatred,
discrimination by caste and gender are sowed in the minds of every people.
The third generation characters are Nanjan (Jogi’s son), Vijaya (Krishnan’s
granddaughter), Darman (Rangan’s son). The people who belong to this generation do not
know about their tradition and cultural values. They are well educated and do not know how
to behave with others. They are attracted towards money, wealth and luxury. Moreover,
they forget the sacrifice of their parents and ancestors. Nanjan is an engineer who stands for
the governmental plan of constructing a dam. On the other hand, his father Jogi claims that
the plan of constructing the dam will ruin the environment. Darman is an arrogant fellow
who never respects any elders. Nanjan is in love with Vijaya and he decides to marry her
without his parents’ approval. The third generation has fallen prey to modernization. They
are highly intellectual in education but fail to understand the reality of life. The novel ends
with a festival in the hills attended by the youngsters. The youngsters have understood the
importance of their culture and their true identity. Jogi feels that there will not be dark
anymore. The main idea of the novel is that the identity and the roots of belongingness
should be accepted by all means.

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1.7.3 Kocharethi (The Araya Women)

Kocharethi (The Araya Women) was written by Narayan in the Malayalam language. Later,
it was translated into English by Catherine Thankamma in 2011. Narayan is the first Adivasi
writer of Kerala who excelled in the field of Literature. He is noted for the themes of reality
and his first hand experience of his community. He belongs to the Mala Arayar community
from the Idukki district of Kerala. He has written many short stories and novels among
them Ooralikkudi, Chengarum Kuttalum, Aaranu Tholkkunnava, Vannala and Narayante
Kadhalkal are the most successful works. He has won many awards for his works. In the
year 1999, he was hounoured with the prestigious award of Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award.
The translated version of Kocharethi won the Economist Crossword Award in the year 2011.
Narayan had received awards like the Thoppil Ravi award and Abu Dhabi Sakthi award for
his successful career in Malayalam literature. The novel Kocharethi was his best debut and
it was translated into six languages including French and English.
The novel begins with a brief detail about Varikkamakal Ittyadi Arayan. He has
two children a boy Kunjadichan and a girl Kunjipennu. He is a ‘velichapad’ (a person
who performs rituals to spirit). He lost his wife when his daughter was seven. The days
moved so fast Kunjipennu and Kunjadichan grew young. The relatives want Kunjadichan
to marry Paapi and as such the marriage happened with the permission of his father. Paapi
has a brother named Narayan who frequently comes to see Kunjipennu. Narayan is not a
respectful person and so Kunjipennu hates him. Paapi advises her to accept him if Ittyadi
and Kunjadichan prefer this, she should accept. Narayan’s relatives come with a proposal
but Ittyadi who does not want to break his daughter’s heart rejects the proposal.
Kochuraman who lost his parents is taken care of by his uncle Kochu Kochu, a
‘vaidyan’ (medicinal man). Kochuraman learns all medicinal herbs from his uncle and
their combination for relief from disease. Kochuraman works in Kela’s house where he
practices his medical knowledge. He cures various diseases which makes him more popular
in the village. One day, Kochuraman comes to know about Kunjipennu and her beauty. He
goes to see her while she is working with her father. In the evening, Kochuraman meets
Kunjipennu and talks to her. She does not give a reply because it is their tradition not to talk
with a stranger. She falls in love with Kochuraman and eagerly waits for the proposal to be
forwarded by someone on behalf of Kochuraman.
One day, when Kochuraman meets Kunjipennu, Narayan comes there and threatens

24
Kochuraman. After Kochuraman leaves, he proposes her but she rejects his proposal.
Narayan threatens Kunjipennu by saying that he will inform Ittyadi that Kochuraman and
Kunjipennu were alone in the forest. He even tries to molest her but Kunjipennu dares him
with the sickle in her hand. After a few days, Narayan mixes a herb in the water where
Kunjipennu baths and it caused pain all over her body. She runs home and rolls down on
the floor and Paapi informs this to everyone. The news is taken to Kochuraman and his
medicine cures Kunjipennu. Kunjadichan is now angry with Narayan and tries to kill him.
Kunjadichan initiates to give Kunjipennu to Kochuraman in marriage.
All the members of the family work on their farm. The harvest is not an easy task for
the Arayars. They have to be very careful of wild animals which can ruin the farm. After
the harvest, they celebrate it as a ceremony and prepare a feast for the villagers, as a part of
tradition. Ittyadi asks his son and son-in-law to share the property. Kochuraman constructs
a beautiful house in his share. Within a year, Kunjipennu gives birth to a baby boy.
The climate does not favour the hills. They turn to be too hot for Arayars to cultivate.
The villages get affected by smallpox and many people lose their life. Arayars do not go
to the village, since they are afraid of the pandemic. There was no rain and the hill seems
to be dry. Some people from the village set fire to the dried shrubs. The fire spreads all
over the hills. Kochuraman and Kunjipennu get wounded but they lose their son and pet
animal Kolumban. After this incident, Kochuraman and Kunjipennu are seen sad always.
Kunjadichan gets a loan to take care of the family. Kochuraman cultivates on his farm and
in the evening he goes to a toddy shop and returns home at night.
A senior member named Kadutha who was brave from the young passes away. After
all the rituals, the body was buried with the traditional practice followed by Arayars.
Kunjipennu gives birth to a girl child named Parvati. They appoint a lady named Madhi
to take care of the child. Kaanikaran comes to the hill informing that the forest officers are to
come there and it will be a good time for the hill folks. The officers want the Arayars to give
offerings. They added that if anyone fails to do so, they will arrest them using their power.
The Arayars know that all the offerings given by them will be sold by the officers for money.
The Arayars are cheated by the merchants. They pay a little money for the pepper
bought from the Arayars. A hill folk named Kunjumundan give all his pepper to a merchant
and the merchant cheated him. The merchants, with the help of policemen, threaten hill folks
to give them money. The Arayars are subjected to face some rowdies from the village. One
day, Kochuraman and his friend Kunjuerrukan are stopped by Chetty and Devassy. There is

25
a fight in which Kunjuerrukan broke Chetty’s hand. There is a piece of news spread all over
about the death of Ottathengan. He is killed by someone. He has molested many young girls
and stolen money from many common people.
Kunjunni Pillai is appointed as a one to take charge in Sastha Temple. He collects
tax from the Arayars in the name of God. Kunjunni knew the real story of Arayars. Once
upon a time, the Arayars were close to the king and were in the top position of the army.
The weak kingdom failed to stand with the Arayar community and so the kings hired Pillas
from Nanjilnadu. The cunning ideas of Pillas have pushed Arayars to the forest. The forest
officials come to the hill and cut all the valuable trees and destroyed all cultivation lands.
Kunjunni’s men come there and take all pepper from the Arayars. The hill folks are forced
to suffer and no one is ready to help them. The Arayars go to Krishna Pillai for help. Krishna
Pillai along with the advocate helps the Arayar people. He says no one can collect taxes from
the hill folks and they are the native people of the land. One day Kochupilla, a teacher comes
to meet Kochuraman, following the advice of Krishna Pillai. His intention is to teach the
Arayar children so that the next generation will reach a higher position. After the training of
Kochupilla, many children from the hills, including Parvati, go to school.
After the death of Kochupillai, Kochuraman starts to drink arrack which affects his
health. In school, Padmanaban is in love with Parvati and she accepts his request. Paapi
wants his son Raghavan to marry Parvati but the proposal is rejected by Kochuraman.
Sekharan, Kochuraman’s son exposes the love affair of Parvati with Padmanaban. It creates
some issues in the family, somehow Parvati completed her schooling. After a few days, she
gets a government job and starts to work in Cochin. Kunjipennu sells all her jewels for her
daughter’s travel expense. Kunjipennu thinks that her daughter will make the family better.
After few days, Parvati comes back to the house. On the next day, Padmanaban’s
family comes there with the proposal but Kochuraman rejects it as he does not have enough
money for the wedding. The incident makes Parvati sad and frustrated, and she leaves the
house. After a few days, Kochuraman receives a letter that announces the marriage of Parvati
with Padmanaban. Sekharan is angry with his parents for their extreme care towards her in
the past. Kochuraman is addicted to arrack and in the market, he vomits blood. Some people
identify and admit him to the hospital.
Parvati is informed about the incident and she comes to the hospital. Kochuraman does
not want to see her face. Sekharan takes care of his father with the help of Raghavan. The
doctors advise Sekharan to take his father to the medical college in Thiruvananthapuram. In

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medical college, they instruct Kochuraman to undergo an operation. Kunjappan, a relative
of Kunjipennu, stays with them. He explains about the operation to Kunjipennu. He says the
operation would be painful and the doctors will cut the flesh. By hearing this, Kunjipennu
is afraid. When Kunjappan sleeps, she wakes up Kochuraman and both run away from the
hospital ward and come out of the gate. Now, they are standing on the road without knowing
where to go and where they stand. Thus the novel ends.
The novel runs towards three generations of a family. It clearly delivers the sufferings
of the Arayar community in the hands of merchants, government officials and dominant
society. The Arayars seek help from education but the education taught them selfishness.
The young generation fails to understand the suffering, pain and sacrifice done by the
ancestors for their successful career. The ending of the novel portrays the cultural Arayar
who do not know what to do in the modernistic society. The novel pictures the cultural
and ritual practice of the Arayar community along with their hard work. It conveys that
modernism is like a fruit-bearing tree without any roots.

1.8 LITERATURE REVIEW

Saini [2018] in his article Voices from the Periphery, discusses the problems of the Andaman
and Nicobar islands. In the beginning, he gives a brief account of the colonial impact of the
islands. The colonizers clear most of the jungle area for construction and cultivation which
lead to ecological distress. The natives of those islands have to face severe problems because
of the outsiders. Onge and Great Andamanese are the two native communities that became
extinct because of various issues. Poaching, illegal logging, intoxication and sexual abuse
became more common in those islands after the settlement of people from the mainland. The
settlers, to earn more money, practice illegal activity. The reality of those islands starts to
fade. The species which are not common in those islands start to flourish and the evergreen
forest turns to dry. The introduction of tourism leads to outbreak of diseases and ecological
issues. The governmental policy on tourism in those islands leads to the spread of deadly
diseases which victimize the tribal community. The increase of plastic waste affects the
marine world as well as the forest animals in those islands. The writer is an advocate of the
tribes, nature and the unique bio-diversity of Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Purshottam and Vanita [2017] in the article entitled Understanding the Indian Tribal
Life and their Issues, give a brief note on tribes of India. They explain the history of

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tribes, the tribes of ancient literature and epic literature of India. They then move their
idea towards the issues faced by the tribal communities of India. They discuss educational
issues, health issues, social issues, religious issues and so on. They mainly focus on the
involuntary displacement of tribes by government policies. They stress on the usage of the
pan masala and alcohol that spoils the culture of the native people. The tribes live in hills
and forests exploited by the civilized majority in the name of development and progress. The
civilized people consider the tribes as barbaric and fail to understand the uniqueness of their
culture. The writers want the folklore, local culture, music, dance and medicines of tribes
to be preserved and the tribal people should be given proper recognition since they are the
natives of the land.
Mahapatra [2018] in his news article, More than 50 % of India’s Tribal Population
has Moved Out of Traditional Habitats, represents his grief that tribes of India are slowly
yielding up their cultural practices for better opportunities in urban areas. They have stopped
cultivation and the number of tribal cultivators reduced between 2001 and 2011. The tribes
who moved towards better opportunity in cities are forced to work as contract labourers.
The mainstream society displaces the tribal people from their homeland with an intention
to lay hold of the natural resources preserved by the natives for years. He says, currently,
one of two tribal households relies on labour work for survival. Displacement and enforced
migration are the reasons behind this pathetic situation of Indian tribes.
Mathur [2017] points out the rights of tribes and the issues of tribal displacement in
Tribal Land Issues in India: Communal Management, Rights, and Displacement. He starts
with answering the questions like who the tribes are and their position is in Indian society.
Then, he discusses how the tribes protect the land and manage natural resources. The life of
tribes was good till the developmental programmes were introduced. The developmental
programmes paved way for the displacement. The displacement made tribes work as
labourers in construction companies. In some states, the tribes are forced to move out of
their homeland and those places are later mentioned as tiger reserve or protected forest area
in records. The tribes are not given any chance to express their emotions and ideas. Mathur
says the global era is disastrous to culture, tradition and land preserved by tribes for years.
They were mute spectators for years but now they want to be active participants. The article
ends with the quote of Fukuda-Parr [2004] “Indigenous people are not against development,
but for too long they have been victims of development and now demand to be participants
in and to benefit from a development that is sustainable”.

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 Kukreti [2019] in his news blog Nature better off with Indigenous People, Indicates
Global Report, argues that nature is stable and good where indigenous people live and it
is worse in other places. He points out the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Service strengthen his idea. He says, according to the report, many species of
plants and animals are on the verge of extinction. The areas managed by the indigenous
communities are good with flora and fauna and the communities try to protect flora and fauna
even in a hard situation. Indigenous community takes part in environmental governance to
enhance their quality of life. He states that in Brazil, deforestation in the indigenous forest
was much less when compared to other places of the country. Indigenous people work
for the entire world without any profit and struggle for the land restoration and sustainable
agriculture.
Sarkar [2017] in his research article Impact of Modernisation on the Economy of Tribal
People Living in Dooars, explains the effect of modernisation on tribal village Dooars. The
development of technology and scientific invention makes the tribal people exposed to the
modern world. They start to migrate from the homeland for better job opportunities and
other sources of luxury. The tribes relied upon agriculture but modern influence converted
a good number of tribal clans into labourers in construction companies and factories. Their
style of agriculture shifted from using traditional manual machineries to modern equipment
like tractors, tillers, etc. They started using chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides
for high profit. The usage of traditional fertilizers became outdated. Women who moved
out of their homeland fall prey to human trafficking. The writer concludes by saying that
modern influence has a lot of negative impact on the tribal community. They have started
to forget the quality of agriculture by using chemicals. Though they are lovers of nature,
modernism has taught them to give undue importance for money and to exploit nature for
it. At the same time, it has failed to emphasize the importance of nature, environment and
sustainable development.
Sekhsaria [2018] in his article The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are not an ‘Empty
Space’ , discusses the developmental plans put forth by the Government of India in Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. Sekhsaria states that these plans are destructive for nature and the native
people of the islands. The first plan is the construction of a railway line that connects most
of the islands. The execution of the plan will lead to the loss of evergreen forest which has
a high chance of affecting tribal life. The second plan is to increase tourism in the islands.
Sekhsaria opines that tourism is a great threat to the environment. It sows seed for the spread

29
of disease among tribal communities. The huge gathering of people produces a lot of waste
that affects the ecology. The natural sources get polluted. The third plan is to construct a
nuclear power plant for the islands. Sekhsaria considers this plan is more disastrous than the
other two. He says that there are so many ways for producing energy in those islands but the
government has failed to understand the reality of those islands. In the end, he feels anxious
that these plans may lead to a great loss in the uniqueness of these islands. The government
should consider that the islands are special in so many ways.
Banerjee [2021] in her Eco criticism -Re-Connecting Nature, knocks around the
importance of the environment and biosphere. The main aim of Banerjee is to bring out
the fact that earth is common for all living things like plants, animals, birds, etc. She says
that from the beginning of the eighteenth century, human started to influence nature with
their policy. This attitude leads to the loss of balance in the biosphere. No culture in the
world teaches the exploitation of natural resources. Though nature cannot speak to human
directly, it gives warnings in many ways. She considers earthquake, flood, climatic changes
and other natural disasters are modes of nature’s communication to human. The ecosystem
has to be balanced and if one ignores other’s peril, it will be an absolute disaster. In the end,
she urges the human race to go back to nature. Men should accept the fact that earth is a
place for humans as well as non-humans and so there should be a mutual understanding.
Kamble et al., [2016] in the paper The Social Issues of Tribes and Role of Mass Media,
discuss the issues faced by the tribes for years. The paper gives a detailed account of the role
of mass media in the life of tribes in the Indian context. The writers have started the paper
with a clear idea about tribes and their position in India. They say tribal people are subjected
to poor hygiene, malnutrition, deficient sanitation, and so on. The education level is too low.
In the census 2011, it is clear that tribal women lag behind in their education and birthrights.
The civilized majority considers tribes as barbaric; as a result, it leads to violence against
tribal women and men. The writers say for the past sixty years, tribes have been subjected
to alienation, forced displacement, violence, economic crisis and marginalisation. Media is
considered to be the best tool to bring awareness among the tribes. The main aim of media
is to make a better society. Modern technologies like mobile phones, mass communication,
internet and social media play an important role in tribal society. In the conclusion, the
writers state that media is very important in everyone’s life. It helps the tribal people to
move forward with good education, women empowerment and social development. Media
play an important role in the development of the tribal community which is the statement

30
put forward by the writers through their writing.
Singh [2019] in his Clash between Traditional and Modern Values in Shanuna
Baldwin’s Gayatri, confers the clash between modern and traditional values in India.
Tradition is a set of beliefs and values which have been transmitted from generation to
generation, whereas, modernity is a set of ideas and beliefs that changes from generation
to generation according to the stream. He has used the novel Gayatri as the primary source
to justify his concept of tradition and modernity. India has various culture and tradition in
which women are considered to be secondary being. The writer wants women to break all
the stereotype constructed in the orthodox society and achieve fame and success. In India,
traditional women work as a servant in the house and they have no freedom to express their
ideas. In modern concept, it is the evolution of New Women and they make their position
equal to men. He portrays the position of women in Indian society especially on the civilized
majority but fails to express his views on tribal women.
Limna [2019] in her Cultural Conflict: Loss of Identity and Culture in Ooralikudi,
reviews the loss of culture and identity of Oorali tribes of Kerala due to the influence of
modernization. Oorali tribes follow a unique culture and tradition. They are good at oral
tradition, the family set up, and lifestyle. All these get shattered when the non-native
people start to settle in their villages. Civilized people consider Oorali people inferior to
them. According to Thankamma [2018], “The adivasi’s encounter with non-tribal folk was
catastrophic because the so called ‘civilized’ society duped, exploited and misrepresented
them, and continues to do this day”. Limna says, in schools, the Oorali children are
mistreated by civilized teachers. The settlers started to impose their culture on the Oorali
tribes. Gradually, Oorali women are treated as secondary by Oorali men due to the influence
of outside culture. Devi [1995] states that “among tribes insulting or raping a woman is
one of the greatest crimes. Rape is unknown to them. Women have a place of honour in
tribal society”. Ooralis are trapped in the pathetic space between culture and modern. The
influence of new culture has positioned the Oorali community in a vulnerable state.
Revathi [2015] in her paper Tribals Continue to be Robbed of Land in Erode, explains
the issue faced by the tribes of Erode by the dominant people in the society. She starts her
paper by saying that an Adivasi without land is like a living corpse. She says once the tribes
had good wealthy land but now, they have been forced to be bonded labourers. The lands
of the tribal people are abducted by the dominant people with their power. She points out
that even government officials refuse to help the tribes with the land issue. The lands of the

31
tribe are snatched away by the other with a 2-acre scheme introduced by the government of
India. Revathi is very clear that government policies are against the tribal community. The
laws are passed without any consultation with the tribes’ community and tribal organization.
In the end, tribes get nothing from the government and they are forced to move out of their
homeland.
Mohanty [2019] in his paper Tribal Communities Suffer When Evicted in the Name of
Conservation, opines that most of the developmental plans of the government lead to the
suffering of tribal communities. In his paper, he criticizes the conservationists as they firmly
believe that the presence of tribal community in the forest is deleterious for the ecosystem
and wildlife. The tribal people are asked to move away from their homeland in the name
of forest conservation, tiger reserve or a national park. Abhijit says, these programmes are
made to attract more tourists and on the other hand to exploit the resources. Tribal people
live in forest which is rich in minerals, valuable trees etc., and they protect those resources.
The conservation plan by the government will lead to the destruction of the ecosystem and
environment. After eviction from the homeland, tribal people are subjected to violence from
the mainstream people. They were not given any proper compensation and are forced to
work as labourers. In the end, he says tribal people play an important role in preservation,
conservation and in safeguarding the richness of biodiversity. The conservationists and
government should accept the fact that the low carbon footprints of the tribal people have
conserved the global environment. Abhijit advises the civilized majority to follow some of
the sustainable methods followed by the tribes. It will be appropriate steps to mollify climate
changes effectively.
Thekaekara [2019] in her news article A Huge Land Grab is Threatening India’s Tribal
People They Need Global Help, examines the eviction of tribal people from the forest regions
of Tamilnadu. Thekaekara states that tribes are not the enemy of the forest. They conserve
and preserve the forest with richness. Indian wildlife organizations including Wild Life Trust
of India, Tiger Conservation Trust, and Wildlife First have been continuously accusing tribal
people of destroying the ecosystem and biodiversity of the forest. These organizations want
to push tribal people out of the forest. Thekaekara says that a forest with tribal people is safe,
if the tribes are evicted from the forest area, it will change into heaven for poachers. Adivasis
are not enemies to the ecosystem. They protect many plant species such as roots and tubers
as food sources. Thekaekara says most of the tribal clans of Tamil Nadu; celebrate forest
festival in which planting trees is a common ceremony. She concludes by saying that “tribes

32
are forest dwellers” and none of the conservation programs could preserve forest like them.
Sri [2019] in her article The Broken Promises to Nature: A Study of Rajam Krishnan’s
When the Kurinji Blooms, portrays the worse attitude of human to nature which leads
to absolute destruction. She says some characters in the novel get attracted towards
modernization and they want to implement those in their village. They start to think that
money and wealth is the only possession which gives happiness. The life of the villagers
starts to tremble when new urban ideas are introduced. The villagers start to earn money
by exploiting nature and natural resources. Education teaches the young to survive but no
importance is given to tradition and culture. The tribal people consider nature is their only
possession and they are happy to lead their life along with nature. According to Sarkar
[2008], “Development in infrastructure, especially communication brought the Scheduled
tribes in diverse contact with the people of plains... these contacts had different types of
reaction. In consequence of such technological, social and physical pressures, many of the
tribes became biologically and/or culturally endangered”. The contact with the outside world
forces on the tribes to break their culture and tradition. The bio space and environment are
questioned in front of such technological development. In the end, the writer says that the
tribes are not ready to accept the progress of modernization but they have to continue their
life with the remaining bits of culture and nature. The paper opines that modernization in a
tribal village could destroy nature and the environment.
Girase [2016] in her article The Problems of Indian Tribal Communities in Current
Scenario, considers some of the issues faced by the tribes in the hands of government and the
civilized majority. In some of the northern states of India, the tribes are termed as ‘Naxals’.
The naxal person tortures, exploits and kills the tribal people for the fulfilment of their aim
on the other hand, the policemen consider tribal clans are helping the Naxals. From the past
to recent history, tribes are displaced from their land. The lands of the tribe are abducted
by the powerful society for exploitation in the name of development. The new educational
system is a threat to the tradition and culture of the tribes. The educational system focuses
on technological and modern invention and there is no hope for the environment and nature.
The children of the tribes are rejected in society. They are not accepted in schools and
the modern world. They were considered to be an inferior section and are not given any
birthright.
The tribal women are the victims of exploitation and sexual abuse. Since they belong to
minority, no one is there to raise voice for them. The governmental plans are a great threat to

33
the lives of tribes. The tribes live in forest area but the plans like a national park, conservation
programs lead tribes to fall prey in cities and towns as bonded labourers. Non-Governmental
Organizations do not actively take part in the development of the tribal community. In the
end, the writer suggests some of the remedies to better the life of tribes. She wants the
civilized majority to understand the importance of tribal community and their lifestyle. She
says it is good to learn some tips from the tribes in preserving the environment and nature.
Kumar [2013] in his topic Tourism Threatens the Environment in India’s Andaman
Islands, represents the environmental issues due to the development of tourism in Andaman
Islands. In the beginning, he gives a brief account of the beauty of Andaman beaches,
evergreen forests and wildlife. Then, he shifts towards the economic development of the
islands because of tourism. He says though tourism leads to development, it also slowly and
gradually destructs nature and the environment. The tourists who enjoy the beauty of islands
have no awareness to protect them for the next generation. They dumb plastic wastes all
around the place which could be seen in all the seashores of Andaman Islands. Andaman
Islands are rich in corals and marine life and the plastic wastes turn to be a reason for the
depletion of coral beds. He suggests that the government should take some necessary action
to keep tourism under their control to save the ecology. He is sure that an ecology once lost
cannot be regained again with human power.
Chandra [2015] in his article Environmental Concern in India: Problems and Solution,
discusses the environmental issues faced by the Indian subcontinent. He points out that
the misuse of wealth and fossil fuels is the main reason behind pollution. India is a land
with highly dense population and it is not an easy task to stop pollution but it can be kept
under control to protect the environment. India faces air pollution, water pollution, noise
pollution, marine pollution and soil pollution. Deforestation and chemical manures lead to
the loss of biodiversity. The waste produced by companies and other small-scale factories is
not recycled properly. It is dumped as garbage which spoils the soil. The creatures, which
live in forests, are on the verge of extinct because of human’s harsh attitude towards nature.
These environmental issues lead to global warming, the rise of sea level, failure in rainfall,
acid rain and so on. It can be a threat to the entire world which moves towards obsolescence.
The government of India is doing its best to control pollution for a better future.
People are advised not to use plastic materials that affect the environment. The government
frequently checks the position of companies and factories regarding pollution control
strategies. At present, India has undertaken an energy production process with waste

34
materials. This can be the only possible solution that could reduce the environmental issues.
The non-governmental organizations and governmental organizations conduct frequent
research on pollution control tactics for the betterment of the country. The writer gives some
tips for the readers so that pollution can be controlled. He wants the people to shift their
way of living in harmony nature. He states that the government alone cannot do anything
against this global issue people should understand the importance of environment and should
practice eco-friendly tips in day-to-day life.
Yadav [2013] in his article An Empirical Study on Environmental Issues in India,
explains the environmental issues faced by India in the 21st century and provokes light upon
some of the acts passed by the Indian government to protect nature and the environment.
He begins his article by giving a brief and detailed note on air pollution, water pollution,
noise pollution, and land pollution. He points out that pollution is the outcome of the worse
human attitude. He says, all the citizens of Indian should follow the rules of the Indian
constitution. Article 51 A 2(g) states, every citizen of India should protect and improve the
natural environment including forests, lakes, wildlife and have compassion towards all living
creatures.
He discusses some of the acts passed by the Indian government to protect the
environment. He says the environmental protection act of 1986 is framed to prevent the
environment from pollution. Factories and industries are subjected to this act and it is
mandatory to follow all the rules framed in the act. Forest and Wildlife Protection Act and
The Indian Fisheries Act are framed to protect endangered species living in the environment.
The Air Act of 1987, focus on air pollution. Vehicles, factories and industries are subjected
to this Act. In the end, he discusses the Bhopal gas tragedy which happened because of
not following the rules and regulation. He directly attacks that people are not aware of
the environmental and climatic change. This perspective of human life may end up with a
disaster.
Singh [2017] in his article Biodiversity, Tribal Knowledge and Life in India, pictures
the importance of biodiversity and the knowledge of tribes towards nature. Biodiversity is
the combination of nature, the environment, and all other resources on the earth. The man
can be tribal or non-tribal but he is a part of the biodiversity. The biological diversity and
cultural diversity are extremely different from each other. The biological feature of human
beings gets different from one place to the other and it is determined by the biological factors
of their ancestors. The Vedas narrate that the human body is made up of five components

35
as the same as the Vedas classify nature. The human body is like nature, human beings
are supposed to take care of their body to maintain a good physique. So, to maintain good
biodiversity, human should be aware of the importance of nature.
Culture is completely a different concept which changes from one place to another. In
almost all the countries, tribal culture seems to be the same as they all rely upon nature for
their needs. The non-tribal people rely upon natural resources to lead a luxurious life and
they follow the policy of exploitation. In India, the tribal clans are much knowledgeable
about ecological concern and environmental consideration. They consider preventing nature
is one of the cultural practices put forward by their ancestors. They take care of biological
nature because their life activities directly depend upon nature and its resources. The
knowledge of a tribal clan is not limited to any work. Agriculture, environmental knowledge,
medicinal knowledge, and innovative skills rely upon naturalistic knowledge.
Even in this technological world, tribal people use herbs to cure their common illness.
It is proven that these herbs are more effective than modern medicines. Tribal knowledge is
better than most scientific inventions. The writer considers these are traditional knowledge
because before the scientific development, all humans followed their traditional knowledge.
The traditional knowledge that can be inherited for modern issues is the view put forward
by Singh. The environment and nature were good when the people followed traditional
knowledge and so it is the best option to proceed with the environmental crisis. He concludes
by saying that every man must preserve nature and biodiversity. Modern people should
accept the golden age of traditional knowledge and it has to be practised again for the
preservation of the nature and heritage. The writer makes the people to be aware of their
forgotten values of the past.
Mistry [2016] in her article Tribal Folk Culture: Struggle for Survival, portrays
the slow decline of tribal culture from India. She has discussed a few reasons behind
such a transformation in the cultures of the tribal community. Education makes a person
gentle and innovative. The modern educational system teaches modern values to the
tribal people. The clash between modern values and traditional values lead to the fall of
traditional culture. Communication is a tool of expressing and sharing ideas with others,
modern communication technology made the tribes contact with the non-tribal people of
society. Modern technology teaches about social change, beliefs and traditional change. The
invention of smart phones and the internet has shaken the roots of tribal culture.
Development in the infrastructure is the immediate cause for the fall of traditional

36
tribal culture. The roads and bridges have connected the tribal villages with the mainstream
cities and towns. This made easy contact with the tribal and non-tribal people. The contact
between the two sections cannot be positive always because it had many negative impacts on
culture. According to Verrier [1964], “roads, of course, can be a curse as well as a blessing
to the tribal people. In some places, they have been the means of corruption and exploitation.
They brought new diseases, moral decline and cultural decadence”.
The Christian missionaries have a great impact on the culture of tribes. During the
period of colonization, many Christian missionaries start preaching Christianity to the tribal
people. In the North-Eastern Zone of India, nearly ninety percent of the tribes follow
Christianity at present. The missionaries introduced modern education and modern medicine
to the tribal people. The introduction of modern medicine leads to the fall of traditional
herbal medical practice. At present, the new generation plays a major role in cultural change.
The educational system has taught them that their old traditional customs are barbaric. They
have a false assumption that urban is higher and accepted norm in the entire society. They
start to celebrate their traditional festivals in a modernistic way. The tribal people have
transformed themselves culturally, traditionally and morally. Mistry says modern society
has to preserve the ancient traditions of the country. The values of tradition will be the best
source of remedy for modern problems.
Soorya [2017] in his article Problematizing Tribal Art in the Global World, explores
the problems faced by tribal art in the globalized era. Adivasi people are displaced from
their lands and villages in the globalized world. Tribal art is the combination of aesthetic
sense towards nature and their cultural practice which had been followed for years. The
civilized majority considers the form of traditional tribal art is inferior to western art. The
communities associated with tribal art are primarily rural therefore; they have very less
chance of accessing technology. The tribal arts like wood carving, drawings, stone carving,
glass works and so on are related to the symbol of culture and nature. In the global world,
the ideology of culture and nature make tribal art more complicated.
The art of drawing and paintings are the expression of the aboriginal people. They
used natural things like leaves, mud, stones and other things for their expressions. These
expressions are the form of tribal art and it has sacred meaning. According to Dalmia [1988],
“The art of Warli’s seems to belong to the phase classified as Neolithic in the rock painting of
Central Asia... done in white outline, triangular humans and animals with geometric designs
on the wall of the caves”. Warli’s are the huge mass of tribal people of Maharashtra and

37
they have the habit of drawing their daily routine on the walls of houses or rocks. The Warli
culture gives importance to the preservation of nature and animals because they consider
all natural resources as sacred. The Global world seems everything as profit bearers and it
teaches the art of exploitation.
When tribal art has been universalized, it is subjected to face serious issues. Tribal
art is compared with western ideology which considers tribal art is secondary. Even though
they understand its importance, the civilized majority does not want to accept its uniqueness
and traditional style. In certain instances, the multinational company uses tribal art for their
profit. The government agencies which are supposed to preserve tribal art maintain silence.
The tribal handicrafts are practised by the non-tribal or outsiders and make them commercial.
There are a variety of products like wooden wares, textiles, jewellery and decors that are
manipulated by outsiders in the name of tribal art.
The writer wants the government to take necessary steps to preserve traditional art.
The manipulations by the outsiders have to be prevented. The government should make a
proper channel for the tribes to display their art by themselves to the Global world. The tribal
people have to be given proper chance in education, business, technology and infrastructure
to invoke their identity in the global market. All they need is a perfect environment to
preserve their art. The policies can be framed so that the tribal people can lead a life with
dignity, free from poverty and maintain their identity as tribal artists.
Balasubramanian and Dhulasi [2017] in their article, Changing Climate and its Impact
on India, focus on the issues faced by India due to the change of climate. The writers
say climatic changes have a great impact on agriculture, forest, wildlife, water resources
and biodiversity. The increasing level of greenhouse gases is the main reason for climatic
change. The emission of harmful gases from factories, refrigerators and air coolers are the
main reason for the increase in greenhouse gases. India is a country with the second highest
population ratio. The writers clearly explain that rainfall in agricultural land is too low and
is very much high in plateaus. The climate is unpredictable because of the greenhouse effect.
In southern India, it is summer during the months of April and May but in recent years, it has
changed. They get rainfall during April and May and the monsoon season has failed them.
The agricultural lands will dry up and there will not be any production and it could
affect the economy of the country. There will be a huge rise in the price of necessary
products. The water bodies’ will dry up which could affect the underground water level.
India consists of many perennial rivers but in the forth coming years, there will not be any

38
water perennial rivers too. If there is a failure of rain, the forest land will get dry up and
the animals living in it has to face extinction. Cyranoski [2005] states that “snowfall over
the Himalayas and also over the high mountain ranges of Alps in a warming climate”. The
level of the sea goes on rising every year due to the icebergs in the Arctic and Antarctic
region have already started to melt. The entire universe has to face the rise of temperature.
According to Kothawale and Rupa Kumar [2005], “Climatic change impacts will lead to an
increased frequency of hot days, heat waves, droughts and natural disasters”. The writers
say that there is a probability of southern states to get less rainfall and on the other hand,
northern states could get high rainfall with a serious flood. The climatic change could
bring deadly diseases in future. A country like India should follow eco-friendly materials to
control pollution which can be a possible remedy for climatic issues. The government should
make some policies regarding climatic issues. The U.N.O has already proclaimed about the
issues of climatic change and they have framed various rules and regulations which have to
be followed by all the countries.
Guha and Ismail [2015] in their article, Socio-Cultural Changes of Tribes and Their
Impacts on Environment with Special Reference to Santhal in West Bengal, discuss the
socio-cultural change in the life of Santhal tribes and how their socio-cultural change affects
the environment. They confabulate about the life of Santhal tribes and how they love their
motherland. They explain the beauty of the Santhal village with the natural scene. Education
plays a major role in the transformation of culture. The cultural values of the Santhal tribes
have been shifted towards modernity to some extent. After the contact with the outsiders,
they have started to follow the religious views of the mainstream. The old forms of their
religious practices are fading away due to globalization.
The Santhal tribes speak in their own language AL-CHIKI, but now they speak Bengali
and English. The dress of Santhal tribes is completely different from modern culture. Men
wear dhoti and women a large cloth in the form of a saree. At present, they start to adopt
the western dressing style. Modern people desire to bring back the glory of the past because
they could understand that they are shifting away from their own culture. The festivals,
naturalistic sense, art and crafts food style are changed due to modernity.
The Santhal tribes believed nature is God but after the influence of modernization,
there is no such concept. Deforestation takes place all around the village in the name of
development. The change in mind leads Santhal tribes to face flood, cyclone and landslides.
Now, they are worried about the change in the environment and trying their best to prevent

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nature from deforestation. The pattern of agriculture is changed by the new scientific
inventions. Santhal tribes claim that the modern technique in agriculture leads to infertile or
barren land, and there are no bio-fertilizers to prevent the land. They are forced to work as
labourers in the agricultural field. Now, they could understand that once their ancestors lived
in a perfect place which they have lost. The paper ends with the present mental situation
of the Santhal tribes. They want to bring back the lost glory. They have understood the
importance of their culture and natural resources. They love to stay in their orthodox culture
even though the world of mainstream flourishes in science and technological development.
John [2018] in her article Writing Back to the Centre: Treatment of Adivasi’s Life in
Narayan’s Kocharethi (The Araya Women), explores the cultural practice of Mala Arayar and
the issues faced by them after the influence of modernity concern to Narayan’s Kocharethi
(A Araya Women). The writer starts the paper by beautifully illustrating the cultural practices
followed by the Mala Arayar community. They are naturalistic in their daily routine. They
are a hardworking, strong and self-reliant community. No one can claim that Mala Arayar is
inferior to the mainstream. They give importance to women and there is no discrimination
based on gender. They consider natural calamities are the sign of God’s anger.
Mala Arayars suffered when the transition was imposed on them. In the mid-nineteenth
century, the arrival of Christian missionaries resulted in the loss of their ritual practices.
Education taught them to survive and imposed other cultures on them. The upper-class
people imposed a brahminical system of belief on Mala Arayar children. When the young
Arayars start to settle in different places after their education, they slowly start to break their
connection with the community. The merchants and traders cheat them because of their
innocence.
Traditional medicine was famous in the Mala Arayar community. They have a variety
of herbs to treat their ailments. The lifestyle change brings various diseases which cannot
be treated traditionally. Mala Arayars want to run away from the modernistic change and
there is no one to understand their emotions and feelings. The new system failed to instill
confidence among the Mala Arayar community. The modern system forces them to leave
their homeland in search of better opportunity. The writer states, all the changes will lead to
a loss of unique culture and tradition. The mainstream media misrepresents the tribal people
as uncivilized. The writer presents the Mala Arayar community as nature’s children who are
proud of their naturalistic living style.
Jasmin [2018] gives a brief note on global environmental issues in her paper,

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Ecological Globalisation. She states that the earth is losing its balance because of odd
human behaviour. The extensive globalization leads to the exchange of animals, plants and
diseases to other location. Humans should understand the importance of ecology and how
it was balanced in the past. Natural resources have to be used based on their availability
in the ecosystem. Now, the planet faces serious issues like global warming, extinction of
species, pollution, climate change, rise in sea level and natural disaster. People should blame
themselves for such a situation and they are supposed to change their consumer habits to get
control over such issues. Every species in the world is influenced by the environment but
the human race is far different who modifies the environment for their immediate needs.
The issues started thousands of years ago; since the very beginning of human civilization.
Human beings started to devastate forest and kill animals for food and their safety.
The increase in population leads to scarcity of space and food, depletion of natural
resources and huge production of waste. It is the right time to study the environment for the
benefit of the future. Globalization focuses on the development of business, trade and science
and technology. The concept of environment and ecology finds no place in Globalization.
At present, it is a universal alarm on environmental issues. From the developed to under
develop countries are facing environmental crisis. The writer says localization is the best
antidote for environmental issues. She advises dropping all universal mega projects which
devour natural resources is good for a better future. Localization will support the local people
and they will start to follow nature. She ends up her paper by saying that people must be
made environmentally educated if the Mother Earth has to be managed.
Verma [2018] gives a brief note on awareness made by literature on environmental
issues through her article, Greening the Earth, Greening Literature: A Theoretical
Underpinning of Ecocriticism. The earth is the only planet which supports life in the universe
but the human activities are disastrous for the ecosystem of the planet. Humans’ snooping
leads to climatic change, depletion of ozone, acid rain, loss of biodiversity etc. These issues
have alarmed the entire world to prevent the environment. The writer says, in this biosphere,
every organism is related to the other for the perfect functioning of the ecosystem.
Increased interest in ecological concern in literature leads to the rise of Ecocriticism.
Literature is used as a tool to generate awareness among human beings to save the
earth from fore-coming disasters. Ecocriticism takes an earth-centred approach to literary
studies. Literature is constructed with the aesthetic and cultural part of an environment.
So, the representation of the environment in literature can lead the readers towards

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ecological consciousness. Ecocriticism leads to the birth of ecocentrism philosophy which
supports nature and opposes anthropocentrism. Anthropocentrism is also known as human
chauvinism which exhibits the superiority of human notion on the earth. Ecocentrism
considers every organism on the earth is equal to the other. Ecocritics analyse the relation
between nature and human beings and suggests that human beings cannot survive on the
earth without the support of nature. In modern literature, ecocritics focus upon nature as the
main theme. In recent times, novels have become much more receptive in dealing with the
environmental crisis. The writer says; from 2015 to present, most of the novels reflect the
ecological concern. The novelists focus on Eco-feminism, Eco-psychology, Eco-ethics and
other ecological disciplines. The awareness in saving the planet has affected literature and
criticism and promoted green writing and green studies.
The thesis focuses upon the non-stop quarrel between the traditional values and
modern concept. It encourages traditional value to a greater extent than modernity. It
mainly focuses upon the ecological perspective of the past traditional culture towards modern
culture. It pictures how tradition is replaced by modernity and how the advancement of
technology leads to the depletion of natural resources. Modernity has provided various
benefits to the entire human world. Instead of using science and technology for necessity,
humankind has started to use it for destruction and exploitation. Modernity and Tradition
build up knowledge and developmental progress with the purpose of enlightening the
futuristic world. Superstitious beliefs and constructive ideas of the past can be dismantled
from traditional values and the modernistic thought can be infused with tradition for the
betterment of future generations. The research gap dwelt with the parallel moment of
tradition and modernity for progressive development.

1.9 HYPOTHESES

After a detailed analysis on the select novels and the secondary source materials collected
for the research, the researcher formulates the following hypotheses;

i. The clash between traditional and modern values.

ii. The tribes lead a naturalistic life which is contrary to the mainstream of the civilized
majority.

iii. Unconditional love between the homeland and the tribes.

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 iv. Desire for development and progress due to the issues faced by the tribal society.

v. Modern influence leads to the exploitation and suffering of tribal people.

vi. The tribal people are against the modern influence and they resist themselves from
being a part of modernism.

vii. The civilized majority failed to understand the environment which leads to the loss of
biodiversity.

viii. Environmental crisis can be rectified with proper initiatives.

ix. Modernity and traditional values should move on the same track for better future.

x. Accepting traditional values to a certain extent could be a solution for various issues
faced by the world at present.

1.10 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

To make the arguments clear, the proposed study shall attempt to meet the following
objectives;

i. To make a clear analysis of the thematic concerns of Narayan, Pankaj Sekhsaria and
Rajam Krishnan.

ii. To bring out the distinct literary features of the select novels.

iii. To uncover the ethnic, cultural, social and moral values of the tribal communities
discussed in the novels.

iv. To sort out the ecological concern and environmental consideration among the
primitive tribal clans of India.

v. To trace the modern influence and its effect on the environment.

vi. To probe into the issues of the tribal community who got stuck in between modernism
and tradition.

vii. To identify the lost glory of the cultural practices.

viii. To identify the values of the modern educational system.

ix. To state the importance of nature for peaceful and better future.

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1.11 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The research mainly focuses on the scope of;

i. Tribal Culture and its uniqueness.

ii. Back to naturalistic life style to a certain extent.

iii. Voicing the issues and sufferings of tribes in Global World.

iv. Revealing the resistive attitude of tribal community.

v. Development of the tribal society in all dimensions.

vi. Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected.

vii. Culture and Tradition of tribes should be recognized.

viii. Importance of traditional knowledge in the modern era.

1.12 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The research has its own limitations and it is confirmed towards the select tribes of India.
It is confirmed to the select novels and secondary sources which are collected to strengthen
the research findings. The researcher focuses only on the tribal communities which are
mentioned in the novels selected for the study. The researcher does not focus on any data
collection and has not undertaken any practical research on tribes due to the outbreak of
pandemic COVID-19.

1.13 CHAPTERIZATION

The thesis is divided into five chapters as mentioned below;

The first chapter ‘Introduction’ discusses the universal concept of Literature and Tribal
Literature. Then it narrowed down towards Indian writing in English followed by the concept
of Tribal Literature in Indian Scenario and its themes. It moves towards the divisions of tribes
in India which is followed by a brief introduction about the writers and the works selected
for the study. The chapter ends with the Literature review, Hypotheses, Objective of the
Study, Scope of the study, Limitation of the study followed by Chapterization.

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 The second chapter ‘Tradition and Sustaining Culture’ gives a detailed note on
tradition and culture with its importance. It is narrowed down towards Cultural Studies
and its importance in the field of literature. The models of Cultural Studies in Indian
scenario are explored to give a detailed note on the select tribal communities of Indian
sub-continent. It focuses on the detailed note on tribal communities which include the
Badagas, the Kurumbas, the Mala Arayars, the Jarawas and the Sentinelese. The chapter
narrows down towards the sustaining cultural values of the select tribes which have been
transmitted for the ancestors for years. The chapter gives a clear note on the eco-lifestyle
followed by the tribal communities and their love for nature.
The third Chapter ‘Desire for Modernity’ focuses upon transition in the life of tribal
community due to their desire on modernity. The oppression from the mainstream makes the
tribal community to desire for progress and development. The tribal people start desiring for
progress due to various issues faced by them in the past as well as in the present. Desire leads
to the process of evolution and it further leads to progression and change in socio-economic
situation among the tribes. The chapter clearly explains the various forms of transition in the
tribal communities with reference to the works selected for the study.
The fourth chapter ‘Progressive Movements through Modernity and Moral Vision’
gives a brief insight of the tribal communities with modern impact and their developed social
condition. It analyses the impacts of modernism leading to various issues including loss of
culture, loss of traditional knowledge and environmental distress. It brings out that both
modernism and traditional values are important for a peaceful society with all moral values.
In the end of the chapter, suggestions regarding the futuristic visions have been discussed in
order to bring the world with stable ecosystem and it encourages the humankind to follow a
naturalistic life style to a certain extent for the betterment of the future generation.
The fifth chapter is ‘Summation’ which sums up all the chapters, followed by the
future scope for further research.
The following chapter ‘Tradition and Sustaining Culture’ discusses the cultural and
traditional ethnic values of the select tribal communities. It also glorifies the tribal culture
for its uniqueness and values. It gives a detailed insight on naturalistic life style and
eco-consciousness in the tribal culture.

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