D”P gva¨wgK cixÿv-2026

e¨envwiK imvqb
cÖ_g I wØZxq cÎ
K‡j‡Ri bvg :
cixÿv_x©i bvg :
‡ivj bs :
‡iwR‡÷ªkb b¤^i :
wkÿvel© :
 cixÿvi bvg t Lv`¨je‡Yi weï× †Kjvm cÖ¯‘wZ|
ZË¡ : mgy‡`ªi cvwb †_‡K msM„nxZ je‡Y wewfbœ `ªeYxq Ac`ªe¨ †hgb- CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4 Ges
Na2SO4 QvovI †ekwKQz A`ªeYxq Ac`ªe¨ Dcw¯’Z _v‡K| Ac`ªe¨hy³ bgybv jeY‡K cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z K‡i
A`ªeYxq Ac`ªe¨‡K cwi¯ªveY Øviv Acmvi‡Yi ci `ªeY‡K Zvc cÖ‡qv‡M Mvp ev m¤ú„³ K‡i H `ªe‡Y
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb †K¬vivBW M¨vm Pvjbv Ki‡j ev Mvp HCl `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j `ªe‡Y †K¬vivBW Avq‡bi (Cl-) NbgvÎv
e„w× cvq| d‡j `ªe‡Y Na+ Ges Cl- Avq‡bi AvqwbK ¸Ydj NaCl Gi `ªve¨Zv ¸Yv¼‡K AwZµg K‡i e‡j
`ªeY †_‡K weï× NaCl †Kjvm AvKv‡i †ewi‡q Av‡m, wKš‘ A`ªeYxq Ac`ªe¨¸‡jv `ªe‡Y †_‡K hvq| †ewi‡q
Avmv NaCl Gi †Kjvm¸wj‡K cwi¯ªve‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ c„_K K‡i ﮋ Ki‡j weï× NaCl Gi †Kjvm cvIqv hvq|
ZvwË¡K wbqg Abyhvqx c„_K Kiv NaCl Gi †Kjvm‡K Mvp HCl Gi `ªeY Øviv †aŠZ K‡i Zvc cÖ‡qv‡M †Kjvm‡K
ﮋ I HCl gy³ Kiv DwPZ| wKš‘ GwU GKw`‡K e¨qeûj Aciw`‡K cwi‡ek `~lY I ¯^v‡¯’¨i Rb¨ ÿwZKi I
wec`RbK| ZvB mvaviYZ Bnv cwinvi Kiv nq|

cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY I ivmvqwbK `ªe¨ :

1) 2 wU weKvi 6) wdëvi KvMR
2) 1 wU dv‡bj 7) evb©vi A_ev w¯úwiU j¨v¤ú
3) ‡cvi‡mwjb ev wPbvgvwUi †ewmb 8) Lv`¨ je‡Yi bgybv Ges
4) KuvP`Û 9) Mvp HCl GwmW|
5) wÎc`x ÷¨vÛ

wPÎ:

wPÎ: AveZ©b MwZ‡Z wgkÖ‡Yi Av‡jvob wPÎ: `ªe‡Yi cwim&ªveY cÖwµqv

wPÎ : `ªeY DËßKiY I MvpxKiY wPÎ : †Kjvmb wPÎ : †Kjv‡mi ﮋxKiY

Kvh©c×wZ :
1) bgybv `ªeY cÖ¯‘ZKiY : 200 mL/400 mL weKv‡i 100-150 cm3 cvwb wb‡q Zv‡Z Aí Aí K‡i bgybv
jeY †hvM K‡i Møvm iW w`‡q †b‡o Nb `ªeY ˆZwi Kwi| Gici `ªeYwU‡K GKwU wÎc`xi ZviRvwji Dci ewm‡q
evY©vi w`‡q 60ºC -70ºC ZvcgvÎvq DËß Kwi| G Zß `ªe‡Y AviI wKQz bgybv c`v_© †hvM K‡i KuvP`Û w`‡q
fvj K‡i †b‡o `ªexf~Z Kwi|
2) DËß `ªe‡Yi cwi¯ªveY : GKwU †Mvj wdëvi KvMR‡K Pvi fuvR K‡i Zv †_‡K †KvY evwb‡q †KvYwU‡K GKwU
dv‡b‡ji Dci emvB| dv‡bjwU‡K ÷¨v‡Û GKwU wis AvKv‡ii K¬¨v‡¤úi Dci ¯’vcb Kwi| dv‡b‡ji wb‡P GKwU
†cv‡m©wjb †ewmb emvB| Gevi GKwU KuvP`‡Ûi Mv †e‡q Zß `ªeY‡K dv‡b‡ji wdëvi KvM‡Ri Dci Xvwj|
GZ wdëvi †ccv‡ii wfZi w`‡q P‡j Avmv cwi¯‹vi cwi¯ªyZ `ªeY †ewm‡b Rgv nq Ges wdëvi †ccv‡ii Dci
cvwb‡Z A`ªeYxq †fRvj Rgv nq|
3) cwi¯ªyZ `ªeY‡K MvpxKiY : Gevi cwi¯ªyZ `ªeYmn †ewmb‡K GKwU wÎc`x ÷¨v‡Ûi Dci ZviRvwj †i‡L Zvi
Dci ewm‡q evY©v‡ii mvnv‡h¨ Zvc †`B| Zvc cÖ‡qv‡M `ªe‡Yi `ªveK ev®úxf~Z n‡q `ªeY µgvš^‡q Mvp nq|
Gfv‡e `ªeY h‡_ó cwigv‡Y Mvp n‡j KuvP`‡Ûi gv_vq GKUz `ªeY wb‡q duy w`‡q VvÛv Kwi| GZ hw` i‡Wi
gv_vq KvVb c`v_© R‡g hvq Z‡e g‡b Kiv nq †h `ªeYwU m¤ú„³ n‡q‡Q|
4) Zß m¤ú„³ `ªeY †_‡K †Kjvmb : m¤ú„³ nIqvi ci Zß `ªeY‡K GKwU eo Qov‡bv Zjvi wW‡k †X‡j ‡bB|
Gici `ªeYmn wWkwU‡K GKwU Uªv‡di kxZj cvwb‡Z Aa© wbgw¾Z Ae¯’vq †i‡L ax‡i ax‡i kxZj Kwi| G
`ªe‡Y mivmwi wKQz Mvp HCl `ªeY †hvM Kwi| d‡j `ªeY †_‡K ax‡i ax‡i weï× NaCl Gi †Kjvm/ `vbv Rgv
nq|
5) †Kjvm c„_KxKiY I ﮋKiY : `ªeYmn wW‡ki ZvcgvÎv KÿZvcgvÎvq †b‡g Avm‡j wWk‡K Uªvd †_‡K
DwV‡q wb‡q Dci †_‡K gvZ…`ªeY‡K †X‡j †bB| Gevi †Kjvm¸‡jv‡K mvgvb¨ cvwb w`‡q †b‡o ay ‡q †bB| G‡Z
†Kjvm gvZz`ªeY gy³ nq| Gici †Kjvm‡K GKwU wdëvi KvM‡Ri Dci Qwo‡q Av‡iKwU KvMR w`‡q †P‡c
cvwb †kvlY K‡i †bB| wKQzÿY evZv‡m †i‡L ev KvMRmn f¨vKzqvg †Wwm‡KU‡i †i‡L †Kjvm¸‡jv ﮋ Kwi|
6) †Kjvm msiÿY : GKwU cwi®‹vi I ﮋ †U÷wUD‡e ev wQwc AuvUv Kuv‡Pi †evZ‡j Drcbœ NaCl Gi †Kjvm
msiÿY Kwi| †evZ‡ji Mv‡q wb‡Ri †ivj b¤^i wj‡L GKwU KvM‡R jvwM‡q †`B|
djvdj : Aweï× NaCl bgybvi fi,W1 = 10 g
weï× NaCl †Kjv‡mi fi, W2 = 8 g
∴ Drcv`bgvÎv
mZK©Zv :
1| m¤ú„³ `ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ‡Z h_vm¤¢e Kg cvwb e¨envi Kiv|
2| `ªeY‡K ax‡i ax‡i Zvc w`‡Z n‡e|
3| Zxeª GwmW e¨env‡i h‡_ó mZK©Zv Aej¤^b Ki‡Z n‡e|
 cixÿvi bvg t A·vwjK GwmW (H2C2O4.2H2O) Gi `ªeY Zvc wbY©q|
ZË¡ t Avgiv Rvwb, wecyj cwigvb `ªve‡K 1.0 †gvj `ªe `ªexf~Z Ki‡j Zv‡ci †h cwieZ©b N‡U Zv‡K H `ª‡ei
`ªeY Zvc e‡j| myZivs cixÿvMv‡i `ªeYZvc wbY©‡qi mgq 1.0 †gvj `ªe‡K Ggb cwigvY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z Kiv
nq hv‡Z `ªe‡Yi fi 1.0 wK‡jvMÖvg nq| KviY Gi d‡j P~ovšÍ `ªe‡Yi ZvcgvÎv 1ºC cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ Zv‡ci
†h cwieZ©b nq Zvi cwigvY 4.2kJ nq| myZivs 1.0 wK‡jvMÖvg `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Ki‡Z hw` ZvcgvÎvi tº C e„w×
N‡U Z‡e mswkøó `ª‡ei `ªeY Zv‡ci gvb nq 4.2×t kJ mol-1
cÖK…Z cixÿ‡Yi mgq `ªe 1.0 †gvj bv wb‡q †h †Kvb cwigvY †bqv †h‡Z cv‡i| †h Ae¯’vq 1.0 †gvj `ª‡ei
Rb¨ `ªeY Zvc wnmve K‡i †`Lv‡Z n‡e| †hgb, 0.1 †gvj `ªe cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z K‡i hw` `ªe‡Yi †gvU fi
100g Kiv nq Z‡e,
Zv‡ci cwieZ©b= 0.42× t kJ
∴ `ªeY Zvc
= 4.2× t kJ mol-1
cÖ‡qvRbxq DcKiY I `ªe¨vw` t
1) GKwU weKvi
2) Kuv‡Pi bvob `Û
3) _v‡g©vwgUvi
4) cvwb
5) A·vwjK GwmW (H2C2O4.2H2O)

wPÎ : `ªeY Zvc wbY©q

Kvh©c×wZ :
1) GKwU weKv‡i 87.4cm3 (A_©vr 87.4 g) cvwb †bB| G‡Z GKwU KuvP`Û ivwL| Pvi w`‡Ki †`qv‡j Zzjv
w`‡q c¨vwKs Kiv GKwU Kv‡Vi ev‡· weKviwU emvB| GZ wm‡÷gwU Zvc wb‡ivax K¨vjwiwgwZK nq|
2) GKwU _v‡g©vwgUvi Wzwe‡q cvwbi ZvcgvÎv (t1ºC) †iKW© Kwi| ‡iKW©K„Z ZvcgvÎv t1 = 28.0ºC
3) 12.6 g (0.1 mol) A·vwjK Gi fi cwigvc K‡i Zv weKv‡ii cvwb‡Z †hvM Kwi Ges KuvP`Û w`‡q fvj
K‡i †b‡o `ªexf~Z Kwi|
4) G Ae¯’vq `ªe‡Yi ZvcgvÎv t2ºC †iKW© Kwi| ‡iKW©K„Z ZvcgvÎv t2 = 24.0ºC
5) wb‡Pi eY©bv g‡Z `ªeY Zvc wnmve Kwi|
wnmve t
A·vwjK GwmW Gi fi = 12.6g
M„nxZ cvwbi fi = 87.4 g
cvwbi cÖv_wgK ZvcgvÎv, t1 = 28.0ºC
`ªe‡Yi †kl ZvcgvÎv, t2 = 24.0ºC
∴ ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b, t = (t1- t2) = (28.0-24.0) ºC = 4.0 ºC
∴ A·vwjK GwmW Gi `ªeY Zvc, = 4.2× t kJ mol-1
= 4.2 ×4.0
= 16.8 kJ mol-1

djvdj : mieivnK…Z A·vwjK GwmW Gi `ªeY Zvc, = 16.8 kJ mol-1

mZK©Zv :
1| Muyov Kiv A·vwjK GwmW †hvM Kivi ci Møvm iW w`‡q fv‡jvfv‡e †b‡o A·vwjK GwmW‡K h_vkxNªB
`ªexf~Z Kiv DwPZ|
2| cixÿvKv‡j wgkÖ‡Yi Av‡jvob †hb mylg nq Ges Møvm i‡Wi AvNv‡Z †hb _v‡g©vwgUvi evj¦ †f‡½ bv hvq|
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t bxj
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|
(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM evi meyR e‡Y©i wkLv Cu jeY n‡Z
evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi Kiv †`Lv †Mj cv‡i|
n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i ¸ov Kiv
je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv|
(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :
`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| NH4OH `ªeY cixÿv t cÖ_‡g nvjKv bxj Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj I c‡i Aat‡ÿc Cu2+ Avqb
cÖvß `ªe‡Yi GK Ask GKwU `ªexf~Z n‡q Mvp bxj `ªeY Drcbœ n‡jv| wbwðZ|
cixÿv b‡j wb‡q ax‡i ax‡i CuSO4 +NH4OH → CuSO4. Cu(OH)2 +
NH4OH †hvM Kiv n‡jv| (NH4)2SO4
CuSO4. Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 + NH4OH →
[Cu(NH3)4]SO4 + H2O
2| K4[Fe(CN)6] cixÿv t Cu2+ Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q wKDwcÖK †d‡ivmvqvbvB‡Wi ev`vgx Aat‡ÿc c‡o| wbwðZ|
Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg †d‡ivmvqvbvBW Cu + K4[Fe(CN)6] → Cu2[Fe(CN)6] + K
2+ +

`ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡jv|

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Cl- Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY Abycw¯’Z|
wb‡q Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY
†hvM Kiv nq|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Aat‡ÿc jNy HCl Gwm‡W
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY A`ªeYxq| SO42- Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY SO42- + Ba(NO3)2 → BaSO4 ↓ + NO3- wbwðZ|
†hvM Kiv n‡jv| BaSO4 + jNy HCl → Aat‡ÿc A`ªeYxq|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t Kcvi(II) Avqb, (Cu2+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t mvj‡dU (II) Avqb ,(SO42-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-Kcvi mvj‡dU (CuSO4)
jeYwU †h‡nZz bxj is‡qi myZivs GwU Kcv‡ii GKwU Av`ª© ev †mv`K jeY| jeYwU n‡jv eøywfwUªqj ev CuSO4.5H2O
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t meyR
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|
(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM evi meyR e‡Y©i wkLv Cu jeY n‡Z
evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi Kiv †`Lv †Mj cv‡i|
n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i ¸ov Kiv
je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv|
(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :
`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| NH4OH `ªeY cixÿv t cÖ_‡g nvjKv bxj Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj I c‡i Aat‡ÿc Cu2+ Avqb
cÖvß `ªe‡Yi GK Ask GKwU `ªexf~Z n‡q Mvp bxj `ªeY Drcbœ n‡jv| wbwðZ|
cixÿv b‡j wb‡q ax‡i ax‡i CuSO4 +NH4OH → CuSO4. Cu(OH)2 +
NH4OH †hvM Kiv n‡jv| (NH4)2SO4
CuSO4. Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 + NH4OH →
[Cu(NH3)4]SO4 + H2O
2| K4[Fe(CN)6] cixÿv t Cu2+ Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q wKDwcÖK †d‡ivmvqvbvB‡Wi ev`vgx Aat‡ÿc c‡o| wbwðZ|
Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg †d‡ivmvqvbvBW Cu + K4[Fe(CN)6] → Cu2[Fe(CN)6] + K
2+ +

`ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡jv|

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| hv HNO3 G A`ªeYxq wKš‘ Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q NH4OH `ªe‡Y `ªeYxq| Dcw¯’Z|
Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY †hvM Kiv Cl- + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NO3-
n‡jv| AgCl + NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2O
AgCl + HNO3 → ‡Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| CO32- I SO42-
Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY †hvM Avqb Abycw¯’ Z|
Kiv n‡jv|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t Kcvi (II) Avqb, (Cu2+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t ‡K¬vivBW (I) Avqb ,( Cl-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv- Kcvi †K¬vivBW (CuCl2)
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t nvjKv meyR
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|
(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
KvV Kqjv M‡Z© Kve©b weRviY cixÿv : GKwU Kv‡jv e‡Y©i Ae‡kl cvIqv hvq hv Pz¤^K
KvV Kqjvi M‡Z© wKQz bgybv jeY I Gi wظY Øviv AvK…ó nq| Fe jeY
cwigvY Na2CO3 Gi wgkÖY wb‡q 2/3 †duvUv FejeY + Na2CO3  FeCO3 + Na jeY n‡Z cv‡i|
cvwb Øviv wm³ K‡i eyb‡mb Øxc wkLvi weRviY FeCO3 + Zvc FeO + CO2
gÛ‡j dzur b‡ji mvnv‡h¨ DËß Kiv nq| FeO + C  Fe + CO
(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :
`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ
cvwb †hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I
A¤øxq g~j‡Ki cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| cUvwmqvg ‡d‡ivmvqvbvBU `ªeY divm †d‡ivmvqvbvB‡Wi nvjKv bxj Aat‡ÿc c‡o|
cixÿv t GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY 2Fe + K4[Fe(CN)6] → Fe2[Fe(CN)6] +4K Fe2+ Avqb
2+ +

wb‡q Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg †d‡ivmvqvbvBW wbwðZ

`ªeY †hvM Kiv nq|
2| A¨v‡gvwbqvg _v‡qvmvqv‡bU cixÿv : Fe2+ Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q Zv‡Z Mvp jvj (i³ jvj) `ªeY Drcbœ nq wb| wbwðZ
A¨v‡gvwbqvg _v‡qvmvqv‡bU
(NH4CNS) `ªeY †hvM Kiv nq|
(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Cl- Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY Abycw¯’Z|
wb‡q Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY
†hvM Kiv nq|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Aat‡ÿc jNy HCl Gwm‡W
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY A`ªeYxq| SO42- Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY SO42- + Ba(NO3)2 → BaSO4 ↓ + NO3- wbwðZ|
†hvM Kiv n‡jv| BaSO4 + jNy HCl → Aat‡ÿc A`ªeYxq|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
2+
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t ‡divm (II) Avqb, (Fe )
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t mvj‡dU (II) Avqb ,(SO42-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-‡divm mvj‡dU (FeSO4)
‡KjvwmZ †divm mvj‡d‡Ui ms‡KZ : FeSO4.7H2O
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t Kvj‡P ev`vwg
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|
(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
KvV Kqjv M‡Z© Kve©b weRviY cixÿv : GKwU Kv‡jv e‡Y©i Ae‡kl cvIqv hvq hv Pz¤^K
KvV Kqjvi M‡Z© wKQz bgybv jeY I Gi wظY Øviv AvK…ó nq| Fe jeY
cwigvY Na2CO3 Gi wgkÖY wb‡q 2/3 †duvUv FejeY + Na2CO3  FeCO3 + Na jeY n‡Z cv‡i|
cvwb Øviv wm³ K‡i eyb‡mb Øxc wkLvi weRviY FeCO3 + Zvc FeO + CO2
gÛ‡j dzur b‡ji mvnv‡h¨ DËß Kiv nq| FeO + C  Fe + CO
(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :
`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ
cvwb †hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I
A¤øxq g~j‡Ki cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| cUvwmqvg ‡d‡ivmvqvbvBU `ªeY †dwiK †d‡ivmvqvbvB‡Wi Mvp bxj Aat‡ÿc
cixÿv t GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY c‡o| Fe3+ Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg †d‡ivmvqvbvBW 4Fe3++ 3K4[Fe(CN)6] → Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3+12K wbwðZ
`ªeY †hvM Kiv nq|
2| A¨v‡gvwbqvg _v‡qvmvqv‡bU cixÿv : Mvp jvj (i³ jvj) `ªeY Drcbœ nq| Fe3+ Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q Zv‡Z Fe3+ + 3NH4CNS → Fe(CNS)3↓ + 3NH4+ wbwðZ
A¨v‡gvwbqvg _v‡qvmvqv‡bU
(NH4CNS) `ªeY †hvM Kiv nq|
(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| hv HNO3 G A`ªeYxq Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q wKš‘ NH4OH `ªe‡Y `ªeYxq| Dcw¯’Z|
Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY †hvM Kiv Cl + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NO3
- -

n‡jv| AgCl + NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2O

AgCl + HNO3 → ‡Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t CO32- I
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| SO42- Avqb
Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY †hvM Abycw¯’ Z|
Kiv n‡jv|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t ‡dwiK (III) Avqb, (Fe3+ )
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t ‡K¬vivBW (I) Avqb ,( Cl-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-‡dwiK †K¬vivBW (FeCl3)
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|
(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
KvV Kqjv M‡Z© Kve©b weRviY cixÿv : GKwU Kv‡jv e‡Y©i Ae‡kl cvIqv hvq hv Pz¤^K
KvV Kqjvi M‡Z© wKQz bgybv jeY I Gi wظY Øviv AvK…ó nq| Zn jeY
cwigvY Na2CO3 Gi wgkÖY wb‡q 2/3 †duvUv Zn jeY + Na2CO3  ZnCO3 + Na jeY n‡Z cv‡i|
cvwb Øviv wm³ K‡i eyb‡mb Øxc wkLvi weRviY ZnCO3 + Zvc ZnO + CO2
gÛ‡j dzur b‡ji mvnv‡h¨ DËß Kiv nq| ZnO + C  Zn + CO

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| NaOH `ªeY cixÿv t Zn(OH)3 Gi mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| G Aat‡ÿ‡ci m‡½
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q AwZwi³ NaOH `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j Aat‡ÿc `ªexf~Z n‡q hvq|
Zv‡Z ax‡i ax‡i NaOH `ªeY Zn2+ + NaOH → Zn(OH)2 + Na+ Zn2+ Avqb
†hvM Kiv n‡jv| Zn(OH)2 + NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O wbwðZ
2| cUvwmqvg †d‡ivmvqvbvBW wR¼ †d‡ivmvqvbvB‡Wi mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Zn2+ Avqb
`ªeY cixÿv : GKwU cixÿv b‡j Zn2+ + K4[Fe(CN)6] → Zn2[Fe(CN)6] + K+ wbwðZ
g~j`ªeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg
†d‡ivmvqvbvBW `ªeY †hvM Kiv
nq|
(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Cl- Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY Abycw¯’Z|
wb‡q Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY
†hvM Kiv nq|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Aat‡ÿc jNy HCl Gwm‡W
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY A`ªeYxq| SO42- Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY SO42- + Ba(NO3)2 → BaSO4 ↓ + NO3- wbwðZ|
†hvM Kiv n‡jv| BaSO4 + jNy HCl → Aat‡ÿc A`ªeYxq|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t wRsK (II) Avqb, (Zn2+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t mvj‡dU (II) Avqb ,(SO42-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-wRsK mvj‡dU ZnSO4
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|
(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
KvV Kqjv M‡Z© Kve©b weRviY cixÿv : GKwU Kv‡jv e‡Y©i Ae‡kl cvIqv hvq hv Pz¤^K
KvV Kqjvi M‡Z© wKQz bgybv jeY I Gi wظY Øviv AvK…ó nq| Zn jeY
cwigvY Na2CO3 Gi wgkÖY wb‡q 2/3 †duvUv Zn jeY + Na2CO3  ZnCO3 + Na jeY n‡Z cv‡i|
cvwb Øviv wm³ K‡i eyb‡mb Øxc wkLvi weRviY ZnCO3 + Zvc ZnO + CO2
gÛ‡j dzur b‡ji mvnv‡h¨ DËß Kiv nq| ZnO + C  Zn + CO

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| NaOH `ªeY cixÿv t Zn(OH)3 Gi mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| G Aat‡ÿ‡ci m‡½
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q AwZwi³ NaOH `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j Aat‡ÿc `ªexf~Z n‡q hvq|
Zv‡Z ax‡i ax‡i NaOH `ªeY Zn2+ + NaOH → Zn(OH)2 + Na+ Zn2+ Avqb
†hvM Kiv n‡jv| Zn(OH)2 + NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O wbwðZ
2| cUvwmqvg †d‡ivmvqvbvBW wR¼ †d‡ivmvqvbvB‡Wi mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Zn2+ Avqb
`ªeY cixÿv : GKwU cixÿv b‡j Zn2+ + K4[Fe(CN)6] → Zn2[Fe(CN)6] + K+ wbwðZ
g~j`ªeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg
†d‡ivmvqvbvBW `ªeY †hvM Kiv
nq|
(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| hv HNO3 G A`ªeYxq wKš‘ Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q NH4OH `ªe‡Y `ªeYxq| Dcw¯’Z|
Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY †hvM Kiv Cl- + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NO3-
n‡jv| AgCl + NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2O
AgCl + HNO3 → ‡Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t CO32- I SO42-
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Avqb Abycw¯’ Z|
Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY †hvM
Kiv n‡jv|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t wRsK (II) Avqb, (Zn2+)
-
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t ‡K¬vivBW (I) Avqb ,( Cl )
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-wRsK mvj‡dU ZnCl2
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM evi eyb‡mb `xc Na,K, Cu,
evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi Kiv wkLvq †Kvb Ca jeY
n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i ¸ov Kiv we‡kl eY© †`Lv Abycw¯’Z|
je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv| †Mj bv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| NaOH `ªeY cixÿv t Al(OH)3 Gi mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| G Aat‡ÿ‡ci m‡½
(K) GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY AwZwi³ NaOH `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j Aat‡ÿc `ªexf~Z n‡q hvq|
wb‡q Zv‡Z ax‡i ax‡i NaOH KviY `ªeYxq †mvwWqvg A¨vjywg‡bU Drcbœ nq| Al3+ Avqb
`ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡jv| Al3+ + NaOH → Al(OH)3 + Na+ wbwðZ
Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + H2O

(L) cÖvß `ªeY‡K NH4Cl mn GeviI mv`v Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj|

DZß Kiv n‡jv| NaAlO2 + H2O + NH4Cl → Al(OH)3 + NaCl +NH3

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| hv HNO3 G A`ªeYxq wKš‘ Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q NH4OH `ªe‡Y `ªeYxq| Dcw¯’Z|
Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY †hvM Kiv Cl- + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NO3-
n‡jv| AgCl + NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2O
AgCl + HNO3 → ‡Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| CO32- I SO42-
Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY †hvM Avqb Abycw¯’ Z|
Kiv n‡jv|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t A¨vjywgwbqvg(III) Avqb, (Al3+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t ‡K¬vivBW (I) Avqb ,( Cl-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-A¨vjywgwbqvg †K¬vivBW (AlCl3)
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM evi eyb‡mb `xc Na,K, Cu,
evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi Kiv wkLvq †Kvb Ca jeY
n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i ¸ov Kiv we‡kl eY© †`Lv Abycw¯’Z|
je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv| †Mj bv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| NaOH `ªeY cixÿv t Al(OH)3 Gi mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| G Aat‡ÿ‡ci m‡½
(K) GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY AwZwi³ NaOH `ªeY †hvM Ki‡j Aat‡ÿc `ªexf~Z n‡q hvq|
wb‡q Zv‡Z ax‡i ax‡i NaOH KviY `ªeYxq †mvwWqvg A¨vjywg‡bU Drcbœ nq| Al3+ Avqb
`ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡jv| Al3+ + NaOH → Al(OH)3 + Na+ wbwðZ
Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + H2O

(L) cÖvß `ªeY‡K NH4Cl mn GeviI mv`v Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj|

DZß Kiv n‡jv| NaAlO2 + H2O + NH4Cl → Al(OH)3 + NaCl +NH3

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Cl- Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY Abycw¯’Z|
wb‡q Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY
†hvM Kiv nq|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Aat‡ÿc jNy HCl Gwm‡W
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY A`ªeYxq| SO42- Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY SO42- + Ba(NO3)2 → BaSO4 ↓ + NO3- wbwðZ|
†hvM Kiv n‡jv| BaSO4 + jNy HCl → Aat‡ÿc A`ªeYxq|

bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t

cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t A¨vjywgwbqvg(III) Avqb, (Al3+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t mvj‡dU (II) Avqb ,(SO42-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-A¨vjywgwbqvg mvj‡dU Al2 (SO4)3
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM evi B‡Ui b¨vq jvj Ca jeY n‡Z
evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi Kiv e‡Y©i wkLv †`Lv cv‡i|
n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i ¸ov Kiv †Mj
je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
2+
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY K¨vjwmqvg Kve©‡b‡Ui mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| G Aat‡ÿc jNy Ca Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z (NH4)2CO3 `ªeY HCl Gwm‡W `ªeYxq| wbwðZ|
†hvM Kiv nq| Ca + (NH4)2CO3 → CaCO3 + NH4+
2+

CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 ↑ + H2O

GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY K¨vjwmqvg AK&vª ‡j‡Ui mv`v Aat‡ÿc c‡o| G Aat‡ÿc jNy Ca2+ Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z (NH4)2C2O4 HCl Gwm‡W `ªeYxq| wbwðZ|
`ªeY †hvM Kiv nq| Ca + (NH4)2C2O4 → CaC2O4 + NH4
2+ +

CaC2O4 + HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 ↑ + H2O

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| hv HNO3 G A`ªeYxq wKš‘ Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q NH4OH `ªe‡Y `ªeYxq| Dcw¯’Z|
Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY †hvM Kiv Cl- + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NO3-
n‡jv| AgCl + NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2O
AgCl + HNO3 → ‡Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| CO32- I SO42-
Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY †hvM Avqb Abycw¯’ Z|
Kiv n‡jv|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t Kcvi (II) Avqb, (Ca2+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t ‡K¬vivBW (I) Avqb ,( Cl-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv- Kcvi †K¬vivBW (CaCl2)
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM ‡mvbvwj njy` Na jeY
evi evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi e‡Y©i wkLv †`Lv n‡Z cv‡i|
Kiv n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i †Mj|
¸ov Kiv je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ
cvwb †hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I
A¤øxq g~j‡Ki cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| cUvwmqvg cvB‡ivA¨vw›U‡gv‡bU mv`v `vbv`vi Aat‡ÿc c‡o|
`ªeY cixÿv t GKwU cixÿv b‡j Na+ + K2H2Sb2O7 → Na2H2Sb2O7 + K+ Na+ Avqb
g~j`ªeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg cvB‡iv- wbwðZ
A¨vw›U‡gv‡bU Gi `ªeY †hvM Kiv nq
Ges cixÿv b‡ji wfZ‡ii cv‡k KuvP
`Û Øviv Nl©Y Kiv nq|

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| hv HNO3 G A`ªeYxq Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q wKš‘ NH4OH `ªe‡Y `ªeYxq| Dcw¯’Z|
Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY †hvM Kiv Cl + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NO3
- -

n‡jv| AgCl + NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2O

AgCl + HNO3 → ‡Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t CO32- I
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| SO42- Avqb
Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY †hvM Abycw¯’ Z|
Kiv n‡jv|
bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t
cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t ‡mvwWqvg (I) Avqb, (Na+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t ‡K¬vivBW (I) Avqb ,( Cl-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-‡mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW (NaCl)
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM ‡mvbvwj njy` Na jeY
evi evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi e‡Y©i wkLv †`Lv n‡Z cv‡i|
Kiv n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i †Mj|
¸ov Kiv je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ
cvwb †hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I
A¤øxq g~j‡Ki cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| cUvwmqvg cvB‡ivA¨vw›U‡gv‡bU mv`v `vbv`vi Aat‡ÿc c‡o|
`ªeY cixÿv t GKwU cixÿv b‡j Na+ + K2H2Sb2O7 → Na2H2Sb2O7 + K+ Na+ Avqb
g~j`ªeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cUvwmqvg cvB‡iv- wbwðZ
A¨vw›U‡gv‡bU Gi `ªeY †hvM Kiv nq
Ges cixÿv b‡ji wfZ‡ii cv‡k KuvP
`Û Øviv Nl©Y Kiv nq|

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY Abycw¯’Z|
wb‡q Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY
†hvM Kiv nq|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Aat‡ÿc jNy HCl Gwm‡W
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY `ªeYxq| CO32- Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 CO32- + Ba(NO3)2 → BaCO3 ↓ + NO3- wbwðZ
`ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡jv| BaCO3 + HCl → BaCl2 + CO2↑ + H2O

bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t

cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t ‡mvwWqvg (I) Avqb, (Na+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t Kve©‡bU (II) Avqb ,( CO32-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-‡mvwWqvg †K¬vivBW (Na2CO3)
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM evi eyb‡mb `xc Na,K, Cu,
evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi Kiv wkLvq †Kvb Ca jeY
n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i ¸ov Kiv we‡kl eY© †`Lv Abycw¯’Z|
je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv| †Mj bv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| ‡bmjvi `ªeY cixÿv t A¨vwg‡bv gviwKD‡iv Av‡qvWvBW Gi ev`vgx e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY c‡o|
wb‡q Zv‡Z ‡bmjvi `ªeY NH4Cl + NaOH → NH3 + NaCl + H2O NH4+ Avqb
(K2[HgI4]) †hvM Kiv nq| KHgI3 → KI + HgI2 wbwðZ
2HgI2 → Hg2I4
Hg2I4 + 2NH3 → NH2[Hg2I3] ↓ + NH4I

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| hv HNO3 G A`ªeYxq wKš‘ Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q NH4OH `ªe‡Y `ªeYxq| Dcw¯’Z|
Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY †hvM Kiv Cl- + AgNO3 → AgCl ↓ + NO3-
n‡jv| AgCl + NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2O
AgCl + HNO3 → ‡Kv‡bv wewµqv nq bv|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY wb‡q ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| CO32- I SO42-
Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY †hvM Avqb Abycw¯’Z|
Kiv n‡jv|

bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t

cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t A¨v‡gvwbqvg (I) Avqb, (NH4+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t ‡K¬vivBW (I) Avqb ,( Cl-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-A¨v‡gvwbqvg †K¬vivBW (NH4Cl)
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM evi eyb‡mb `xc Na,Cu, Ca,
evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi Kiv wkLvq †Kvb Pb jeY
n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i ¸ov Kiv we‡kl eY© †`Lv Abycw¯’Z|
je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv| †Mj bv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ cvwb
†hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I A¤øxq g~j‡Ki
cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| ‡bmjvi `ªeY cixÿv t A¨vwg‡bv gviwKD‡iv Av‡qvWvBW Gi ev`vgx e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY c‡o|
wb‡q Zv‡Z ‡bmjvi `ªeY NH4Cl + NaOH → NH3 + NaCl + H2O NH4+ Avqb
(K2[HgI4]) †hvM Kiv nq| KHgI3 → KI + HgI2 wbwðZ
2HgI2 → Hg2I4
Hg2I4 + 2NH3 → NH2[Hg2I3] ↓ + NH4I

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY Abycw¯’Z|
wb‡q Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY
†hvM Kiv nq|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Aat‡ÿc jNy HCl Gwm‡W
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY A`ªeYxq| SO42- Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 `ªeY SO42- + Ba(NO3)2 → BaSO4 ↓ + NO3- wbwðZ|
†hvM Kiv n‡jv| BaSO4 + jNy HCl → Aat‡ÿc A`ªeYxq|

bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t

cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t A¨v‡gvwbqvg(I) Avqb, (NH4+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t mvj‡dU (I I) Avqb ,( SO42-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-A¨v‡gvwbqvg mvj‡dU, (NH4)2SO4
cixÿvi bvg : AÁvZ A‰Re je‡Yi Avw½K we‡kølY|
bgybvi †fŠZ ˆewkó¨ : K) Ae¯’v t KwVb `vbv`vi
L) eY© t mv`v
M) `ªve¨Zv t cvwb‡Z `ªeYxq|

(K) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki ﮋ cixÿv :

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
wkLv cixÿv t GKwU KuvP `‡Ûi m‡½ hy³ GKLÛ cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM eyb‡mb `xc Na,Cu,
evi evi Mvp HCl G wm³ Kivi ci eyb‡mb `x‡c cÖR¡wjZ K‡i cwi®‹vi wkLvq †Kvb Ca, Pb jeY
Kiv n‡jv| AZtci cøvwUbvg Zv‡ii AMÖfvM cybivq HCl G wm³ K‡i we‡kl eY© †`Lv Abycw¯’Z|
¸ov Kiv je‡Y ¯úk© K‡i eyb‡mb `x‡ci Aby¾¡j wkLvq aiv n‡jv| †Mj bv|

(L) ÿviKxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv :

`ªeY cÖ¯‘wZ t bgybv jeY cvwb‡Z `ªexf~Z nIqvq GKwU weKv‡i 0.5 MÖvg cwigvY bgybv jeY wb‡q Zv‡Z cvwZZ
cvwb †hvM K‡i gRy` `ªeY cÖ¯‘Z Kiv n‡jv| G `ªeY wb‡q wb‡Pi eY©bv Abyhvqx avivevwnKfv‡e ÿviKxq I
A¤øxq g~j‡Ki cixÿv Kiv n‡jv|
cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
1| ‡bmjvi `ªeY cixÿv t A¨vwg‡bv gviwKD‡iv Av‡qvWvBW Gi ev`vgx e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY c‡o|
wb‡q Zv‡Z ‡bmjvi `ªeY NH4Cl + NaOH → NH3 + NaCl + H2O NH4+ Avqb
(K2[HgI4]) †hvM Kiv nq| KHgI3 → KI + HgI2 wbwðZ
2HgI2 → Hg2I4
Hg2I4 + 2NH3 → NH2[Hg2I3] ↓ + NH4I

(M) A¤øxq g~j‡Ki wm³ cixÿv t

cixÿY ch©‡eÿY wm×všÍ
-
1| wmjfvi bvB‡UªU cixÿv t ‡Kvb Aat‡ÿc cvIqv †Mj bv| Cl Avqb
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY Abycw¯’Z|
wb‡q Zv‡Z AgNO3 `ªeY
†hvM Kiv nq|
2| †ewiqvg bvB‡UªU cixÿv t mv`v e‡Y©i Aat‡ÿc c‡o| Aat‡ÿc jNy HCl Gwm‡W
GKwU cixÿv b‡j g~j`ªeY `ªeYxq| CO32- Avqb
wb‡q Zv‡Z Ba(NO3)2 CO32- + Ba(NO3)2 → BaCO3 ↓ + NO3- wbwðZ
`ªeY †hvM Kiv n‡jv| BaCO3 + HCl → BaCl2 + CO2↑ + H2O

bgybv je‡Yi bvgKiY t

cÖ`Ë je‡Yi we‡køl‡Y †`Lv †Mj, G‡Z
(K) ÿviKxq g~jK t A¨v‡gvwbqvg(I) Avqb, (NH4+)
(L) A¤øxq g~jK t Kve©‡bU (II) Avqb ,( CO32-)
myZivs cÖ`Ë jeYwU n‡jv-A¨v‡gvwbqvg Kve©‡bU, (NH4)2CO3