MODULE II: MAJOR

THEORETICAL APPROACHES
TO PERSONALITY
 SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud (born May 6, 1856) was an Austrian neurologist and
the founder of psychoanalysis. Psychology's most famous figure is
also one of the most influential and controversial thinkers of the
20th century.
Freud revolutionized how we think about and treat mental health
conditions. Freud founded psychoanalysis as a way of listening to
patients and better understanding how their minds work.
Sigmund Freud's theories and work helped shape current views of
dreams, childhood, personality, memory, sexuality, and therapy.
Freud's work also laid the foundation for many other theorists to
formulate ideas, while others developed new theories in opposition
to his ideas.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY:
Psychoanalysis sought to bring unconscious information into conscious
awareness in order to induce catharsis. Catharsis is an emotional release that
may bring about relief from psychological distress.
Research has found that psychoanalysis can be an effective treatment for a
number of mental health conditions.
Psychoanalytic psychologists see psychological problems as rooted in the
unconscious mind.
Manifest symptoms are caused by latent (hidden) disturbances.
Typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed
trauma.
Freud’s Dream Analysis:
Freud proposed that dreams could provide valuable insight into an
individual’s unconscious desires and conflicts.
Freud proposed that dreams are a form of “wish fulfillment”. They
represent the unconscious desires, thoughts, and motivations that
our conscious mind represses.
Freud distinguished between the manifest content of a dream
(what we remember upon waking) and the latent content (the
hidden psychological meaning).
Latent Dreams:
Latent content in dreams, a concept introduced by Sigmund Freud in
his psychoanalytic theory, refers to the hidden, symbolic, and
unconscious meanings or themes behind the events of a dream. Freud
believed that the latent content of a dream is often related to
unconscious desires, wishes, and conflicts. These are thoughts and
feelings that are so troubling or unacceptable that the conscious mind
represses them. However, they can emerge in a disguised form in our
dreams.
Latent Dreams:

The latent content is not directly observable because it is often coded

or symbolized in the dream’s manifest content. For example, a dream
about losing teeth might have a latent content related to anxiety about
aging or fear of losing power or control (though interpretations can
vary greatly depending on the individual).
Freud’s Theory Of Personality:
According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, all psychic energy is
generated by libido. Freud suggested that our mental states were
influenced by two competing forces:

Cathexis
Mental
states
Anticathexis
Freud’s Theory Of Personality:
Cathexis was described as an investment of mental energy in a
person, idea, or object.
Anticathexis involves the ego blocking the socially unacceptable
needs of the id. Repressing urges and desires is one common form
of anticathexis, but this involves a significant investment of energy.
Example: If you are hungry, for example, you might create a mental
image of a delicious meal that you have been craving. if you can't
actually seek out food to appease your hunger, you might instead
thumb through a cookbook or browse through your favorite recipe
blog.
Freud’s Theory Of Personality:
Sigmund Freud believed that people were ruled by two primary forces:
the life instinct (Eros)
the death instinct (Thanatos).

These two competing forces work together, and often in competition,

to guide and direct human behavior.
 Freud’s Theory Of Personality:
Life instincts (Eros) are those that relate to a basic need for survival,
reproduction, and pleasure. They include such things as the need for
food, shelter, love, and sex.
In Greek mythology, Eros was the god of love and desire. More
precisely, his was the god of physical desire and passion.
The life drive is focused on the preservation of life, both of the
individual and of the species.4
Capuzzi D, Stauffer MD. Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theories and
Interventions. John Wiley & Sons; 2016.
This drive compels people to engage in actions that sustain their own
lives, such as looking after their health and safety.
Freud’s Theory Of Personality:
Death instincts (Thanatos) are the result of an unconscious wish for
death, which Freud believed all humans have.5 Self-destructive behavior
was one expression of the death drive, according to Freud.
In Greek mythology, Thanatos was the personification of death. His role
was to carry people off to the underworld when their life was over.
Freud believed that people typically channel this death drive outward,
which manifests as aggression toward others. People also can direct
this drive inward, however, which can result in self-harm or suicide.
He theorized that humans are driven toward death and destruction,
famously declaring that "the aim of all life is death."
Freud’s Theory Of Personality:
Freud based this theory on clinical observations, noting that people
who experience a traumatic event often recreate or revisit it. For
example, he noted that soldiers returning from World War I tended to
revisit their traumatic experiences in dreams that repeatedly took
them back to combat.

From these observations, he concluded that people hold an

unconscious desire to die but that life instincts largely temper this wish.
Psychosexual Stages of Human Development:
According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go
through a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of
the adult personality.
Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood
stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on
certain erogenous areas.
An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is
particularly sensitive to stimulation.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build
growth or stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If
these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy
personality is the result.
ORAL STAGE (0-1 YEAR):
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially
important.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child
must become less dependent upon caretakers.
If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have
issues with dependency or aggression.
Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or
nail-biting.
ANAL STAGE (1-3 YEARS):
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the
libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn
to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in
negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient,
Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in
which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the
individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
PHALLIC STAGE (3-6 YEARS):
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the
libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the
differences between males and females.​
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for
the mother’s affection. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings
of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these
feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of
feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls
instead experience penis envy.
LATENT PERIOD (6-PUBERTY):
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's
energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and
relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.
The stage begins around the time that children enter school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is
repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into
other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or
"stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an
inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.
GENTIAL STAGE (PUBERTY- DEATH):
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual
develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins
during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life
areas.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most
basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and
social norms.
CRITICISM OF THE PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY:

The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little

mention of female psychosexual development.
His theories are difficult to test scientifically.
Freud's theory is based on case studies and not empirical research.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS:

Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously

used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts
or feelings.
According to Freudian theory, defense mechanisms involve a distortion of
relaity in wome way so that we are better able to cope with a situation.
 1. Denial:
Denial refers to the client’s refusal to acknowledge certain facts about a
particular situation (Baumeister et al., 1998) or denial of the existence of
specific feelings, thoughts, or even perceptions.

Eg: Ahmed has received various negative job evaluations about his inability
to communicate empathetically with clients. Since Ahmed believes he
communicates very effectively, he dismisses these negative evaluations
using several arguments.
He argues that his manager is wrong, his manager is jealous, that he was
stressed that one day with the client, that the client was unclear, and that
the other client was hostile.
2. Projection:
If a client’s traits threaten their self-concept, then the client may:
Fail to recognize that they possess these traits
See these same threatening traits in other people
By not acknowledging threatening traits in themselves, and seeing them in
other people instead, the client can protect their self-concept.

Eg: The therapist suggests to the client, Amelia, that she fails to
acknowledge her partner’s feelings in an argument. Amelia believes she is a
very empathetic person, and she thinks she is very responsive to her
partner’s feelings. In response, Amelia argues that it is not her, but her
partner who fails to acknowledge Amelia’s feelings.
3. Displacement:
When a client displays displacement, they are changing or displacing the
original target of a particular impulse to another similar target. The
displacement occurs because the response to the initial target is
considered unacceptable or impossible, so a more suitable target is found.

Eg: Aidan experiences intense rage and hatred toward his mother;
however, he cannot act on these impulses. Instead, he displaces his feelings
about his mother onto other people whom he associates with her. He
might show hostile behavior toward other women who embody the same
characteristics and behaviors as his mother.
4. Repression:
When clients experience or think things that may be threatening, they may
choose to repress them instead. By repressing a memory, feeling, or
thought, these things are no longer accessible in the client’s consciousness.
These things do not cease to exist and may be represented in dreams and
thoughts by other things, people, or objects.

Eg: Jacob cannot remember certain painful memories as a child. To

protect himself, he unconsciously represses these memories from his
consciousness. Instead, he displays anxious behaviors toward other items
that he associates with these original painful memories.
5. Regression:
In response to stress or distress, clients display age-inappropriate
behavior; that is, they regress or move back to an early developmental
stage and adopt immature patterns of behavior and emotions.

Eg: In response to the news that his parents are getting divorced, Gary
has displayed behavior that is more typical of younger children. When
frustrated, he screams and bites, kicks and hits his parents, and has
started wetting the bed.
6. Isolation:
Isolation is defined as the act of creating a mental or cognitive barrier
around threatening thoughts and feelings, isolating them from other
cognitive processes. Isolation is clear when the client doesn’t complete a
thought, trailing off and changing the topic instead. Isolation is evidenced
by the silent ellipse that follows a trailing thought.

Eg: During her session, Emily is describing an argument with her husband
and is about to describe a thought that she remembers thinking during the
argument. The thought that she was about to recall is unlike the thoughts
and feelings that Emily believes she typically feels toward her husband, and
it does not fit in her self-concept of a loving wife. As she is about to recall
the thought, she pauses, leaving the sentence unfinished, and describes a
different aspect of the argument instead.
7. Reaction Formation:
Reaction formation is where a person goes beyond denial and behaves in
the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels. Conscious behaviors
are adopted to overcompensate for the anxiety a person feels regarding
their socially unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions.

Eg: a gay person who is unable to accept their own sexuality (or who is
afraid of the social repercussions of their sexuality being known)
expressing homophobic views and having very public heterosexual affairs.
8. Sublimation:
Sublimation is similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to
displace our unacceptable emotions into behaviors which are constructive
and socially acceptable, rather than destructive activities.

Eg: A person who feels angry might channel that energy into a competitive
sport like football or mixed martial arts.
9. Rationalization:

Rationalization is a defense mechanism involving a cognitive distortion of

“the facts” to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We do it often
enough on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses.

Eg: Someone might say they were in a hurry to justify cutting in line or A
child might say their parents are busy with work to avoid feeling ignored.
Psychoanalytic Therapy:
Psychoanalytic therapy is a form of talk therapy based on Sigmund Freud's
theories of psychoanalysis. The approach explores how the unconscious
mind influences your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Specifically, it
examines how your experiences (often from childhood) may be contributing
to your current experience and actions.
Psychoanalytic Therapy Techniques:

Dream Analysis
Transferance
Free Association
Dream Analysis:
Psychoanalytic theory holds that many thoughts, memories, drives,
and emotions that remain outside of conscious awareness show
up in dreams and fantasies.
Psychoanalytic therapists often analyze recurring symbols and
imagery from their patients’ dreams to discover key themes and
patterns that may emerge.
Eg: a dream about falling could represent a feeling of being out of
control or failing at something.
Free Association:
Developed by Freud, free association is a psychoanalytic technique
that involves encouraging the patient to talk openly about
whatever is on their mind in a stream-of-consciousness fashion.
This open-ended approach is believed to help unconscious
thoughts, fears, shame, and motivations come to light.
Eg: If an individual despises their mother and when the therapist
says, 'mother' and the client may immediately respond with 'witch.
Transference:
Transference refers to the idea that the patient’s feelings and
behaviors toward their therapist can provide insight into their
childhood experiences with caregivers and authority figures.
In turn, countertransference refers to the therapist’s unconscious
feelings and thoughts about the patient.
Eg: A patient may feel anger or hostility towards their therapist
because they experienced a similar relationship with a parent
figure in the past
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development:
Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most
popular and influential theories of development. Erik Erikson was a
German-born American psychoanalyst whose writings on social
psychology, individual identity, and the interactions of psychology with
history, politics, and culture influenced professional approaches to
psychosocial problems.
Erikson was a student of Freud’s and expanded on his theory of
psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in
parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult
development .
Erikson’s Stages of Development:
Erikson's theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle.
This principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs
over time and in the context of a larger community.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves
the way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson
believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development.
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the
stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the
rest of their lives.
Erikson’s Stages of Development:
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18
months to three years)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth
to 18 months)
Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in
development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and
nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child
will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their
life.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth
to 18 months)
Trust: If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will
develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people
are dependable and affectionate.
Mistrust: Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate
care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and
insecurity. This could lead to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable
world, fostering a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth
to 18 months)

Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a

balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children
acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience
tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make
choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop
a sense of autonomy.
For example, during this stage, children begin to assert their independence,
by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and
making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(Toddler years from 18 months to three years)

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this
process. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions
leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important
events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences,
and clothing selection.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(Toddler years from 18 months to three years)

Autonomy: When parents approach toilet training in a patient, supportive

manner, allowing the child to learn at their own pace, the child may feel a
sense of accomplishment and autonomy.
Shame and Doubt: Conversely, if the process is rushed, if there’s too much
pressure, or if parents respond with anger or disappointment to accidents,
the child may feel shame and start doubting their abilities.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
(preschool year)
At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their
power and control over the world through directing play and other social
interactions.
During this period, the primary feature involves the child regularly
interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it
allows children to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating
activities.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
(preschool year)

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with
others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and
feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success at
this stage leads to the virtue of purpose.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or
control, children develop a sense of guilt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
(preschool year)
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst
for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a
nuisance, or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as
threatening, the child may feel guilty for “being a nuisance”.
The balance between initiative and guilt during this stage can help children
understand that it’s acceptable to take charge and make their own
decisions, but there will also be times when they must follow the rules or
guidelines set by others. Successfully navigating this stage develops the
virtue of purpose.
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority:
(ages 5 to 11)
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in
their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social
and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while
failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to
do sums, and to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an
important role in the child’s life as they teach specific skills. At this stage,
the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and become a major
source of the child’s self-esteem.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority:
(ages 5 to 11)
Industry: If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to
develop skills, they gain a sense of industry—a feeling of competence
and belief in their skills. They start learning to work and cooperate with
others and begin to understand that they can use their skills to
complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in their ability to
achieve goals.
Inferiority: On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or
are not allowed to demonstrate their skills, they may develop a sense
of inferiority.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
(12-18 years)
This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity
which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a
person's life.
Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, seek to establish a sense of
self, and may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.
According to Erikson, this is important to forming a strong identity and
developing a sense of direction in life.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
(12-18 years)
Identity: If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the
freedom to explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and
control.
Role Confusion: If adolescents are restricted and not given the space
to explore or find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they
may experience role confusion. This could mean being unsure about
one’s place in the world, values, and future direction.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
(12-18 years)
Erikson claims adolescents may feel uncomfortable about their bodies until
they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to
others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be
ideological differences.
However, if adolescents don’t have the support, time, or emotional
capacity to explore their identity, they may be left with unresolved identity
issues, feeling unsure about their roles and uncertain about their future.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
(12-18 years)
Erikson described 3 forms of identity crisis:
1. severe (identity confusion overwhelms personal identity)
2. prolonged (realignment of childhood identifications over an extended
time)
3. aggravated (repeated unsuccessful attempts at resolution)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(19-40 years)
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and
isolation. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate,
loving relationships with other people.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(19-40 years)
Intimacy: Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to
form intimate, reciprocal relationships with others. They can form close
bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency.
Isolation: If individuals struggle to form these close relationships,
perhaps due to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection,
they may experience isolation. Isolation refers to the inability to form
meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This could lead to
feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(19-40 years)

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is

marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other
people.
However, if individuals struggle during this stage and are unable to form
close relationships, they may feel isolated and alone. This could potentially
lead to a sense of disconnection and estrangement in adulthood.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(40 to 65 years)

During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily
through our careers, families, and contributions to society. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to
attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(40 to 65 years)

Generativity: If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions

to the world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to
positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of generativity.
Stagnation: If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or
are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience
stagnation. Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved,
leading to self-absorption, lack of growth, and feelings of emptiness.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(40 to 65 years)
Psychologically, generativity refers to “making your mark” on the world
through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. We give
back to society by raising our children, being productive at work, and
participating in community activities and organizations.
Stage 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
(65 to death)
At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives
and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they
regret the things they did or didn't do.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has
been wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left
with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Stage 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
(65 to death)
Ego Integrity: If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and
meaningful life, they will experience ego integrity. This is characterized
by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find
coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom
and fulfillment.
Despair: On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their
past, feel they have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to
achieve their life goals, they may experience despair.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self:
Central to Rogers’ personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept.
This is “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about
oneself.”
Carl Rogers’ self-concept is a central theme in his humanistic theory of
psychology. It encompasses an individual’s self-image (how they see
themselves), self-esteem (how much value they place on themselves), and
ideal self (the person they aspire to be).
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self:
Self-concept is the image we have of ourselves. It is influenced by many
forces, including our interaction with the important people in our lives. It is
how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics.

Our self-perception is important because it affects our motivations,

attitudes, and behaviors. It also affects how we feel about the person we
think we are, including whether we are competent or have self-worth.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self:

Carl Rogers believed that self-concept is made up of three distinct parts:

ideal self, self-image, and self-esteem. His theory explains what it means
when these parts are congruent or incongruent with reality that impacts
your self-concept.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self:
Ideal self: The ideal self is the person you want to be. This person has
the attributes or qualities you are either working toward or want to
possess.
Self-image: Self-image refers to how you see yourself at this moment
in time. Physical characteristics, personality traits, and social roles
affect your self-image.
Self-esteem: How much you like, accept, and value yourself contributes
to your self-concept.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self- Incongruence:
A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens
in life and the experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist
between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called
incongruence.
Self-concept is not always aligned with reality. When it is aligned, it is
said to be congruent. If there is a mismatch between how you see
yourself (your self-image) and who you wish you were (your ideal self),
your self-concept is incongruent. This incongruence can negatively
affect self-esteem.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self- Incongruence:
Incongruence is “a discrepancy between the actual experience of the
organism and the self-picture of the individual insofar as it represents
that experience.
A person whose self-concept is incongruent with her or his real feelings
and experiences will defend himself because the truth hurts.
The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive
regard. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-
actualization, they must be in a state of congruence.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self- Unconditional
Positive Regard:
Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and
the humanist therapist) accept and loves the person for what he or she
is, and refrain from any judgment or criticism.
Unconditional positive regard can be used by parents, teachers,
mentors, and social workers in their relationships with children, to
foster a positive sense of self-worth and lead to better outcomes in
adulthood.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self- Unconditional
Positive Regard:
In therapy, it can substitute for any lack of unconditional positive
regard the client may have experienced in childhood, and promote a
healthier self-worth.
Examples of unconditional positive regard in counseling involve the
counselor maintaining a non-judgmental stance even when the client
displays behaviors that are morally wrong or harmful to their health or
well-being. The goal is not to validate or condone these behaviors, but
to create a safe space for the client to express themselves and
navigate toward healthier behavior patterns.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self- Conditional
Positive Regard:
Conditional positive regard is a concept in psychology that refers to
the expression of acceptance and approval by others (often parents or
caregivers) only when an individual behaves in a certain acceptable or
approved way.
For example, if parents only show love and approval when a child gets
good grades or behaves in ways they approve, the child may grow up
believing they are only worthy of love and positive regard when they
meet certain standards. This may hinder the development of their true
self and could contribute to struggles with self-esteem and self-
acceptance.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self- Self-actualization:
Carl Rogers believed that humans have one basic motive, which is the
tendency to self-actualize – i.e., to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the
highest level of “human-beingness” we can.
According to Rogers, people could only self-actualize if they had a
positive view of themselves (positive self-regard). This can only happen
if they have unconditional positive regard from others.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self- Self-actualization:

Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization,

they must be in a state of congruence.
This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self”
(i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior
(self-image).
Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning
person.
Carl Roger’s Theory of Self:

Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:

Open to experience
Existential living
Trust feelings
Creativity
Fulfilled life