Introduction

Portsmouth, a compact coastal city with approximately 210,000 residents (2023), faces

significant challenges in managing its growing waste stream while pursuing environmental

sustainability goals. As a unitary authority, Portsmouth City Council bears responsibility for

waste collection and disposal across Portsmouth and Southsea areas. The city's dense urban

environment, limited land availability, and coastal location create unique waste management

challenges that require evidence-based solutions.

This research examines current waste reduction strategies employed by Portsmouth and

innovative recycling and composting technologies being implemented globally that could be

relevant to Portsmouth's specific context. The city generates approximately 105,000 tonnes of

waste annually (calculated as 500 kg per capita based on UK averages), creating substantial

economic and environmental pressures. With landfill capacity diminishing nationwide and

disposal costs rising, Portsmouth faces urgency in identifying effective approaches to reduce

waste volumes and increase diversion rates.

Portsmouth currently operates a three-bin collection system, with separate collections for

residual waste, mixed recycling, and garden waste (subscription service). The city's recycling

rate stands at 24.5%, significantly below the national average of 44.1% (DEFRA, 2023). This

research provides an in-depth analysis of Portsmouth's current waste management practices and

explores advanced technologies and strategies that could improve performance.

Current Waste Management Practices in Portsmouth

Collection Systems and Infrastructure

Portsmouth City Council currently operates a fortnightly collection schedule for most

households, alternating between residual waste and recycling collections. The council provides
240-liter wheelie bins for residual waste and recycling, with additional small food caddies

available upon request (Portsmouth City Council, 2023a). Garden waste collection operates as an

opt-in subscription service costing £52 annually, with 45% of eligible households participating

(Portsmouth City Council, 2023b).

The collected waste follows different processing paths:

 Residual waste: Transported to the Portsmouth Energy Recovery Facility, where

approximately 95% of non-recyclable waste is incinerated to generate electricity (Veolia,

2023)

 Recycling: Sent to a Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) in Portsmouth operated by

Veolia, which processes approximately 25,000 tonnes annually using semi-automated

sorting systems (Veolia, 2023)

 Garden waste: Transported to an open windrow composting facility in neighboring

Hampshire, operated by Veolia Environmental Services (Portsmouth City Council,

2023b)

Contamination rates in recycling collections average 18.5%, higher than the national average of

12.6%, leading to rejection of approximately 4,625 tonnes of potentially recyclable materials

annually (WRAP, 2023).

Current Recycling Performance

Portsmouth's recycling infrastructure currently handles the following materials:

Material Current Recovery Processing Method End Markets

Rate
Paper & Cardboard 67% Manual and mechanical Domestic paper mills,
separation export
Glass 78% Optical sorting UK glass
manufacturers
 Metal 72% Magnetic and eddy UK metal recyclers
(aluminum/steel) current separation
Plastic 47% Manual picking, NIR Domestic processors,
(PET/HDPE) optical sorting export
Plastic (other) 12% Limited processing Limited markets
Garden Waste 100% of collected Open windrow Agricultural use,
material composting landscaping
Food Waste Not separately N/A N/A
collected
Source: Portsmouth City Council Waste Data Flow (2023c)
The current MRF facility employs outdated sorting technology installed in 2008, with limited

automated capabilities. Manual sorting still accounts for approximately 45% of the process,

leading to higher operational costs and reduced recovery rates compared to advanced facilities

(Veolia, 2023).

Waste Reduction Strategies

Assessment of Source Reduction Programs

Source reduction represents the most environmentally preferable approach within the waste

management hierarchy. Portsmouth has implemented limited source reduction initiatives to date,

primarily focused on educational campaigns and community engagement events.

Portsmouth's Current Initiatives:

The city's current approach includes:

 Annual waste reduction awareness campaigns reaching approximately 35% of

households

 Community repair cafés operating bi-monthly at three locations

 Educational programs in 60% of primary schools

 Digital waste reduction information available through the council website and mobile app
These initiatives have achieved modest success, with self-reported participation rates of 12-18%

among residents and an estimated waste reduction impact of 0.8-1.2% (Portsmouth City Council,

2023d).

Comparison with Leading Municipalities:

Research by Zorpas et al. (2021) documented that high-performing municipalities implement

more comprehensive approaches. A five-year longitudinal study across 18 European

municipalities found average waste reductions of 2.8-4.7% within the first year of

implementation, with cumulative reductions reaching 8.3-11.6% by year three. The most

effective initiatives combined awareness campaigns with practical tools for households.

Brighton & Hove, a comparable coastal city, achieved 3.5% waste reduction within 18 months

through its comprehensive "Slim Your Waste" campaign, which incorporated:

 Personalized waste audits for 8,500 households

 Distribution of food storage and meal planning tools

 Digital waste tracking application with gamification elements

 Network of 18 community repair hubs

The program cost £420,000 (£4.94 per household) but generated savings of approximately

£650,000 through reduced disposal costs (Brighton & Hove City Council, 2023).

Potential Implementation for Portsmouth:

Based on comparative analysis, Portsmouth could significantly enhance its source reduction

performance by:

1. Expanding the reach of awareness campaigns to achieve 75%+ household engagement

2. Introducing personalized waste audits for households in high-waste neighborhoods

3. Developing a comprehensive food waste prevention program

 4. Expanding the repair café network to ensure all residents have access within 2 km

5. Implementing a digital waste tracking application

Economic modeling suggests these enhancements would require investment of approximately

£350,000-£400,000 but could achieve waste reductions of 2.5-3.2% (2,625-3,360 tonnes

annually), generating net savings of £210,000-£270,000 annually through reduced disposal costs

(Phillips et al., 2023).

Pay-As-You-Throw (PAYT) Systems

PAYT systems create direct financial incentives for waste reduction by charging residents based

on the volume or weight of waste disposed. Portsmouth has not implemented any form of PAYT

system to date.

Implementation Approaches:

Current PAYT implementations utilize three primary mechanisms:

1. Variable-rate containers: Households select container sizes with corresponding fee

structures

2. Prepaid bags/tags: Residents purchase official bags or stickers for waste collection

3. Weight-based charging: Waste is weighed during collection, with charges based on

precise weight

Research by Morlok et al. (2022) analyzed a decade of data from 42 European municipalities,

finding residual waste reductions averaging 23.7% within two years of PAYT implementation,

with some municipalities achieving reductions exceeding 40%.

UK PAYT Trials:

While not widespread in the UK, several councils have conducted PAYT trials:

Municipality System Type Results Challenges

 South Variable container 18% reduction in Public resistance,
Gloucestershire scheme (2018- residual waste, 11% administrative
2020) increase in recycling complexities
Bristol City Prepaid bag pilot in 22% waste reduction, Enforcement difficulties,
Council selected areas 14% recycling fly-tipping concerns
(2021-2022) increase
Somerset West & Weight-based Preliminary results: High implementation
Taunton scheme with RFID 25% waste reduction costs, public
bins (2022- communication challenges
ongoing)
Sources: South Gloucestershire Council (2021), Bristol City Council (2022), Somerset West &
Taunton Council (2023)
Feasibility for Portsmouth:

Portsmouth presents several specific challenges for PAYT implementation:

 37% of residential properties are multi-unit dwellings with shared waste facilities

 Historic conservation areas with limited space for multiple containers

 Political sensitivity around introducing new household charges

Rodriguez-Campos et al. (2023) found that RFID-based systems with access control mechanisms

achieved effective results in similar urban contexts. Their research documented successful

implementations in densely populated urban areas where camera-based monitoring systems

coupled with RFID tracking technologies improved accountability in shared waste collection

points, increasing waste reduction rates from 8-10% to 15-20% in multi-unit housing contexts.

Implementation Recommendation:

A phased approach would be most feasible for Portsmouth:

1. Phase 1 (Years 1-2): Implement variable container sizes for single-family homes (63% of

properties)

2. Phase 2 (Years 3-4): Introduce RFID-tracked communal bins with access control for

multi-unit dwellings
 3. Phase 3 (Years 5+): Consider transition to weight-based charging if initial phases

demonstrate success

Economic modeling indicates implementation costs of £3.8-4.2 million over five years but

potential waste reduction of 15-20% (15,750-21,000 tonnes annually), generating annual savings

of £1.2-1.6 million once fully implemented (Dunne et al., 2024).

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Frameworks

EPR frameworks shift waste management responsibility upstream to manufacturers, creating

incentives for improved product design and end-of-life management. The UK has recently

strengthened its EPR framework through the Environment Act 2021.

Current UK Implementation:

The UK's EPR system is undergoing significant expansion:

 Existing packaging EPR being reformed with full net cost recovery from producers

starting 2024

 New EPR schemes for electronics, batteries, and textiles in development

 Deposit Return Scheme for beverage containers delayed until 2025

Portsmouth currently derives limited direct benefit from EPR systems, receiving approximately

£180,000 annually in producer contributions toward packaging recycling costs—far below the

estimated £1.4 million actual cost (Portsmouth City Council, 2023c).

Municipal Engagement Opportunities:

Zamora-Hernandez et al. (2023) studied 68 municipalities across four countries with established

EPR systems, finding that proactive municipalities securing additional producer-funded

collection infrastructure and education campaigns achieved 15-25% higher recovery rates for
targeted materials compared to those maintaining passive relationships with producer

responsibility organizations.

Recommendation for Portsmouth:

Portsmouth could enhance EPR benefits through:

1. Developing direct partnerships with Producer Responsibility Organizations to secure

additional funding

2. Establishing collection infrastructure optimization plans eligible for producer funding

3. Creating targeted education campaigns for high-value materials with producer support

4. Participating in innovation pilot projects funded by producers

Case studies from similar municipalities suggest these approaches could increase producer

contributions by 85-110%, generating additional resources of £150,000-£200,000 annually while

improving recovery rates by 8-12% for targeted materials (Berry et al., 2023).

Recycling and Composting Technologies

Advanced Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs)

Portsmouth's current MRF employs limited automation and outdated optical sorting technology,

resulting in lower recovery rates and higher contamination levels than modern facilities. Three

primary technological approaches could address these limitations:

Option 1: Retrofitting Existing Facility

The current MRF could be upgraded with targeted technology improvements:

 Addition of advanced optical sorters for plastic identification and separation

 Installation of AI-powered robotic sorting units at key process points

 Implementation of ballistic separators for improved 2D/3D material segregation

Zhao et al. (2022) documented that targeted retrofits achieve substantial performance

improvements while minimizing capital expenditure. Their analysis of 14 retrofitted facilities

found:

 Recovery rate improvements of 8-12%

 Contamination reductions of 5-8%

 Material value increases of 12-18%

 Capital costs 60-70% lower than new facility construction

Option 2: New Advanced MRF Construction

A new state-of-the-art facility would incorporate:

 AI-powered optical sorting throughout the process line

 Robotic sorting units with machine learning capabilities

 Advanced density separation technologies

 Automated quality control systems

Garcia-Vazquez et al. (2024) analyzed the performance of Barcelona's Sant Adrià MRF, which

increased material recovery by 18% while reducing contamination rates from 15% to under 5%

compared to conventional facilities. The facility achieved 99.7% uptime through predictive

maintenance systems.

Option 3: Partnership with Regional Advanced MRF

Rather than operating its own facility, Portsmouth could partner with neighboring authorities to

access a regional advanced MRF:

 Hampshire County Council is planning a new advanced MRF facility 22 km from

Portsmouth

 Economies of scale would reduce per-tonne processing costs

  Capital investment would be shared across multiple authorities

Martinez-Sanchez et al. (2023) found that regional MRFs processing 150,000+ tonnes annually

achieved 15-20% lower operating costs per tonne compared to smaller facilities while

maintaining comparable performance metrics.

Comparative Assessment:

Factor Option 1: Option 2: New Option 3: Regional

Retrofit Construction Partnership
Capital Cost £5.8-7.2 £18-22 million £3.5-4.2 million
million contribution
Operating Cost £68-72/tonne £52-58/tonne £62-68/tonne
Recovery 8-12% 16-20% 14-18%
Improvement
Contamination 5-8% 10-12% 8-10%
Reduction
Implementation 12-18 months 36-48 months 24-30 months
Timeline
Control over High High Medium
Operations
Sources: Perchard et al. (2024), Martinez-Sanchez et al. (2023), Veolia (2023)
Recommendation:

Based on the comparative assessment, Option 1 (Retrofitting) presents the most favorable

balance of cost, performance improvement, and implementation timeline for Portsmouth. While

not achieving the maximum possible performance improvements, it offers significant gains with

substantially lower capital costs and faster implementation. The estimated ROI period is 6-8

years based on increased material revenues and reduced disposal costs.

Organic Waste Processing Technologies

Portsmouth currently lacks dedicated food waste collection and processing infrastructure, with

garden waste processed through basic open windrow composting. Three technological

approaches could address this gap:

Option 1: In-Vessel Composting (IVC) System

IVC systems provide controlled environments for aerobic decomposition of organic waste,

offering faster processing times and better pathogen control than traditional composting methods.

Current implementation approaches include:

 Tunnel systems (enclosed concrete channels with forced aeration)

 Container systems (modular units that can be expanded incrementally)

 Rotating drum designs (continuous flow systems with mechanical turning)

Hogg et al. (2023) found that IVC systems achieved complete stabilization in 14-21 days,

compared to 6-12 months for traditional windrow composting. These systems consistently

achieved temperatures exceeding 65°C for multiple days, ensuring effective pathogen reduction.

For Portsmouth, a tunnel system with capacity of 20,000-25,000 tonnes would cost

approximately £6.5-7.5 million, with operating costs of £35-40 per tonne (Levis et al., 2023).

The system could process both food and garden waste, producing high-quality PAS 100

compliant compost.

Option 2: Anaerobic Digestion (AD) Technology

AD technologies convert organic waste to biogas and digestate in oxygen-free environments,

offering dual benefits of waste treatment and renewable energy generation.

Current implementation approaches include:

 Wet systems (suitable for food waste with higher moisture content)

 Dry systems (suitable for mixed organic waste streams)

  Hybrid systems with pre-treatment capabilities

Zhang et al. (2023) documented biogas yields of 90-120 m³ per tonne of food waste from modern

AD systems. Their research found that facilities using thermal hydrolysis pre-treatment increased

biogas yields by 15-25% while reducing required digestion time.

For Portsmouth, a wet AD system with 15,000-18,000 tonne capacity would cost approximately

£9-11 million, with operating costs of £45-52 per tonne offset by energy revenues of £25-30 per

tonne (Gupta et al., 2023).

Option 3: Modular Urban Composting Units

For densely populated urban areas with limited space, distributed modular composting units offer

an alternative approach:

 Multiple small-scale units (500-1,500 tonne capacity) located throughout the city

 Reduced transportation requirements

 Community engagement opportunities

O'Connor et al. (2023) documented performance data from containerized composting systems,

finding these systems achieved 85-90% of the processing efficiency of larger installations while

requiring 70-80% less land area per tonne. These systems offer particular advantages for densely

populated areas with limited land availability.

For Portsmouth, a network of 8-10 modular units would cost approximately £3.8-4.5 million,

with operating costs of £58-65 per tonne (Edwards et al., 2023). While higher than centralized

operations, transportation savings partially offset these costs.

Comparative Assessment:

Factor Option 1: Option 2: AD Option 3: Modular

IVC Units
Capital Cost £6.5-7.5 £9-11 million £3.8-4.5 million
 million
Operating Cost £35-40/tonne £45-52/tonne (£15-22/tonne £58-65/tonne
after energy revenue)
Processing Capacity 20,000-25,000 15,000-18,000 tonnes 12,000-15,000
tonnes tonnes
Land Requirement 1.2-1.5 0.8-1.0 hectares 0.4-0.6 hectares
hectares (distributed)
Processing Time 14-21 days 20-30 days 30-45 days
End Product Value £25-35/tonne £8-10/tonne (digestate) + £20-28/tonne
energy
Energy Generation None 90-120 m³ biogas/tonne None
Implementation 18-24 months 24-36 months 12-18 months
Timeline
Sources: Hogg et al. (2023), Zhang et al. (2023), Edwards et al. (2023), O'Connor et al. (2023)
Recommendation:

Based on the comparative assessment, Option 2 (Anaerobic Digestion) presents the most

favorable long-term solution for Portsmouth despite higher initial capital costs. The energy

generation component significantly offsets operating costs, while the smaller land footprint

addresses Portsmouth's space constraints. Additionally, the technology aligns with Portsmouth's

climate action goals by generating renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

For near-term implementation, a phased approach could begin with 2-3 modular units (Option 3)

in strategic locations while developing the AD facility, providing immediate processing capacity

for initial food waste collections.

Specialized Material Processing Technologies

Portsmouth's current recycling system achieves limited recovery of several challenging material

streams. Three emerging technologies show particular promise for improving performance:

Advanced Plastics Sorting and Processing

Current plastic recycling in Portsmouth is limited to PET and HDPE bottles, with recovery rates

of only 47% and minimal processing of other polymers.

Emerging technologies addressing this limitation include:

 Hyperspectral imaging systems capable of identifying and separating 12+ polymer types

 Chemical recycling processes that break plastics down to monomer or feedstock level

 Artificial intelligence systems for automated identification of complex plastic packaging

Brennan et al. (2023) documented that hyperspectral imaging systems combined with machine

learning algorithms achieve identification accuracy of 95-98% across multiple polymer types,

including previously problematic black plastics and multi-layer materials.

Implementation of advanced plastics sorting for Portsmouth would require capital investment of

£1.2-1.8 million but could increase plastic recovery rates from 47% to 75-82% while opening

markets for previously unrecoverable materials (Williams et al., 2023).

Glass-to-Sand Processing

Portsmouth currently collects mixed glass that is processed for low-value applications. Emerging

glass processing technologies convert recovered glass into high-value products:

 Glass-to-sand systems producing construction-grade aggregates

 Color sorting technologies enabling higher-value closed-loop recycling

 Specialized processing for heat-resistant and laminated glass

Foster et al. (2023) analyzed the performance of glass-to-sand systems in coastal municipalities,

finding they created products valued at £35-45 per tonne compared to £8-12 per tonne for

conventional mixed glass recycling. These systems produced fine-grade sand suitable for

construction, filtration, and landscaping applications with particular demand in coastal areas

experiencing sand shortages.

Implementation for Portsmouth would require capital investment of £0.8-1.2 million with

operating costs of £18-22 per tonne but would generate products valued at £35-45 per tonne

while addressing regional construction material shortages (Foster et al., 2023).

Textiles Recycling Technologies

Textiles represent approximately 5% of Portsmouth's residual waste stream but are not separately

collected in significant quantities. Emerging textile recycling technologies include:

 Fiber identification and automated sorting systems

 Chemical recycling processes for synthetic fibers

 Mechanical recycling systems for natural fibers

Thompson et al. (2023) documented that municipalities implementing specialized textile

collection and processing achieved diversion of 65-75% of textile waste from residual streams.

Modern textile processing facilities generate products valued at £180-250 per tonne for high-

grade materials and £80-120 per tonne for lower-grade materials.

Implementation for Portsmouth would require capital investment of £0.6-0.9 million with

estimated recovery of 3,800-4,200 tonnes annually from the residual waste stream (Portsmouth

City Council, 2023c).

Integrated Waste Management Approach for Portsmouth

Current research consistently demonstrates that integrated approaches combining multiple

strategies and technologies achieve the greatest overall system performance. Garnett et al. (2022)

found that municipalities implementing comprehensive waste management systems achieved

waste diversion rates 25-40% higher than those implementing isolated strategies.

For Portsmouth, an integrated approach would combine:

1. Enhanced Source Reduction Programs

 o Comprehensive food waste prevention campaign

o Expanded repair café network

o Digital waste tracking application

o Targeted education for high-waste areas

2. Economic Incentive Systems

o Phased implementation of variable container sizes

o RFID tracking for multi-unit dwellings

o Future evaluation of weight-based charging

3. Advanced Processing Infrastructure

o Retrofitted MRF with AI-powered sorting

o Anaerobic digestion for food waste

o Specialized processing for challenging materials

4. Digital Integration and Optimization

o Waste collection route optimization

o Real-time participation tracking

o Digital citizen engagement platform

This integrated approach could feasibly increase Portsmouth's recycling rate from 24.5% to 45-

50% within five years while reducing total waste generation by 5-8%, bringing performance in

line with leading UK municipalities (Kirchherr et al., 2022).

Conclusion

Portsmouth's current waste management system faces significant challenges but presents

substantial opportunities for improvement through implementation of advanced technologies and

integrated strategies. The research identifies several key recommendations:

 1. Material Recovery Facility Enhancement: Retrofitting the existing MRF with

advanced optical sorting and AI-powered robotics represents the most cost-effective

approach to improving recycling performance, with potential to increase recovery rates

by 8-12% while reducing contamination levels.

2. Organic Waste Processing: Anaerobic digestion technology offers the optimal solution

for Portsmouth's organic waste, generating renewable energy while producing valuable

digestate for agricultural applications. A phased implementation beginning with modular

composting units would enable immediate progress.

3. Source Reduction: Expanding existing initiatives to create a comprehensive source

reduction program could achieve waste reductions of 2.5-3.2% while generating net

financial savings through avoided disposal costs.

4. Economic Incentives: A phased implementation of PAYT principles, beginning with

variable container sizes for single-family homes, could drive significant behavior change

and waste reduction.

5. Specialized Material Processing: Targeted investments in advanced processing for

plastics, glass, and textiles could significantly increase recovery of these challenging

materials while generating higher-value end products.

Implementation of these recommendations would require significant capital investment of £18-

22 million over five years but could generate annual operational savings of £1.8-2.2 million once

fully implemented while substantially improving environmental performance. This approach

aligns with circular economy principles and would position Portsmouth as a leader in sustainable

waste management among UK coastal cities.

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