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SESSION: GAS TURBINE ENGINES

REVIEW LECTURER: ENGR. KEN GUANZON

I. Introduction:
The Advantage of the GTE:
• Greater reliability because it has lesser moving
parts than the reciprocating engine.
• High power to weight ratio although it is
heavier than the reciprocating engine, the power
it produces is incomparable to that of the The Jet engine works by simply obeying the Laws of
reciprocating engine. Motion set out by Newton. When the aircraft, and the
engine is currently static, it is in equilibrium, and in order
Principles of Jet Propulsion for the aircraft to move forward a force must be applied
from the engine, and as a reaction to that force the
 A propelling force is generated by the jet engine
aircraft moves forward.
by the effect of forcing a mass of fluid which is
under pressure through a hole or opening called
How to Increase Jet Engine thrust
a jet nozzle.
To answer that question, we must understand the core
concept of what thrust is. Thrust is a Force. Thus, to
increase thrust, remember Newton’s Second Law!

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This is why by design; the GTE has 2 main sections:  Altitude

 The Cold Section – Serves as the means to

increase the amount of mass flowing, by
compressing the air entering the system.
As the aircraft flies in higher altitude, thrust may decrease
 The Hot Section – Serves as the means to
due to the decreasing air density (Also, if you’re used to
accelerate the air entering the system.
talking about pressure, as you further increase your
Other Factors Affecting Thrust altitude, (air) pressure decreases decreasing thrust.

 Temperature  Airspeed

As the outside air temperature decreases, the ambient air

density decreases (Remember the ideal gas equation)

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With increasing aircraft airspeed, thrust decreases. The The higher proportion of the thrust is produced at
reason behind that is the decrease in the difference compressor speeds higher than 80-85% HP rpm.
between the initial airspeed going inside the jet and the
jet velocity, there is a decrease in the value of the II. Thermodynamic Principle of the
acceleration of the jettisoned gas thus there is a decrease GTE:
in Thrust.

To counter that effect, we have the Ram effect due to the Brayton Cycle:
ramming air entering the system. As the air enters the
inlet section of the GTE the air virtually sees a barrier
causing the air molecules to compress in the inlet section,
that act of compression increases the amount of gas
entering the system at a given time.,

 Engine Speed

Processes involved:

The amount of thrust produced by a turbojet is

proportional to its rpm. (Increased rpm increases

the mass flow).

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 Cycle Efficiency

Brayton Cycle Analysis:

 Net Work:

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 Compressor Work  Turbine Work

 Turbine Efficiency

 Compressor Efficiency

 Net Work from the 2 Systems

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Simply because of its adherence to Newton’s 3rd Law of

Motion which is action and reaction.

 Mean Effective Pressure

The mean effective pressure can be regarded as

an average pressure in the cylinder for a complete
engine cycle.

𝑊
𝑃 =
𝑉

• 𝑊 - Net Work
• 𝑉 - Volume Displacement (Volume 4 to Volume 2)

III. Jet Propulsion Systems

It is called that way because of its jettisoning

action, another name for such system is Reaction Engine.

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Non air breathing:  Cannot be shut down

 Much easier to store and handle
 Rockets:
 High propellant density makes for a
A non-air breathing reaction engine that carries its
compact size
own fuel as well as the oxygen needed for the fuel
to burn  Best compromise between cost and
the amount of thrust
 Lower specific impulse
 Cannot be throttled in real time.
 Intolerant to cracks and voids, whole
system may be faulty

o Liquid Propellant:

 More complex in design

 Engine can be throttled, stopped, or
restarted
 High specific impulse, high speed of
exhaust gas ejection
o Solid Propellant:  Higher Thrust
 Simplest of all designs  Better Controllability
 When ignited, a solid propellant  Difficult to handle as they require
burns from the center out towards separate storage tanks
the sides of the casing  More weight is needed
 The shape of the center channel  Complexity of design
determines the rate and the pattern
of the burn, providing means to
control thrust

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 Air Breathing Engines o Pulse Jet - A pulse jet engine is a type of jet
o Ram Jet - Air-breathing jet engine that engine that uses pulses of combustion rather
operates with no major moving parts. It relies than continuous combustion to stay in the air,
on the craft's forward motion to draw in air thereby reducing fuel costs and increasing
and on a specially shaped intake passage to efficiency.
compress the air for combustion. Can  Has few moving parts
operate up to Mach 6  Still needs ram effect but at a lower
intensity
 Slower than all the other air
breathing jet engines

 Must be moving forward at a high

velocity before it can produce thrust.
 Air outside is at Sonic to Supersonic
speeds, but is then compressed to a
subsonic level.
o Scram Jet - Is a variant of a ramjet, in
which combustion takes place
in supersonic airflow.
Can operate up until Mach 12-24

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o Gas Turbine Engines - The most widely used

air breathing engine, can be commonly found in
commercial aircrafts and other corporate
aircrafts.
 Turbojet – The first form of GTE, thrust
is produced by accelerating a stream of
air.

The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is

usually divided into two separate streams of air:
1. Air that passes through engine core
2. Bypass air
 Increase thrust
 Cools the engine
 Noise suppression

 Turbofan – A development of the

turbofan wherein a large fan is ducted at
aft of the inlet section, or
unconventionally, at the back of the
engine.

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o Turboprop/Turbopropeller - Compromise IV. Operation and Construction

between turbojet engines and reciprocating
engines drives a propeller through a reduction
gear. Reduction gearing is necessary in
Intake Compression Combustion Exhaust
turboprop engines because optimum propeller
performance is achieved at much slower speeds
than the engine’s operating rpm.
For easy memorization:

Suck Squeeze Burn Blow

Output measured in Equivalent shaft

horsepower (ESHP) = Shaft horsepower (SHP)
+ Thrust horsepower (THP)
Thrust comes from: 85% - from propeller and
15% - from exhaust gases

o Turboshaft - Delivers power to a shaft that

drives something other than a propeller.
Commonly used in helicopters and as APU’s on
commercial aircraft

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GTE Sections: A bell-mouth inlet duct is extremely efficient and is used where
there is little ram pressure available to force the air into the
engine. Bell-mouth ducts are used in engine test cells and on
engines installed in helicopters. But couldn’t be used
commercially as it would take up greater ground clearance.

Inlet Section:

Considered as part of the airframe, rather than the engine

Functions:
• Ram recovery / pressure recovery
• Raise the pressure above atmospheric pressure
• Provide a uniform supply of air to the compressor
Compressor Section:

Primary Function – supply air to the combustion chamber

1. Increase the pressure of air
2. Discharge air to the burners
Secondary Function – supply bleed air for the engine and
aircraft
1. Cabin pressurization, heating, and cooling
2. Deicing and anti-icing
3. Pneumatic starting
4. Auxiliary drive units (ADU)

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Produces: Pressure Rise per stage – 8:1

Centrifugal Flow Type:

One pressure stage consists of

1. Impeller

2. Diffuser

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The diffuser section is an annular chamber with vanes forming One pressure stage:
a series of divergent passages into the manifold. Direct the 1. Rotor
flow of air from the impeller to the manifold 2. Stator
The manifold diverts the flow of air from the diffuser into the Pressure rise per stage – 1.25:1 can reach up to 10-18
combustion chambers. Outlet elbow changes the flow from pressure stages
radial to axial

The principle of the axial flow compressor is basically the

Axial Flow Compressor Type: same as that of the centrifugal flow compressor, it converts
kinetic energy into pressure (potential) energy. The means
which it uses to achieve this conversion are however
different

Simply stated, the rotor stages can be seen as doing the

same job as the impeller in a centrifugal compressor, while
the stator stages can be compared to the diffuser in a
centrifugal compressor.

Since the rotor blades and the stator blades are made up
of airfoils, it can stall if the maximum angle of attack for
these airfoils has been reached. Causing the compressor
blades to stall. When stalling occurs, there is a partial
breakdown of airflow through the engine.

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Axial Flow Compressor

Components
1. Fan (Turbofan engines)
2. Fan outlet guide vanes
3. Inlet guide vanes (IGV)
4. Rotor
5. Stator
6. Outlet vane assembly
7. Diffuser Section
Compressor stall is then a progressive phenomenon, it The Fan in the turbofan.
could initially in theory occur at just one blade, worsening
to encompass the whole of one stage, and then, if nothing
is done to prevent it, affect the whole engine.

The progressive deterioration of the situation will

eventually cause a complete breakdown of airflow through
the engine called a surge. In severe cases this could cause
an instantaneous reversal of the gases in the engine, with
air being expelled through the engine intake with a loud
bang. If surge does occur, the throttle of the affected
engine must be closed slowly.
Some long fan blades have a mid-span shroud that helps
The indications of compressor stall are an increase in the support the blades, making them more resistant to the
vibration level of the engine and an increase in the Exhaust bending forces created by the airstream. The shrouds,
Gas Temperature (E.G.T.). however, do block some of the airflow and create
additional aerodynamic drag that reduces fan efficiency.

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In addition, when the mating surfaces on a mid-span usually made of stainless steel with the latter stages being
shroud become excessively worn, the shrouds can made of titanium.

overlap. This is known as shingling and can cause fan

• turning at high speed, takes in air at the compressor
vibration and engine damage.
inlet and impels it through a series of stages (1.25
pressure rise per stage)
The Inlet Guide Vanes
Types of compressor rotor construction:
• Drum-type - consists of rings that are flanged to fit
one against the other, wherein the entire assembly
can then be held together by through bolts
• Disk-type - consists of a series of disks machined
from aluminum forgings, shrunk over a steel shaft,
with rotor blades dovetailed into the disk rims

The Stator:

The stator blades are fixed blades and act as diffusers at each
stage. They partially convert high velocity air into high
The inlet guide vanes are made up of curved steel vanes pressure.
usually welded to steel inner and outer shrouds. Direct the
airflow into the first stage rotor blades at the proper angle The Outer Vane Assembly:
and impart a swirling motion to the air entering the
compressor. The outer vane assembly acts as the last stator.

The Diffuser Section:

Rotor – consists of rows of blades fixed on a rotating spindle
impel air rearward in the same manner as a propeller have an
Slows compressor discharge, and increases air pressure to its
airfoil cross-section with a varying angle of incidence, or twist.
highest value in the engine

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fuel spray nozzles), to allow the maximum heat release at

a substantially constant pressure

Components
o Casing
o Perforated inner liner
o Fuel injection system
o Initial ignition source
o Fuel drainage system

The efficient spraying of fuel depends largely on the fuel

pressure. Higher fuel pressures produce finely atomized
spray

Combustion Section:

The combustion chamber must contain the burning

mixture of air (from the compressor) with fuel (from the

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• Primary flow (20%) – Support Combustion

• Secondary flow (20%) – Combustion Stability
• Tertiary flow (60%) - Cooling

Primary function - to burn the fuel/air mixture, adding heat All gas turbine engines have a dual ignition system fitted
energy to the air. and they all use high energy (HE) igniter units for engine
starting.
• Provide the means for proper mixing of the fuel
and air The stoichiometric ratio in the combustion section is 15:1
• Burn the mixture efficiently and in the dilution zone, the stoichiometric ratio ranges
• Cool the hot combustion products from 45:1 to 130:1.
• Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section

In the inlet of each combustion can is a swirl vane which

makes the pressurized air swirl into a vortex, also known
as the Toroidal vortex, it is designed to swirl around the
outer edge of the combustion chamber to keep the flame
path away from the combustion liner.

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• Highest efficiency in terms of weight, size, and

thermal efficiency
• Engine must be disassembled in case of
repair/replacement.
• Low resistance to warpage
• Used in modern engines.

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• Invented by Pratt & Whitney.

• Individual burner cans in an annular liner
• Has interconnectors
• Compromise between multiple-can type and annular
type.

For best burning maintain, air/fuel ratio at the appropriate

levels depending on the current air mass flow.

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If the engine shuts down inflight there is sufficient altitude The Case:
from Sea-level to 25,000ft for relight, but do maintain
sufficient airspeed which is at 150 to 360 kts.

Turbine Section

Transforms a portion of the energy of the exhaust gases

to drive the gas compressor and accessories.

Approximately 60 – 80% of the energy from the

combustion is used to drive the Turbine section

The Stator

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The Rotor: Turbine Rotor Blades:

Retained by either, peening, welding, rivets, or locktabs.

Attached with different root profiles such as:

• De-Laval Blade root attachment

• Inverted-T attachment
• Serrated blade root arrangement (Annular fir-
tree)
• BMW Hollow Blade

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Classifications:
• Impulse
• Reaction
• Impulse Reaction

The shape change is accomplished by the blade having a

greater angle at the tip than at its base. This gives it a twist
which ensures that the gas flow does equal work along the
length of the blade and enables the gas flow to enter the
exhaust system with a uniform axial velocity.

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Severe centrifugal loads imposed by high rotational speeds • The temperature is measured by thermocouples placed
and by high operating temperatures. Turbine blades begin to in the gas flow somewhere in the turbine assembly,
grow in length. This phenomenon is called: Creep typically after the high- or low-pressure turbine and
termed Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT).

Turbine Section Cooling

Further elongation will cause the turbine blades to crack.

Turbine Section Temperature:

• Since the turbine section is the section which is most

subjected to high temperatures, the temperature of the
turbine section or the Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) is
the most limiting factor of a gas turbine engine. If the
TIT exceeds its temperature maximums, stress will
cause deformation to the turbine blades.

• Other terms for gas temperature you may come across

for older engines are: Turbine Gas Temperature (TGT),
Jet Pipe Temperature (JPT). Named because of the
position of the thermocouples.

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Turbine – Compressor Pairing (Engine Spooling) Exhaust Section:

Direct the flow of hot gases rearward in such a manner as

to prevent turbulence, and at the same time impart a high
final exit velocity to the gases.

Extends from the rear of the turbine section to the point

where the exhaust gases leave the engine.

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Components

• Exhaust Cone
• Exhaust Duct
• Exhaust Nozzle

Although the shape of the outer casing appears to be

convergent at the point where the gas leaves the turbine, the
shape of the volume within the casing is in fact divergent. This
is made possible by the insertion of the exhaust cone, a conical
shaped device positioned close up to the turbine disc rear face.

As well as helping to reduce the velocity of the gases leaving

the turbine before they pass down the length of the jet pipe, so
minimizing turbulence

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On fan or bypass type engines, there are two gas streams

venting to the atmosphere. A mixer unit must be placed in the
exhaust nozzle to mix the bypass air and the hot air from the
engine core

The mixing unit can be placed internally or externally.

Usually a converging exhaust nozzle

If the engine can produce a higher EPR, exhaust gas velocities

might exceed Mach 1 at the engine exhaust nozzle, more
thrust can be gained by using a convergent-divergent type of
nozzle.

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Some aircrafts, especially in the military sector incorporates V. Supplemental Information

the use of afterburners

The exhaust section is built with Insulation Blankets, several

layers of aluminum foil separated by a layer of fiberglass or
other suitable material insulates the exterior of a turbine engine
exhaust duct to reduce fire hazards and eliminate heat
damage to adjacent structures

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Noise is generated by the shearing effect of the exhaust gases

and the ambient air

Thrust reversers greatly improves landing performance.

To reduce noise, nozzle designs are improved by using

corrugated designs, lobe type designs, by improving engine
materials or by using cowling chevrons

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Engine stationing can be as complicated as this one

Or as simple as this one Hot Start:

• A hot start is one in which ignition occurs when there

is an excessively rich fuel/air mixture.

• Caused by a lag in acceleration or restriction in

airflow.

• Indications of a hot start includes, rapid ITT or TOT

increase, slow increase on N1 (RPM of the Fan), and
exhaust flames.

• If a hot start is allowed to proceed, the exhaust gas

temperature will exceed the allowable limit and the
engine will be damaged.

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Hung Start • Once an engine run is complete, you must follow the
appropriate shutdown procedures.
• If a hung start occurs, engine start is normal and
exhaust gas temperature is within limits, but the • If the appropriate shutdown procedures are not
engine fails to accelerate or reach idle followed, uneven engine cooling could result.

• Hung starts occur when the starter cuts out too soon,
or when the starting power source fails to provide
enough energy to rotate the engine to a sufficient
speed.

Safe Distances: (Depends on the aircraft)

Engine Shutdown:

• Typically, before a gas turbine engine is shut down,

the engine is run at idle for 30 seconds or more. This
permits component temperatures to stabilize and oil
system scavenging to occur.

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𝐹 = 𝑉 −𝑉 + (𝑉 ) + 𝐴 (𝑃 − 𝑃 )

Fn = Net Thrust in lbs

wa = Airflow through the engine in lbs/sec
Fn = Net Thrust in lbs
wf = Fuel flow in lbs/sec
wa = Airflow through the engine in lbs/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity
wf = Fuel flow in lbs/sec
Vj = exhaust gas velocity in ft/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity
Va = incoming air velocity in ft/sec
Vj = exhaust gas velocity in ft/sec
Vf = incoming fuel velocity in ft/sec
Va = incoming air velocity in ft/sec
Vf = incoming fuel velocity in ft/sec
Aj = Area of Engine Jet Nozzle in sq ft.
Pj = Static Pressure at the jet nozzle discharge in lbs/ft2
Pam = static pressure of the ambient (outside) air at the jet nozzle in lbs/ft2

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Overall efficiency here refers to the efficiency with which the engine converts
the power in the fuel flow to propulsive power

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