Linguistics

Linguistics is the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and
modification of language. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Language
is a communication system comprising sounds, words, and grammar.

Each human language is a complex of knowledge and abilities enabling speakers

of the language to communicate with each other, to express ideas, hypotheses,
emotions, desires, and all the other things that need expressing. Linguistics is the
study of these knowledge systems in all their aspects: how is such a knowledge
system structured, how is it acquired, how is it used in the production and
comprehension of messages, how does it change over time? Linguists consequently
are concerned with a number of particular questions about the nature of language.
What properties do all human languages have in common? How do languages
differ, and to what extent are the differences systematic, i.e. can we find patterns in
the differences? How do children acquire such complete knowledge of a language
in such a short time? What are the ways in which languages can change over time,
and are there limitations to how languages change? What is the nature of the
cognitive processes that come into play when we produce and understand
language?

The part of linguistics that is concerned with the structure of language is divided
into a number of subfields:

 Phonetics - the study of speech sounds in their physical aspects

 Phonology - the study of speech sounds in their cognitive aspects
 Morphology - the study of the formation of words
 Syntax - the study of the formation of sentences
 Semantics - the study of meaning

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  Pragmatics - the study of language use
The Sources of the Origins of language
We suspect that some type of spoken language must have developed between
100,000 and 50,000 years ago, but the written language before 5,000 years ago.

There are many hypothesis on the sources of the language. We can summarize
them as follow:

1. The divine source: (Divine is related to God or Creator)

In most religions, it is believed that language appears to be a divine source
that provides human with language. Some experiments confirm that infant
get deprived of hearing language around them, they would spontaneously
begin using God or Creator-given language in the Psamtik story. The
experiment was on two children who grew up in the company of a mute
shepherd and goats, after a while, they uttered a Phrygian word “Bekos”
which means “bread”.
2. The natural sound source:
This view is based on the concept that natural sounds which are attained
through the auditory system that develops before birth which later develop to
identify sounds in the environment. This will help humans to connect
between a sound and the thing (or organ) producing that sound.
Jespersen (1922) called this idea of acquiring natural sound ‘Bow-Wow’ and
‘Pooh-Pooh’ theories.
- Bow-Wow theory:
It focuses on imitation of sounds then using it to refer to objects (even
when they are not present), e.g. Coo-Coo.

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 In every language, there are words which seem to be naturally occurring
sounds such as splash and boom; which may refer to sounds similar to
the noises they describe.
- Pooh-Pooh theory:
While this theory is based on that speech developed from the instinctive
sounds people make in emotional circumstances. So, the original sound
of language came from natural cries of emotion such as pain, anger or
joy. Words such as Ah!, Wow!, Ooh! Are all used with sudden intakes of
breath (inhalation) unlike when we want to talk which is the opposite
(exhalation).
3. The social interaction source:
This view is based on the idea that the source of our language is the physical
effort of several people and interaction which is to be coordinated. It
happens when a group of early humans develop a set of hums, groans…..etc.
that were used when they were carrying things.
It claims that the development of human language takes place in a social
context through groups. Groups are important particularly in the past to main
communication; which had different uses within their social interaction.
4. The physical adaption source:
This source is based on physical features human processes that are distinct
from other creatures (particularly non-humans) which may have enabled
speech production. Our (human) ancestors showed adaptation to upright
posture and revised role for the front limbs. Adaptation (or changed)
happened to fossilized skeletal structures which later began to be similar to
modern humans. This (partial) adaptation appeared to be more relevant to
speech.
- Teeth and lips:
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 Human teeth are different from other creatures. They are suitable to
produce sounds such as (F, V). Human teeth are upright and suitable for
chewing.
Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing more than other primates.
Human lips are appropriate to produce sounds such as (P, B, and M).
- Mouth and tongue:
Human mouths are small compared to other creatures; as a part of an
extended vocal tract with an L-shape not straight path from front to back.
Human tongues are shorter, thicker and more muscular than other
creatures; to produce a variety odd sounds inside the oral cavity.
The intricate muscles in mouth, tongue, lips and teeth help to articulate a
wider range of shapes and a more powerful delivery of sounds produced
through these shapes.
- Larynx and pharynx:
Human larynx is ‘voice box’ which comprises of vocal cords; which
different from other creatures larynx. Larynx helps human to avoid
choking on pieces of food.
Human pharynx has a longer cavity than many other creatures; which
works as a resonator for increased range and clarity of the sounds
produced through the larynx and vocal tract.
5. The tool-making source:
It is speculated that human hands and manual gestures may have been a
precursor of language. Two million years ago, human managed to develop
preferential right-handedness and had become able to make stone; tools-
making is evidence of a brain at work.
- The human brain (1)

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 The human brain is lateralized; where it has different functions for each
hemisphere. Left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for complex
vocalization and speaking. Interestingly, motor cortex (it is the region of
the cerebral cortex involved in planning, controlling and execution of
voluntary movement) that control the muscles of the arms and hands is
next to articulatory muscles of face and jaw.
- The human brain (2)
Many speculative proposals argue that the origins of speech is based on
human producing single noises to indicate objects in their environment.
Yet, it lacks structural organization. All languages require the organizing
and combining of sounds and signs in specific arrangement.
- The human brain (3)
In term of tool-making, it is not enough for human to grasp one rock (to
make one sound) but need to bring two rocks to create proper contact
with the first and to develop a tool.
In terms of language structure, the human may have developed the
naming ability first for producing consistent noise; then to bring another
specific noise to build a complex message.
6. The genetic source (innateness hypothesis):
The human baby is born with larynx that is higher in the throat that is to
breathe and drink at the same time. After few months, the larynx descends,
the brain develops and start walking and talking.
In fact, young child’s language is complex and seen as more than physical
adaption of species. It seems that language is an innate feature; what is
known as ‘innateness hypothesis’. The innateness hypothesis refers to
something in human genetics as the source, possibly a crucial mutation.

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 What is communication?
Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. We
have two types of signals in communication:
- Communication signals are those that are intended to tell something.
- Informative signals are those that we aren’t doing intentionally, a
sneeze, a nervous behavior, non-matching socks telling that you aren’t
organized.

Characteristics of human language

1. Displacement:
It is the ability of human to talk about the past, present, and future, and
refer to other location.
2. Arbitrariness:
It is a property of human language which shows there is no connection
between a linguistic form (signifier) and the meaning (signified).
3. Productivity:
It is the ability to create new expressions and utterances by changing our
linguistic resources to describe new objects and situations.
4. Cultural transmission:

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 It is a property of human language which shows that human language is
passed on from one generation to the next.
5. Duality:
Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously.
- First level : distinct sounds
We have the physical lever at which we can produce different sounds like
(b, n, and i), (c, t, and a).
- Second level: distinct meanings
In a different level we can put them together so that they form a meaning,
(bin, and nib) and (act, and cat).
The duality is one of the features of human language that gives us the
capability to produce a large number of sound combination which are
distinct in meaning.

Human language differs from animal communication in several ways:

a. Human language can convey a large number, rather an infinite set, of
messages whereas the messages conveyed through the communication
system of animals is very limited.
b. Human language makes use of clearly distinguishable discrete, separately
identifiable symbols while animal communication systems are often
continuous or non-discrete.
c. Animal communication systems are closed systems that permit of no
change, modification or addition.
d. Human language is far more structurally complex than animal
communication. English (RP variety), for example, has 44 sounds that join
in different groups to form thousands of words.

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e. Human language is non-instinctive in the sense that every human child has
to learn language from his elders or peers in society. This process of learning
plays an important part in the acquisition of language.
f. Displacement: This property allows the users of language to talk about
things and events which are not present in the immediate environment of the
speaker. Animal communication lacks this property.
Animal’s communication

Researchers were partially successful in their attempt to teach language to

chimpanzees.
1. Washoe: This chimpanzee could use signs for about 100 words after three
and a half years. Words include ‘baby, window, and banana.’ Also she
could combine words into forms like ‘more fruit’, and ‘open food drink’.
2. Sarah: This chimpanzee could construct complex sentences using
symbols.
3. Lana: This chimpanzee could use symbols to construct sentences to
request needs.
4. Kanzi: This chimpanzee could use over 250 forms and by age 8 years.