CHAPTER ONE

ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

This chapter tries to acquaint students with the concept of psychology. The specific contents
addressed in the chapter are definition of psychology and related concepts, goals of psychology,
historical background and major perspectives in psychology, branches/subfields of psychology,
and research methods in psychology.
Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts
The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words 'psyche' and =logos‟. Psyche refers to
mind, soul or sprit while logo means study, knowledge or discourse. Therefore, by combining
the two Greek words the term "psychology" epistemologically refers to the study of the mind,
soul, or sprit and it is often represented by the Greek letter ᴪ (psi) which is read as ("sy").
Psychologists define psychology differently based on their intentions, research findings, and
background experiences. Nowadays, most of them agree on the following scientific definition of
psychology.
Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and the underlying mental
In the above definition, there are three aspects; science, behavior and mental processes:
 Science: psychology uses scientific methods to study behavior and mental processes in
both humans and animals. This means psychologists do not study behavior with
commonsense rather they follow scientific procedures and use empirical data to study
behavior and mental processes.
 Behavior: refers to all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as talking,
facial expressions, movement, etc. There is also covert behavior which is hidden, non-
observable and generally considered as a mental process
 Mental processes: refer to all the internal, covert activities of our minds, such as
thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.
Goals of Psychology
As a science, psychology has four goals; description, explanation, prediction, and control.
 Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and the underlying mental
processes.

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Description: Description involves observing the behavior and noticing everything about it. It is a
search for answers for questions like =what is happening? ‘=Where does it happen? ‘=To whom
does it happen? ‘And =under what circumstances does it seem to happen? For example, a
teacher might notice that a young freshman girl in his/her general psychology classroom is
behaving oddly. She is not turning to her homework, her results are slipping badly, and she
seems to have a very negative attitude toward the course.
Explanation: Why is it happening? Explanation is about trying to find reasons for the observed
behavior. This helps in the process of forming theories of behavior (A theory is a general
explanation of a set of observations or facts). For instance in the above example, to find out why
the girl is doing all those things, the teacher would most likely ask her parents about her home
background, her friends and the like and may come to an understanding that this girl was
behaving the way she did because she was given attention (in a way reward) by other people
when she used to behave oddly.
Prediction: prediction is about determining what will happen in the future. In the above
example, the case of the freshman girl, the psychologist or counselor would predict (based on
previous research into similar situations) that this girl may never be able to reach her full
learning potential.
Control: How can it be changed? Control or modify or change the behavior from undesirable
one (such as failing in school) to a desirable one (such as academic success). In the example
above, certain learning strategies can be used to help the girl so that she will be successful in her
academic endeavor. Control can also be used in the sense that a psychologist tries to check out
the effects of certain undesirable factors in examining the relationship between two or more
behaviors. For example, in studying the relationship between intelligence and academic
performance in freshman courses, a psychologist needs to control the effect of socio-economic
status of the family.
Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology
Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of the sciences, only about 125 years old. It
began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, with the establishment of a
psychology laboratory in the University of Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt developed the
technique of objective Introspection to scientifically examine mental experiences. With such
newer orientation to the study of human subjective experiences that were previously under the

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field of philosophy alone, psychology then begun as an independent field of study and with
Wundt as its founder or "father of modern psychology. Once psychology begun to use the
scientific method, it then went through successive developments in which different schools of
thought emerged at different times. These schools of thought can be categorized as old and
modern as described below.
Early schools of psychology
A school of thought is a system of thinking about a certain issue, say, for example, about human
behavior or mind. You may, for example, think that human behavior is all the result of
inheritance, or you, may, instead, say it is all the result of interaction with the environment.
The first system of thinking takes a biological approach and the later takes an environmental
approach. But what is common in both is there is a tendency to give general, systematized
approach of explaining phenomena.
Surly, psychology, as a discipline, is embedded in different systems of thought from its
inception. These systems of thought were very broad in the early years of psychology and,
therefore, we call them =schools of thought ‘. There are five such early schools of psychology.
Structuralism- structuralism views psychology as a study of structure of mind. It is an
expansion of Wundt‘s ideas by his student named Edward Titchener (1867-1927). Titchener is
the founder of structuralism. The goal of structuralists was to find out the units or elements,
which make up the mind such as; sensations, images, and feelings. The best-known method used
by them was introspection ―looking inward into our consciousness. It is a procedure aimed at
analyzing the mental experience into three basic mental elements: images, feelings, and
sensations.
Analyzing mental structure alone was found to serve little purpose in helping humans deal with
the environment. Hence, a new school of thought emerged to study this functional value of
human mind-functionalism.
Functionalism- functionalism views psychology as a study of function of the mind. The founder
of this school of thought is William James (1848-1910), who was the first American
psychologist and the author of the first psychology textbook. Unlike Wundt and Titchener, James
focused on how the mind allows people to function in the real world; how people work, play, and
adapt to their surroundings, a viewpoint he called functionalism. He developed many research
methods other than introspection including questionnaires, mental tests and objective

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descriptions of behavior. Generally, according to functionalists, psychological processes are
adaptive. They allow humans to survive and to adapt successfully to their surroundings.
Examining human mind in terms of its structural elements and functions were, however, found to
be simplistic to understand the complex human being. It was believed that human mind is more
than the sum of sensations as well as adaptive functions. Hence, a new school of thought was
emerged to examine mind in a holistic manner-Gestalt Psychology.
Gestalt psychology: Gestalt psychology views psychology as a study of the whole mind.
Max Wertheimer and his colleagues founded this school of thought in Germany in the 20
centuries. Gestalt psychologists argued that the mind is not made up of combinations of
elements. The German word "gestalt" refers to form, whole, configuration or pattern.
According to them, the mind should be thought of as a result of the whole pattern of sensory
activity and the relationships and organizations within their pattern. In brief, the gestalt
psychologists acknowledge consciousness. They held that "the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts. Means mind is greater than its parts (images, sensations, and feelings). Generally,
what is common to all the three schools of though is the fact that they all try to examine the
human mind; which is an internal, no-visible, and hidden experience of human beings. Although
it could be useful to understand this experience, it was believed that this subjective, private
experience can ‘t be observable, measurable, and hence can ‘t be studied scientifically. Hence,
for psychology to become scientific, it needs to get rid of dealing with subjectivity in all its
forms and rather focus on studying behavior. This has led to the birth of a new paradigm of
thought about psychology called behaviorism.
Behaviorism: behaviorists view psychology as a study of observable and measurable behaviors.
John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism. Other proponents include E. Thorndike and F.
Skinner. For Watson, psychology was the study of observable and measurable behavior and
nothing more about hidden mental processes. According to Watson, we cannot define
consciousness any better than we can define the soul; we cannot locate it or measure it and,
therefore, it cannot be the object of scientific study.
As to Watson, behaviorism had three other important characteristics in addition to its focus on
behavior; conditioned response as the elements or building blocks of behavior, learned rather
than unlearned behaviors, and focus on animal behavior. He believed that all behaviors are

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learned but not inherited and learners are passive and reactive (they are not initiating their
learning but they respond when the environment stimulates them).
All the four schools of thought discussed so far were focusing on human mind and behavior as
conscious experiences. But, an opposition to this assertion came from a physician in Vienna
who, after working with so many patients, realized that human functioning was basically
explained by more powerful forces which were not accessible to our consciousness. Hence, this
lead to the formulation of a new school of thought in psychology called Psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis: psychology studies about the components of the unconscious part of the human
mind. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder of this school of thought. He was the most
controversial and most popular in the study of behavior and mental processes. As a physician,
Sigmund Freud became convinced that some of the physical illnesses of his patients didn‘t have
medical or bodily causes; but non-physical or emotional causes. He called these kinds of
illnesses as hysteria ‘or conversion reaction to indicate the conversion of emotional problems
into bodily problems. He also underscored that that conflicts and emotional traumas that had
occurred in early childhood can be too threatening to be remembered consciously and therefore
they become hidden or unconscious and then will remain to affect later behavior.
Freud argued that conscious awareness is the tip of the mental iceberg beneath the visible tip lays
the unconscious part of the mind. The unconscious which is the subject matter of psychoanalysis
contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict between
desire and duty. We are not aware of our unconscious urges and thoughts and they make
themselves known in dreams, slip of the tongue, apparent accidents and even jokes. He used
clinical case studies (hypnosis and Dream analysis) as a method.
Modern schools of psychology
The early schools of thought have generally laid the foundation for further developments in
psychology as a science. They opened a door for taking multiple perspectives in explaining
human behavior and mental processes.
Note that an important lesson learned from early psychological thoughts is that there are different
ways of explaining the same behavior. Hence, modern psychologists tend to examine human
behavior through several views. The views that predominate today are psychodynamic,
behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, biological, and sociocultural perspectives.

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These views reflect different questions about human behavior, different assumptions about how
the mind works, and different kinds of explanations why people do and what they do. The
schools are presented below.
Psychodynamic perspective - It has its origins in Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, but
many other psychodynamic theories exist. This perspective emphasizes the unconscious
dynamics within the individual such as inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy. The
psychodynamic approach emphasizes:
 The influence of unconscious mental behavior on everyday behavior
 The role of childhood experiences in shaping adult personality
 The role of intrapersonal conflict in determining human behavior
Psychodynamic perspective tries to dig below the surface of a person's behavior to get into
unconscious motives; psychodynamics think of themselves as archaeologists of the mind.
Behavioral Perspective- It emphasizes the role learning experiences play in shaping the
behavior of an organism. It is concerned with how the environment affects the person‘s actions.
Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions (e.g. rewards, and punishments) that maintain or
discourage specific behaviors. The behavioral perspective is sometimes called the "black box"
approach in psychology because it treats the mind as less useful in understanding human
behavior and focus on what goes in to and out of the box, but not on the processes that take
place inside This means, behaviorists are only interested in the effects of the environment (input)
on behavior (output) but not in the process inside the box.
Humanistic Perspective- According to this perspective, human behavior is not determined
either by unconscious dynamics or the environment. Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of
human beings and focuses on human values and subjective experiences. This perspective places
greater importance on the individual‘s free will. The goal of humanistic psychology was helping
people to express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential or self-actualization
(developing the human potential to its fullest).
Cognitive Perspective- it emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how people reason,
remember, understand language, solve problems, explain experiences and form beliefs. This
perspective is concerned about the mental processes. The most important contribution of this
perspective has been to show how people's thoughts and explanations affect their actions,
feelings, and choices. Techniques used to explore behavior from a cognitive perspective include

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electrical recording of brain activity, electrical stimulation and radioactive tracing of metabolic
activity in the nervous system.
Biological Perspective- it focuses on studying how bodily events or functioning of the body
affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts. It holds that the brain and the various brain chemicals
affect psychological processes such as learning, performance, perception of reality, the
experience of emotions, etc. This perspective underscores that biology and behavior interact in a
complex way; biology affecting behavior and behavior in turn affecting biology.
It also emphasizes the idea that we are physical beings who evolved over a long time and that
genetic heritage can predispose us to behaving in a certain way. In a manner that our eyebrows
evolved to protect our eyes, we may have evolved certain kinds of behavior patterns to protect
our bodies and ensure the survival of our species.
Socio-cultural Perspective- It focuses on the social and cultural factor that affects human
behavior. As a fish cannot leave without water, human behavior cannot be understood without
sociocultural context (the social and cultural environment) that people "Swim" in every day. For
instance, social psychologists examine how group membership affects attitudes and behaviors,
why authority and other people (like spouse, lovers, friends, bosses, parents, and strangers) affect
each of us. Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural rules and values (both explicit and
unspoken) affect people's development, behavior, and feelings. This perspective holds that
humans are both the products and the producers of culture, and our behavior always occurs in
some cultural contexts.
Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology
Accordingly, psychology has become a very diverse field today that there are different branches
(or sub fields) which psychologists can pursue to study. Below are some of the branches of
psychology.
 Developmental psychology – It studies the physical, cognitive and psychological
changes across the life span. It attempts to examine the major developmental milestones
that occur at different stages of development.
 Personality Psychology – it focuses on the relatively enduring traits and characteristics
of individuals. Personality psychologists study topics such as self-concept, aggression,
moral development, etc.

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  Social Psychology – deals with people‘s social interactions, relationships, social
perception, and attitudes.
 Cross-cultural Psychology - examines the role of culture in understanding behavior,
thought, and emotion. It compares the nature of psychological processes in different
cultures, with a special interest in whether or not psychological phenomena are universal
or culture-specific.
 Industrial psychology – applies psychological principles in industries and organizations
to increase the productivity of that organization.
 Forensic psychology - applies psychological principles to improve the legal system
(police, testimony, etc...).
 Educational Psychology - concerned with the application of psychological principles
and theories in improving the educational process including curriculum, teaching, and
administration of academic programs.
 Health Psychology - applies psychological principles to the prevention and treatment of
physical illness and diseases.
 Clinical Psychology: - is a field that applies psychological principles to the prevention,
diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders.
 Counseling Psychology: - is a field having the same concern as clinical psychology but
helps individuals with less severe problems than those treated by clinical psychologists.

Research Methods in Psychology

A. Definition of terms
Before getting into research methods, it is important to start with discussion of scientific method.
At the beginning of this chapter, we said that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes. This means, in psychology, researchers want to see only what is there, not
what their biases might want them to see. Researchers do this by using the scientific method (a
system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data). Hence, before discussing the
types of research methods; we try to see the following terms.
Scientific method - a process of testing ideas through systematic observations,
experimentations, and statistical analysis.
Theory - is an integrated set of principles about observed facts that is intended to
describe and explain some aspects of experience.

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 Hypotheses - is a tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more
variables or phenomena. E.g. Males have high self - confidence in making decisions than
females.
B. Major types of research methods
Although all psychologists pursue the same scientific method, there is, however, diversity in
what psychologists do to achieve the different objectives and goals. Hence, there are three major
types of research methods: descriptive, correlational and experimental research methods.
Descriptive research - in this type of research, the researcher simply records what she/he has
systematically observed. Descriptive research methods include naturalistic observation, case
studies, and surveys.
i. Naturalistic observation: is a descriptive research method in which subjects are observed
in their natural environment to get a real (not artificial) picture of how behavior occurs.
Limitations of naturalistic observation are observer effect (animals or people who know
they are being watched may behave artificially) and observer bias (the researcher may not
observe systematically or he/she may observe behaviors he/she wants to observe and
ignores others).
ii. Case study: is a descriptive technique in which an individual is studied in great detail. Its
advantage is that it provides tremendous amount of data about a single case or individual.
The disadvantage of case study is that the researchers can‘t apply the results to other
similar people, which means what researchers find in one case can‘t necessarily apply or
generalize to others.
iii. Survey: is a descriptive research method used to collect data from a very large group of
people. It is useful to get information on private (covert) behaviors and it addresses
hundreds of people with the same questions at the same time. Its disadvantage is that it
needs a careful selection of a representative sample of the actual population.
Correlational research - is a research method that measures the relationship between two or
more variables. A variable is anything that can change or vary –scores on a test, the temperature
in a room, gender, and so on. For example, a researcher might be curious to know whether or not
cigarette smoking is connected to life expectancy.
Though correlation tells researchers if there is a relationship between variables, how strong the
relationship is, and in what direction the relationship goes, it doesn‘t prove causation (which

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means it doesn‘t show the cause and effect relationship). This means, for example, that if there is
a relationship between smoking and lung cancer, this doesn‘t mean that smoking causes lung
cancer.
Experimental Research: it is a research method that allows researchers to study the cause and
effect relationship between variables. In experimental research, a carefully regulated procedure
in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated
and all other factors are held constant. Experiments involve at least one independent variable and
one dependent variable. The independent variable is the manipulated, influential, experimental
factor. The dependent variable is the factor (behavior) that is measured in an experiment. It can
change as the independent variable is manipulated. For example, a researcher may need to know
whether or not class size has an effect on students ‘academic performance and hypothesizes as
do students in small class size have better academic performance than students in large class
size? In this question, the researcher has two variables: class size, which is the independent
variable to be manipulated and students‟ performance which is the dependent variable to be
measured while class size is changed. Experiments also involve randomly assigned experimental
groups and control groups. An experimental group is a group whose experience is manipulated.
In our example, the experimental group is students who are assigned in small class sizes. A
control group is a comparison that is treated in every way like the experimental group except for
the manipulated factor (class size). The control group serves as a baseline against which the
effects of the manipulated condition can be compared. In this example, the control group is the
group of students who are assigned in large class sizes. Although experimental research is useful
to discover causes of behaviors, such research must be done cautiously because expectations and
biases on the part of both the researcher and participants can affect the results.
C. Steps of scientific research
In scientific research, there are at least five major steps to be followed.
Step one - Defining the Problem - noticing something attention catching in the surrounding for
which one would like to have an explanation. For example, you may notice that children seem to
get a little more aggressive with each other after watching practically violent children‘s cartoon
videos. You wonder if the violence in the cartoon video could be creating aggressive behavior on
the children. Hence, you may raise a research problem focusing on the effect of aggressive
videos on children‘s behavior.

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Step two - Formulating the Hypothesis - after having an observation on surroundings
(perceiving the problem), you might form an educated guess about the explanation for your
observations, putting it into the form of a statement that can be tested in some way. For our
example above, you might formulate hypothesis children who watch violent cartoons will
become more aggressive than those who watch non-violent cartoons.
Step three - Testing the Hypothesis - at this step, the researcher employs appropriate research
methods and collects ample data (information) to accept or reject the proposed statement. For
instance, in the above example, the data will be gathered from children who watch aggressive
videos and from those who do not watch aggressive videos and make comparisons between the
behaviors of the two groups to determine whether watching aggressive video makes children.
Step four - Drawing Conclusions - this is the step in which the researcher attempts to make
generalizations or draw implications from tested relationship
Step five - Reporting Results - at this point, the researcher would want to write up exactly what
she/he did, why she/he did, and what she/he found. So that, others can learn from what she/he
has already accomplished, or failed to accomplish. This allows others to predict and modify
behavior based on the findings.

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