CLIN PHARM 114: Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Parasitology Laboratory
MYCOLOGY
Professor Erica Nicole J. Tayko | Reviewed:, 2025 | Last Edited:
Sterols present (in the Cell Sterols absent, except
Membrane
form of ergosterol) in Mycoplasma
OUTLINE
Reproductive spores (for Spores Endospores
reproduction purposes: (non-reproductive; for
MYCOLOGY sexual or asexual) survival purposes,
especially in harsh
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI environments)
MOLDS
Limited to heterotrophic Metabolism Heterotrophic /
VEGETATIVE STRUTUCRE OF MOLDS (meaning cannot Autotrophic (can
HYPHAE make/produce their own make/produce their
SEPTA food, usually metabolize own food)
carbohydrates)
YEASTS
3.8 to 5.6 (acidophiles) pH 6.5 to 7.5
VEGETATIVE STRUTUCRE OF YEASTS
(neutrophiles)
HYPHAE
SEPTA 22oC to 33oC (Saraphytic: Temperature 20oC to 37oC
feed or live on (Mesophiles)
FLESHY FUNGI decomposing matter)
DIMORPHIC FUNGI 30oC to 37oC (Parasitic:
LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI feed or live on their host)
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Strictly Aerobic (Molds), Oxygen Aerobic to Anaerobic
FRAGMENTATION OF HYPHAE Facultative Anaerobe
(Yeasts, e.g Candida
BUDDING albicans - grows in the
PRODUCTION OF SPORE groin area where there is
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION absence of oxygen)
PHASES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Non-photosynthetic Light Some are
(given they are photosynthetic
heterophiles)
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FUNGI
Resistant to penicillins, Antibiotic Opposite
ZYGOMYCOTA Susceptibility
tetracyclines,
ASCOMYCOTA chloramphenicol
BASIDIOMYCOTA
Sensitive to griseofulvin
DEUTEROMYCOTA and other antifungals
DERMATOPHYTE FUNGI
MOLDS
● Multicellular
● Filamentous
LEGEND
● In contrast with Yeast
● black = from laboratory manual ● Examples
● red = notes from professor ○ Mildew (mostly seen on leaves)
● green = powerpoint notes
MYCOLOGY
● Science or study of fungi
● Types of Fungi
○ Molds
○ Yeast
○ Fleshy Fungi
○ Rusts
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI ■ Do not confuse it with usual Iron Oxides!
Fungi Bacteria ■ If yellow to orange powder-like growth, mostly
Cell Type fungi
Eukaryotic (has Prokaryotic (no
membrane-bound membrane-bound
organelles) organelles)
Glucans (cellulose) Cell Wall Peptidoglycan
Composition
Mannans
Chitin
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outer portion of the aerial hyphae is the vegetative
hyphae.
SEPTA
● In most molds, the hyphae contain cross-walls called
septum (singullar) or septa (plural)
● Hyphae can be classified into two: septate (septa) or
non-septate (coenocytic)
Table 3. Septate or Non-septate
○ Smuts (mostly affects wheats, corns, and grasses) Septa Hyphae Coenocytic
Hyphae
VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES OF MOLDS Definition Presence of septa Form one long cell
HYPHAE between cells with several nuclei
● Consist of hyphae which are multicellular filaments Purpose Has pores that allow flow Allow nutrients to
○ Can grow to form a filamentous mass called a of cytoplasm move quickly
mycelium
Notes Advantage: Septa can Disadvantage:
completely close to Entire filament can
Table 2. Different types of hyphae prevent damage of the die if ruptured
Vegetative Hyphae Aerial Hyphae rest of the filament
So if a portion of hyphae
Non-reproductive Reproductive
is damaged, a spore can
Spread across food source Grow vertically close to prevent further
(Grow horizontally)
damage of a hyphae
Function: Function:
To obtain nutrients To bear reproductive spores
Usually found at the outer Usually found on the middle
layer of a culture of a culture
With correct conditions, vegetative growth can
NOTE transform to reproductive growth. It will allow fungi
to propagate more.
Figure 5. Structure of a Septate Hyphae
Figure 3. Different Hyphaes Structures
● In Figure 3, the substrate/vegetative hyphae is the one
anchoring the fungi to the surface of the food source,
while the reproductive/sporogenic hyphae grows vertically.
Figure 6. Structure of a Coenocytic Hyphae
Figure 4. Culture of Aspergillus niger
● In Figure 4, the “black dots” in the picture are the aerial
hyphae, in which the reproductive spores are located. The
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Figure 10. Yeasts, spherical in shape, with presence of
budding
VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES OF YEASTS
Figure 7. Sample of a Coenocytic Hyphae ● Yeasts produce buds that forms a short chain of cells
called a pseudohyphae (not a true hyphae)
Figure 8. Sample of a Septa Hyphae
Figures 11 and 12. Difference of True Hyphae with
YEASTS Pseudohyphae
● Unicellular
● Non-Filamentous FLESHY FUNGI
● In contrast with Molds ● Multicellular
● Reproduce through budding ● Filamentous
● Typically oval or spherical ● Produce a thick reproductive body
● Examples ● Examples (usually seen in forests)
○ Candida albicans (yeasts does not always form
○ Mushrooms
spherical colonies, but they can form long, elongated
○ Puffballs
structures; is an example of pseudohyphae)
○ Coral Fungi
Figure 12. Fleshy fungi Examples: Mushrooms (leftmost),
puffballs (middle), coral fungi (rightmost)
Figure 9. Candida albicans DIMORPHIC FUNGI
● Exhibit two forms of growth
○ Cryptococcus neoformans ● Dimorphism of a fungi can be dependent on
○ Saccharomyces cerevisiae (usually seen in baking or environmental conditions like:
brewing beer) ○ CO2 concentration-dependent
○ Temperature-dependent
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■ 37oC: yeast-like
■ 25oC: mold-like BUDDING
● Usually found in yeasts
Table 4. Examples of Fungi that are Dimorphic in Nature ● Budding - offspring emerge as a bud on the side of the
Causative Agent Disease parent cell
○ The daughter cells (small) is distinct from the parent
Blastomyces dermatitidis Blastomycosis
cells (big)
Histoplasma capsulatum Histoplasmosis
Coccidioides immitis Coccidioidomycosis
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis Paracoccidioidomycosis
Sporothrix schenckii Sporotrichosis
Figure 13. Dimorphic fungi with yeastlike growth (spherical) &
moldlike growth (hyphae in structures)
LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI
Figure 12. Budding formation process
● Most of the fungi grow in asexual and sexual reproduction
● Budding formation process:
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION ○ Bud begins to form on parent cell
● Produces genetically identical fungi through: ○ Nucleus copies and divides
○ Fragmentation of hyphae ■ The bud receives a copy
○ Budding ○ Bud now becomes a separate daughter cell
○ Production of (asexual) spores ○ Budding produces chains of cells
● In the budding formation process, the daughter cell is
FRAGMENTATION OF HYPHAE smaller compared to the parent cells.
● Hyphae will be broken up into component segments
called Arthroconidia disperse into the environment PRODUCTION OF SPORES
○ Fragmentation of hyphae: Arthroconidia disperse into ● Production of Spores - presence of spore-bearing
the environment structures
○ These arthroconidia can be clamped together to ○ Conidiophores: structures that hold conidiospores in
withstand harsh conditions place
● Arthroconidia are highly infectious and harmful to patients ○ Sporangiophore:structures that hold sporangiospores
in place
Table 5. Difference of Asexual Spores
Conidiospores Sporangiospores
Presence of Not enclosed in a sac Produced and
sac (no sac) released from a sac
called sporangium
(with sac)
Structure Produced in a chain at Produced at the end
the end of a of a sporangiophore
conidiophore
Figure 14. Structure of an Arthroconidia
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○ First, two individual cells, undergoing plasmogamy,
wherein they will attach/ fuse/ penetrate the
cytoplasm of one cell to another, forming one cell with
2 nuclei
○ The two nuclei will fuse together in karyogamy,
forming a diploid zygote nucleus
○ Meiosis then begin, forming the sexual spores
Figure 13. Example of a Conidiospore
Figure 14. Example of a Sporangiospore
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
● Produces fungi with combined genetic traits Figure 16. The Whole Fungi Life Cycle
● Formed from 2 organisms will be diffused to form a
daughter cell MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FUNGI
● Zygomycota
PHASES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ● Ascomycota
● Plasmogamy ● Basidiomycota
○ 2 haploid (1n) cells fuse and coexist in a single ● Deuteromycota
■ Attachment or fusion of one cytoplasm to another ● Dermatophyte Fungi
■ Then will form one cell containing two haploid
nuclei (not yet fused) ZYGOMYCOTA
● Karyogamy ● (newer term) Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis)
○ 2 haploid nuclei fuse and form a diploid zygote ○ can infect via oropharyngeal route (mouth and nose)
nucleus ○ Can be inoculated through the skin
● Meiosis ○ Opportunistic infection!
○ Diploid nucleus produce haploid nuclei (sexual ■ If you are healthy/immunocompetent = Safe
spores)
Figure 16. Patient with Mucormycosis/ Zygomycosis
● E.g. Mucor
○ Rhizopus stolonifer
■ common black bread mold
● kaya wag pakampante or mag-try kumain ng
“amag” or molds sa tinapay kasi baka
Figure 15. Visual Illustration of the Phases of Sexual
Reproduction of a Fungi rhizopus stolonifer na pala
● Phases of Sexual Reproduction of Fungi:
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● Other ways of getting candidiasis:
○ if you’re taking an antibiotic that would
kill the normal flora or if you’re taking
steroids
Figure 17. Oral candidiasis
Figure 17. Common black bread mold
○ Aspergillus
Table 6. Spores under Zygomycota ○ Trichophyton
Sexual Spore Asexual Spore ○ Sporothrix schenckii
○ Coccidioides immitis
Zygospores: Sporangiospore
Large spores enclosed in a
Table 7. Spores that arise under Ascomycota
thick wall
Fusion of morphological Sexual Spore Asexual Spore
similar nuclei Ascospores which are Conidiospores
produced in a saclike
structure called ascus
Figure 19. Asexual and Sexual Reproduction of Zycomata
● Asexual Reproduction Figure 18. Asexual and Sexual route of Ascomycota
1. Aerial hyphae produces a sporangium
2. Sporangium bursts to release spores ● Figure 18 only shows the asexual course of the
3. Spore germinates to produce hyphae Ascomycota is in the form of Conidia (Conidiophores),
4. Vegetative mycelium grows while the form of the sexual course is in the form of
■ Fusion occurs in step of 3 (sporangiospores) and Ascospores.
11 (zygospores) ● Asexual Reproduction
● Sexual Reproduction 1. Hypha produces conidiosphore
1. Gametes form at tip of hyphae 2. Conidia are released from conidiosphore
2. Plasmogamy 3. Conidium germinates to produce hyphae
3. Zygospore forms 4. Vegetative mycelium grows
4. Karyogamy and meiosis ● Sexual Reproduction
5. Zygote produces a sporangium 5. Plasmogamy
6. Spores are released from sporangium a. cell fusion (plasmogamy) between two haploid
7. Spore germinates to produce hyphae cells, which are uninucleate in many fungi and
genetically different, resulting in a cell with two
ASCOMYCOTA different haploid nuclei (Boddy, 2016)
● Sac Fungi 6. Karyogamy
● Spores freely detach from the chain at the slightest a. nuclear fusion (karyogamy) of the two (typically)
disturbance and float in the air like dust haploid nuclei giving a cell with a single
● E.g. (typically) diploid nucleus (Boddy, 2016)
○ Candida albicans (cause of oral thrush or oral 7. Meiosis then mitosis
candidiasis) 8. Ascus opens to release ascospores
■ This is actually part of the normal flora, where it 9. Ascospore germinates to produce hyphae
does not normally cause a disease. However, if
the patient is immunocompromised, then BASIDIOMYCOTA
Candida albicans can actually cause a disease ● also known as Club Fungi
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● produces large fruit bodies (usually called basidium which ○ Those fungi that are not classified under the
contains the spores) like mushroom and puffball previously discussed phylum, they are classified
● Examples are Cryptococcus, Malassezia, Fleshy fungi under deuteromycota
● The usual mushroom that we see are under the ● Sexual reproduction has not been observed although their
Basidiomycota phylum life cycle suggests that they have sexual reproduction
● Contaminate crops which can lead to production of
mycotoxins (aflatoxins). Examples of crops are hays, nuts,
and grains.
● Examples are:
○ Aspergillus which causes aspergillosis
■ “Farmer’s lung”, ear infections
● If the patient is infected with Aspergillus in
the middle ear, it can appear as black
(Apergillus niger).
Figure 19. Patient infected with Cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus
neoformans)
● Cryptococcosis is usually found in the soil or in the
excrement or feces of birds and bats.
○ Usually those who get infected by C. neoformans are
poultry workers (birds) and cave explorers (bats) Figure 19. Aspergillosis
○ Penicillium chrysogenum
Table 8. Spores that arise under Basidiomycota ■ Source of Penicillin G.
Sexual Spore Asexual Spore
Basidiospores which are Conidiospores
formed externally on a
club-shaped base pedestal
called basidium
Figure 20. Penicillium chrysogenum
DERMATOPHYTE FUNGI
● Tinea infections (aka dermatomycoses)
○ General term for those that cause fungal skin
infections
○ Usually they only infect the keratinized part of the
body, and the infections are usually non
Figure 19. A generalized life cycle of a basidiomycete (Asexual
life-threatening, but they can be very persistent and
and Sexual Reproduction)
very undesirable and irritating.
● Asexual Reproduction
● Main genera of importance:
1. Hyphal fragment breaks off vegetative mycelium
○ Epidermophyton - jock itch
2. Fragment grows to produce new mycelium
■ ringworm in the groin area
3. Vegetative mycelium grows
○ Microsporum - hair skin
● Sexual Reproduction
○ Trichophyton - hair, skin, nails
4. Plasmogamy
■ T. mentagrophytes var. interdigitale - main cause
5. Fruiting structure (“mushroom”) develops
of athlete’s foot
6. Basidiospores are formed by meiosis
7. Basidiospores mature
8. Basidiospores are discharged
9. Basidiospore germinates to produce hyphae
DEUTEROMYCOTA
● “Holding category” for unclassified fungi
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Figure 21. Athlete’s Foot
Figure 22. Ringworm
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